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Article history: One of the major challenges during subsea tunnel construction is to seal the potential water inflow. The
Received 4 May 2014 paper presents a case study of Xiang’an subsea tunnel in Xiamen, the first subsea tunnel in China. During
Received in revised form its construction, different grades of weathered geomaterials were encountered, which was the chal-
16 June 2014
lenging issue for this project. To deal with these unfavorable geological conditions, grouting was adopted
Accepted 3 July 2014
Available online xxx
as an important measure for ground treatment. The grouting mechanism is first illustrated by intro-
ducing a typical grouting process. Then the site-specific grouting techniques employed in the Xiang’an
subsea tunnel are elaborated. By using this ground reinforcement technique, the tunneling safety of the
Keywords:
Subsea tunnel
Xiang’an subsea tunnel was guaranteed.
Weathered rocks Ó 2014 Institute of Rock and Soil Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences. Production and hosting by
Grouting Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Water inflow
grouting pressure, the size of the grout bulb increases until the
Grouting rate
grouting pressure accumulates up to the fracturing pressure. The
formation of the grout bulb displaces and compacts the sur-
rounding soil (Wang et al., 2010). At this stage, the grouting pres-
sure increases to a peak value and the grouting rate drops gradually.
Please cite this article in press as: Zhang D, et al., Grouting techniques for the unfavorable geological conditions of Xiang’an subsea tunnel in
China, Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jrmge.2014.07.005
D. Zhang et al. / Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering xxx (2014) 1e9 3
-30 Sludge
-40
Granite
-50
-60 Granodiorite
Table 1 the fracture develops very fast due to the stress concentration at
Properties of different rock types in the project. the tip of the fracture. The surrounding ground suffers continuous
Rock type Specific weight (kN/m3) UCS (MPa) splitting until the pressure around the fracture tip is not high
Monzonite 26 111.1
enough to split the ground any further. Meanwhile, with the
Diabase 28 77.7 development of the fracture, additional grout is required to fill the
Granite 26.1 79.3 initiated fracture, leading to an incremental increase in the grout-
Granodiorite 26.6 93.5 ing rate.
Please cite this article in press as: Zhang D, et al., Grouting techniques for the unfavorable geological conditions of Xiang’an subsea tunnel in
China, Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jrmge.2014.07.005
4 D. Zhang et al. / Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering xxx (2014) 1e9
Legend
Slightly weathered
granite
Highly weathered
monzonite and diabase
Completely weathered
granite
YK8+324 YK8+460
propagation path of the secondary grouting fractures vary in unfavorable geological conditions. In this case, the grouting
significantly. serves as a method to strengthen the ground as well as to reduce
It should be noted that not all grouting applications necessarily the ground permeability.
consist of all the above-mentioned five stages. For example, the
permeation grouting effect in clay is very limited due to the low 3. Project overview
permeability of clay. The primary fracture and especially the sec-
ondary fracture do not always appear during a grouting process. In The Xiang’an subsea tunnel is the first subsea tunnel con-
a subsea tunnel project, multiple boreholes are drilled for grouting structed in Mainland China. It connects Xiamen Island with
Table 2
Properties of different rock types in the weathered slot F1.
Weathered zone Allowable bearing Compressive modulus Specific weight Dynamic elastic Static elastic modulus Friction angle ( )
capacity (kPa) (MPa) (kN/m3) modulus (GPa) (GPa)
Please cite this article in press as: Zhang D, et al., Grouting techniques for the unfavorable geological conditions of Xiang’an subsea tunnel in
China, Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jrmge.2014.07.005
D. Zhang et al. / Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering xxx (2014) 1e9 5
YK8+419
YK8+324 YK8+324 YK8+349 YK8+379 1000 1000 1000 1000
500
600
500
1000 750 750
A B C
(1) Grouting from the upper part in the first round. (7) Grouting from upper part in the third round.
500
(2) Excavation from the upper part in the first round. (8) Excavation of the lower part in the second round.
600
500
500
(4) Excavation of the lower part in the first round. (10) Grouting from the upper part in the fourth round.
500
500
600
500
(6) Excavation of the upper part in the second round. (12) Excavation of the upper part in the fourth round.
Please cite this article in press as: Zhang D, et al., Grouting techniques for the unfavorable geological conditions of Xiang’an subsea tunnel in
China, Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jrmge.2014.07.005
6 D. Zhang et al. / Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering xxx (2014) 1e9
Please cite this article in press as: Zhang D, et al., Grouting techniques for the unfavorable geological conditions of Xiang’an subsea tunnel in
China, Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jrmge.2014.07.005
D. Zhang et al. / Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering xxx (2014) 1e9 7
Table 3 grouting boreholes were drilled in the first two rounds and final
Laboratory test results of some ordinary CS grout mixes. two rounds, respectively.
Water-cement Cement-sodium Initial UCS (MPa)
ratio (in weight) silicate ratio setting 4.2. Grouting techniques used for the weathered slot F1
1 day 3 days 7 days 28 days
(C:S in volume) time (s)
0.6:1 1:0.3 11 5.8 6.7 7.4 10.2 A chemical grouting product called Marithan and a grout
1:0.5 13.3 5.5 6.5 7.3 9.7
mixture composed of ordinary Portland cement (P.O 42.5R) and
1:0.7 16.6 5.3 6.5 7 9.3
1:1 20.5 4.9 6.4 6.9 9 sodium silicate (Na2O$3SiO2, 30e45 Baume degrees) were selected
0.8:1 1:0.3 14.4 5.3 6.2 8.4 9.6 for injection when tunneling through most sections of the weath-
1:0.5 19.1 5 6.1 8.3 9.1 ered slot F1. Marithan is a two component polyurethane product,
1:0.7 23 4.8 5.9 8.1 8.5 which has high adhesive strength and outstanding mechanical
1:1 26.8 5.2 5.7 7.9 8
1:1 1:0.3 15.9 4.5 4.7 5.8 7.8
properties. It can create a bond with the rock and can remain intact
1:0.5 20.4 3.7 3.9 4.4 6.9 through the lifetime of the project. When the product is injected
1:0.7 24.4 3.1 3.6 3.9 6.7 into the ground, the low-viscosity mixture remains liquid for
1:1 31.5 2.8 3.4 3.6 6.1 several seconds and penetrates easily into the fissures, where it
1.5:1 1:0.3 25.5 2.4 3.4 3.9 5.8
expands, sets and seals the threaded zone. Some Marithan injection
1:0.5 32.7 2.3 2.9 3.5 4.5
1:0.7 38 1.8 2.5 3.3 4.4 samples obtained after excavation are shown in Fig. 11. The Portland
1:1 48.4 1.6 2.4 3.1 5.2 cement-sodium silicate grout (CS grout) is a type of dual-
component grout, which has the properties of early strength,
early setting time, low bleeding and low shrinkage. Moreover, it is
cost-effective, and its setting time is controllable. The initial setting
time and UCS of some typical CS grout mix designs are shown in
(4) The fourth round of excavation started on 18 July 2008; 41 m Table 3. Generally, the setting time of this dual-component grout
of rock was full-face reinforced by grouting, and then the weath- increases with increasing water-cement ratio and decreases when
ered slot F1 was excavated through with support. the cement-sodium silicate ratio increases. The grout strength in-
It should be noted that in the first two rounds the full-face creases rapidly at first, and then slows as time elapses. The grout
grouting was performed through the upper bench and lower strength increases with a decrease in the water-cement ratio and an
bench, respectively, where the upper bench of the tunnel was first increase in the cement-sodium silicate ratio. The optimum grout
grouted and excavated, followed by the lower bench. In order to mix design should be adaptively adjusted according to site-specific
improve the construction efficiency, grouting was only performed conditions based on the laboratory test results. During a typical
through the upper bench in the final two rounds, during which the grouting process, the CS grout was first injected into the ground
full-face ahead of the tunnel cutting face was reinforced by grouting using a double packer that is movable within a sleeve pipe known
from the upper bench first and then the ground was excavated as a tube à manchette (TAM) from the base of the borehole to the
sequentially. The layout of the grouting boreholes in the second surface. The Marithan product was injected to the end of the
round and the third round is shown in Fig. 10. A total of 237 and 216 borehole (Fig. 12). The CS grout was injected to reinforce the ground
Please cite this article in press as: Zhang D, et al., Grouting techniques for the unfavorable geological conditions of Xiang’an subsea tunnel in
China, Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jrmge.2014.07.005
8 D. Zhang et al. / Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering xxx (2014) 1e9
Table 4
Properties of rock samples before and after grouting.
Sample Moisture content (%) Wet density (g/cm3) Compressibility (MPa1) Compressive modulus (MPa) Friction angle ( ) Cohesion (kPa)
Please cite this article in press as: Zhang D, et al., Grouting techniques for the unfavorable geological conditions of Xiang’an subsea tunnel in
China, Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jrmge.2014.07.005
D. Zhang et al. / Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering xxx (2014) 1e9 9
the inherent uncertainties of the geotechnical and geological con- Essler R, Drooff E, Falk E. Compensation grouting: concept, theory and practice. In:
Advances in grouting and ground modification. Reston, VA: American Society of
ditions and the complex interactions between the ground and
Civil Engineers; 2000. p. 1e15.
grouting material, the grouting parameters (e.g. grouting pressure, Gothäll R, Stille H. Fracture dilation during grouting. Tunnelling and Underground
grouting material, and the amount of grouting) employed during Space Technology 2009;24(2):126e35.
construction were mainly determined from field tests. Some Nonveiller E. Grouting theory and practice. Zagreb, Yugoslavia: Elsevier; 1989.
Palmström A. Problems during construction of the Vardö tunnel e a 2.6 km long
further studies should be performed to facilitate the determination submarine road tunnel. In: Proceedings of the 4th International Congress of
of the grouting parameters. International Association for Engineering Geology and the Environment, New
Delhi; 1982. p. 231e44.
Palmström A. The challenge of subsea tunnelling. Tunnelling and Underground
Conflict of interest Space Technology 1994;9(2):145e50.
Soga K, Au SKA, Jafari MR, Bolton MD. Laboratory investigation of multiple grout
injections into clay. Geotechnique 2004;54(2):81e90.
The authors wish to confirm that there are no known conflicts of Wang SY, Chan D, Lam KC. Effect of lateral earth pressure coefficient on pressure
interest associated with this publication and there has been no controlled compaction grouting in triaxial condition. Soils and Foundations
significant financial support for this work that could have influ- 2010;50(3):441e5.
enced its outcome.
Dingli Zhang obtained the Bachelor degree and M.Sc.
Acknowledgments degree from Shandong University of Science and Tech-
nology in 1985 and 1988, respectively; and his Ph.D. in
Mining Engineering at the China University of Mining and
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support given Technology in 1995. After that he got the post doctoral title
by the State Key Program of National Natural Science of China on Mining Engineering at the same university in 1998. In
2004, he got an Associate Professor position in the China
(Grant No. 51134001) and the Fundamental Research Funds for the
University of Mining and Technology. He is now a Professor
Central Universities of China (Grant No. 2012JBM081). and the Head in School of Civil Engineering in Beijing
Jiaotong University. He has worked with large engineering
firms dedicated to tunnel services and design. His research
References interests cover risk management for urban tunnel projects,
structural analysis of rock-support interaction, and subsea
Anderson G, Roskrow B. The channel tunnel story. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press; 2003. tunnel related topics. He is the chief scientist of National Key Basic Research Develop-
Berggren L. The Oslofjord subsea tunnel, a case record. In: Proceedings of the In- ment Program (also known as “973 Program”) and the head of High Technology
ternational Symposium on Ground Freezing and Frost Action in Soils. Louvain- Research and Development Program (also known as “863 Program”). He has published
La-Neuve, Belgium: A.A. Balkema; 2000. p. 267e72. over 100 academic papers and is the author of four monographs and four textbooks. He
Chen T, Zhang D, Zeng C, Ying G. Application of new concept waterproofing in has got eight national invention patents. He has been invited for more than twenty
Xiang’an undersea tunnel, China. China Ocean Engineering 2013;27(1):121e30. keynotes both at home and abroad.
Please cite this article in press as: Zhang D, et al., Grouting techniques for the unfavorable geological conditions of Xiang’an subsea tunnel in
China, Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jrmge.2014.07.005
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