Flow Coefficient Definition

Flow Coefficient Definition
When flow goes through a valve or any other restricting device it loses some energy. The flow coefficient is a designing
factor which relates head drop (Δh) or pressure drop (ΔP) across the valve with the flow rate (Q).
(liquids)
Q: Flow rate
ΔP: Pressure Drop
Sg: Specific gravity (1 for water)
K: Flow coefficient Kv or Cv
Go to online calculation of the Flow coefficient Cv and Kv
Each valve has its own flow coefficient. This depends on how the valve has been designed to let the flow going through the
valve. Therefore, the main differences between different flow coefficients come from the type of valve, and of course the
opening position of the valve.
Flow coefficient is important in order to select the best valve for a specific application. If the valve is going to be most of
the time opened, probably there should be selected a valve with low head loss in order to save energy. Or if it is needed a
control valve, the range of coefficients for the different opening positions of the valve should fit the requirements of the
application.
At same flow rate, higher flow coefficient means lower drop pressure across the valve.
Depending of manufacturer, type of valve, application the flow coefficient can be expressed in several ways. The coefficient
can be non-dimensional or with units if parameters such as diameter or density are considered inside the coefficient or just
in the equation.
Most of valve industry have standardized the flow coefficient (K). It is referenced for water at a specific temperature, and
flow rate and drop pressure units. Same model valve has different coefficient for each diameter.
Kv is the flow coefficient in metric units. It is defined as the flow rate in cubic meters per hour [m3/h] of water at a
temperature of 16º celsius with a pressure drop across the valve of 1 bar.
Cv is the flow coefficient in imperial units. It is defined as the flow rate in US Gallons per minute [gpm] of water at a
temperature of 60º fahrenheit with a pressure drop across the valve of 1 psi.
Kv = 0.865 · Cv
Cv = 1,156 · Kv
(Equivalence between flow coefficients Kv and Cv)
At valves which discharge the flow directly into the environment it is used the non-dimensional Discharge Coefficient(C).
Flow Coefficient References
Coeficiente de Caudal (válvula toda abierta)
Tipo de válvula C Cv Kv
[gpm] [m³/h] Referencia
[-] [psi] [bar]
Annular valve ÷ ÷ ÷ -
Ball valve (Full bore) 4.7 5100 4370 Jamesbury series 9000 6" dn
Butterlfy valve ÷ ÷ ÷ -
Diaphragm valve (Weir) 0.64 690 597 ITT Dia-Flo Plastic Lined 6" dn
Diaphragm valve
1.3 1400 1211 ITT Dia-Flo Plastic Lined 6" dn
(Straightway)
Gate valve ÷ ÷ ÷ -
Globe valve ÷ ÷ ÷ -
Fixed Cone valve 0.86 3700 3200 Henry Platt 12" dn
Needle valve ÷ ÷ ÷ -
Plug valve ÷ ÷ ÷ -
Pinch valve ÷ ÷ ÷ -
Rubber Duck-Bill check valve 1.0 4300 3700 EVR CPF/CPO 300mm dn
Spherical valve ÷ ÷ ÷ -
Tilting disc check valve 0.93 1160 1003 Val-matic 6" dn
(*) Water density reference (1000kg/m3) to calculate C and Cv KV equivalencies
The flow coefficient of a device is a relative measure of its efficiency at allowing fluid flow. It describes the relationship
between the pressure drop across an orifice, valve or other assembly and the corresponding flow rate.
Mathematically the flow coefficient can be expressed as:
where:
Cv = Flow coefficient or flow capacity rating of valve.
F = Rate of flow (US gallons per minute).
SG = Specific gravity of fluid (Water = 1).
ΔP = Pressure drop across valve (psi).
In more practical terms, the flow coefficient Cv is the volume (in US gallons) of water at 60°F that will flow per minute
through a valve with a pressure drop of 1 psi across the valve.
The use of the flow coefficient offers a standard method of comparing valve capacities and sizing valves for specific
applications that is widely accepted by industry. The general definition of the flow coefficient can be expanded into
equations modeling the flow of liquids, gases and steam as follows:
Coefficient of discharge is the ratio of actual flow rate to theoretical discharge.
For gas flow in a pneumatic system the Cv for the same assembly can be used with a more complex equation.[1][2] Absolute
pressures (psia) must be used for gas rather than simply differential pressure.
For air flow at room temperature, when the outlet pressure is less than 1/2 the absolute inlet pressure, the flow becomes
quite simple (although it reaches sonic velocity internally). With Cv = 1.0 and 200 psia inlet pressure the flow is 100
standard cubic feet per minute (scfm). The flow is proportional to the absolute inlet pressure so that the flow in scfm would
equal the Cv flow coefficient if the inlet pressure were reduced to 2 psia and the outlet were connected to a vacuum with
less than 1 psi absolute pressure (1.0 scfm when Cv = 1.0, 2 psia input).
Using the Flow Coefficient (Cv) to Characterize the Performance of a Piping
System
Fluid flow through a piping system that consists of components such as valves,
fittings, heat exchangers, nozzles, filters, and pipelines will result in a loss of energy
due to the friction between the fluid and internal surfaces, changes in the direction of
the flow path, obstructions in the flow path, and changes in the cross-section and
shape of the flow path.
The energy loss, or head loss, will be seen as a pressure drop across the piping
system and each component in the system. There are different ways to characterize
the impact of these factors with regard to the flow rate through the component and
the resulting pressure drop.
One way is to characterize the amount of resistance that is offered by the system or

components. The resistance can be given a numerical value as a resistance coefficient
(K) or by the pipe length (or equivalent length), which can be used in the 2 nd order
Darcy equation to calculate the amount of head loss:
Where:
HL = head loss (ft)
f = Darcy friction factor (unitless)
Leqv = pipe length (ft)
D = pipe internal diameter (ft)
v = fluid velocity (ft/sec)
g = gravitational constant (ft/sec2)
K= resistance coefficient (unitless)
The pressure drop resulting from the head loss is given by:
Where:
dP = pressure drop (psi)
rho = fluid density (lb/ft3)
The resistance of a piping system is constant when all the valves (including control
valves) remain in one position. When the position of a valve is changed, the
resistance of the valve and therefore the entire system is changed. The change in
resistance results in a change of flow rate and pressure drop in the system.
Conversely, if the resistance remains constant and the differential pressure changes,
the effect on the flow rate can be calculated.
Another way to characterize the performance of the system or a component is by

its capacity. The capacity can be expressed with a numerical value as a flow
coefficient (CV) that equates the amount of pressure drop to the flow rate by the
following equation:
Where:
Cv = flow coefficient (unitless)
Q = flow rate (gpm)
SG = fluid specific gravity
The flow coefficient is commonly used by control valve manufacturers to characterize

the performance of their valves with a change in valve position. Nozzle and sprinkler
manufacturers also use the flow coefficient, except that they generally refer to it as a
discharge coefficient. For a nozzle or sprinkler, when the inlet pressure changes, the
flow rate through the nozzle will change proportionally, as given by the C V equation
above and holding CV constant.
Just as with the system resistance, the system capacity remains constant as long as
the positions of the valves in the system are constant. A constant flow coefficient
allows for calculating the flow rate when the differential pressure changes.
This concept can be used to simplify piping systems for analysis using Engineered
Software's PIPE-FLO or Flow of Fluids programs. If the pressure (or differential
pressure) and flow rate at a point in the system is known and the system resistance
downstream from this point is constant, the downstream system can be simplified and
represented with a flow coefficient, CV.
Consider the following simple system of water at 60 °F being fed from a 10 psig
pressure source. The upper branch goes to a 5 psig boundary pressure and the lower
branch goes to a boundary flow rate of 50 gpm. The inlet and both outlet boundary
conditions are set by the user. PIPE-FLO calculates the flow rate in the upper branch
(246.5 gpm) and the pressure at the outlet of the lower branch (7.847 psig).
To determine what happens to the flow rate and pressure in the upper branch when
the flow rate in the lower branch changes, assuming the configuration of the upper
branch remains the same (i.e. valve positions in the upper branch are not changed),
the system should be modified to obtain an equivalent system, as shown below. A
short length of pipe (0.0001 ft) is added to the upper branch at the outlet with a
boundary pressure of 0 psig and a fixed C V fitting installed in the pipe. The C V is
calculated using the CV formula above, using SG=1.0 (for water at 60 °F), the
calculated flow rate, and a differential pressure of 5 psid.
The calculated model confirms that the two systems are equivalent since the
calculated flow rate in the upper branch is 246.5 gpm and the calculated pressure at
the node is 5 psig.
Now the model can be evaluated for a change to the flow rate in the lower branch.
When the flow rate is increased to 200 gpm, the pressure at the common junction
decreased from 7.923 psig to 6.049 psig. This results in a lower differential pressure
in the upper branch and therefore a lower flow rate in the upper branch. The flow rate
in the upper branch goes from 246.5 to 214.8 gpm, and the pressure at the outlet
goes from 5 psig to 3.797 psig.
This method of simplifying a system can be used when the flow rate and pressure are
known at a given point in the system and it is known that the system downstream of
that point remains constant with regard to valve positions. It can also be used when
the differential pressure is known for a given flow rate and the components within the
boundaries that define the differential pressure remain constant.
This method can also be used for evaluating the performance of a closed loop system.
Consider the following system with three heat exchangers, each with a flow rate of
about 200 gpm. The flow control valves are manually operated valves and have Cv
data entered for the range of valve positions (each valve has different Cv values so
they are not identical). The three heat exchangers have identical head loss curves.
This is a common configuration for a plant with heat exchangers located throughout
the facility.
The top and middle branches from the inlet pipe of the heat exchanger to the outlet
pipe of the control valve can be simplified using fixed CV fittings by calculating the
values based on the above formula:
These CV values are entered as fixed CV fittings in a very short length pipe (0.0001 ft)
to ensure all the pressure drop is across the fitting and not the pipe itself. The system
below shows the simplified system with the C V values installed and the model
calculated. Note that the flow rates in the top and middle branches are the same as
the original system, as well as the inlet and outlet pressures of the branches. This
confirms that the calculated CV values are equivalent to the original branches
consisting of the pipes, heat exchanger, and control valve.
Now a flow rate change in the bottom branch can be evaluated to see the impact on
the flow rates and pressure drops in the top and middle branches. This is similar to an
operator in one part of the plant making an adjustment to the flow rate through his
heat exchanger, and operators of the heat exchangers in other parts of the plant
seeing the impact on their flow rates.
First, evaluate the flow rate change in the original system so it can be used as a
comparison to the simplified model with the fixed CV fittings. The system below shows
the bottom flow rate adjusted to 50 gpm (from the original 200 gpm). A lower flow
rate in the bottom branch causes the inlet pressure to rise (also, this pressure
increases due to increased pump total head at a lower pump flow rate) and the outlet
pressure to drop. The inlet pressures to the middle and top branches increase in
response and the outlet pressures decrease slightly. The resulting increase in
differential pressure causes the flow rates to increase in the top and middle
branches.
The flow rate in the top branch has increased from 199.7 gpm to 208.9 gpm, with an
inlet pressure of 51.23 psig and an outlet pressure of 9.786 psig. The flow rate in the
middle branch has increased from 199.2 gpm to 208.3 gpm due to the inlet pressure
increase to 53.74 psig and the outlet pressure decrease to 7.269 psig.
The same impact can be seen in the model using fixed CV fittings to simplify the top
and middle branches. The calculated results are shown below. The top branch flow
rate is 209 gpm in the simplified model, and the middle branch flow rate is 208.5
gpm. Both flow rates are comparable to the original model with the reduced flow rate
in the bottom branch. The inlet and outlet pressures are also very close to the original
model.
Conclusion
The flow coefficient CV represents an important relationship between the flow rate and
resulting differential pressure caused by the head loss across a pipeline, component,
valve, fitting, or a portion of a system consisting of these devices. By calculating a
CV from a given flow rate and pressure drop, a large system can be simplified to a
single pipeline with a fixed C V fitting installed. This method can only be used if the
resistance of the system being simplified remains constant with no changes in valve
position.
Pressure Drop in Pipe Fittings and Valves
A Discussion of the Equivalent Length (Le/D), Resistance Coefficient
(K) and Valve Flow Coefficient (Cv) Methods
Copyright © Harvey Wilson - Katmar Software
October 2012
If you are looking for a calculator to perform pipe sizing and pressure drop calculations please jump to
the AioFlo page.
1. Introduction
The sizing of pipes for optimum economy requires that engineers be able to accurately calculate the flow rates and
pressure drops in those pipes. The purpose of this document is to discuss the various methods available to support these
calculations. The focus will be on the methods for calculating the minor losses in pipe sizing and to consider in particular
the following aspects:
 the advantages and disadvantages of each method
 Reynolds Number and the flow regime (turbulent vs laminar)
 the fitting size
 the roughness of the fitting
 the roughness of the attached piping
 converting data from one method to another
2. Background
Over the years excellent progress has been made in developing methods for determining the pressure drop when fluids
flow through straight pipes. Accurate pipe sizing procedures are essential to achieve an economic optimum by balancing
capital and running costs. Industry has converged on the Darcy-Weisbach method, which is remarkably simple considering
the scope of applications that it covers.
The Darcy-Weisbach formula is usually used in the following form:
Equation (1) expresses the pressure loss due to friction in the pipe as a head (h L) of the flowing fluid.
The terms and dimensions in Equation (1) are:

hL =head of fluid, dimension is length
ƒ =Moody friction factor (also called Darcy-Weisbach friction factor), dimensionless
L =straight pipe, dimension is length
D= inside diameter of pipe, dimension is length
v =average fluid velocity (volumetric flow / cross sectional area), dimension is length/time
g=acceleration due to earth's gravity, dimension is length/time 2
The dimensions in Equation (1) can be in any consistent set of units. If the Fanning friction factor is used instead of the
Moody friction factor then ƒ must be replaced by 4ƒ.
In long pipelines most of the pressure drop is due to the friction in the straight pipe, and the pressure drop caused by the
fittings and valves is termed the "minor loss". As pipes get shorter and more complicated the proportion of the losses due
to the fittings and valves gets larger, but by convention are still called the "minor losses".
Over the last few decades there have been considerable advances in the accurate determination of the minor losses, but as
of now they cannot be determined with the same degree of accuracy as the major losses caused by friction in the straight
pipe. This situation is aggravated by the fact that these recent developments have not filtered through to all levels of
engineering yet, and there are many old documents and texts still around that use older and less accurate methods. There
is still considerable confusion amongst engineers over which are the best methods to use and even how to use them.
Unfortunately one of the most widely used and respected texts, which played a major role in advancing the state of the
art, has added to this confusion by including errors and badly worded descriptions. (See section 4 below)
Nevertheless, by employing the currently available knowledge and exercising care the minor losses can be determined with
more than sufficient accuracy in all but the most critical situations.
3. The Three Methods for Minor Loss Determination
The 3 methods which are used to calculate the minor losses in pipe sizing exercises are the equivalent length (L e/D), the
resistance coefficient (K) and the valve flow coefficient (C v), although the Cv method is almost exclusively used for valves.
To further complicate matters, the resistance coefficient (K) method has several levels of refinement and when using this
procedure it is important to understand how the K value was determined and its range of applicability. There are also
several definitions for Cv, and these are discussed below.
For all pipe fittings it is found that the losses are close to being proportional to the second term in Equation (1). This term
(v2/2g) is known as the "velocity head". Both the equivalent length (L e/D) and the resistance coefficient (K) method are
therefore aimed at finding the correct multiplier for the velocity head term.
3.1 The equivalent length method (Le/D)

This method is based on the observation that the major losses are also proportional to the velocity head. The L e/D method
simply increases the multiplying factor in Equation (1) (i.e. ƒL/D) by a length of straight pipe (i.e. Le) which would give rise
to a pressure drop equivalent to the losses in the fittings, hence the name "equivalent length". The multiplying factor
therefore becomes ƒ(L+Le)/D.
In the early stages of a design when the exact routing of the pipeline has not been decided, the equivalent length can be
estimated as a broad brush allowance like "add 15% to the straight length to cover the fittings". However, if the design is
complete and a detailed take-off of the fittings is available a more accurate calculation of the minor losses is possible by
using experimentally determined equivalent lengths for each of the fittings and valves.
It has been found experimentally that if the equivalent lengths for a range of sizes of a given type of fitting (for example, a
90° long radius bend) are divided by the diameters of the fittings then an almost constant ratio (i.e. L e/D) is obtained. This
makes the tabulation of equivalent length data very easy, because a single data value is sufficient to cover all sizes of that
fitting. Some typical data is shown in the table below for a few frequently used fittings:
Le/
Fitting Type
D
Gate valve, full open 8
Ball valve, full bore 3
Ball valve, reduced bore 25
Globe valve, full open 400
90° screwed elbow 30
90° long radius bend 16
45° screwed elbow 16
45° long radius bend 10
Standard Tee, thru-run 20
Standard Tee, thru-

60
branch
Table of Equivalent Lengths for Pipe Fittings
(Clean commercial steel pipe)
This data is for illustration only and is not intended to be complete. Comprehensive tables of data are available on the
internet and in many piping texts.
Note that this fortuitous situation of having a constant L e/D for all sizes does not apply to some fittings such as entrances
and exits, and to fittings such as changes in diameter and orifices - both of which involve more than one bore size.
The equivalent length method can be incorporated into the Darcy-Weisbach equation and expressed in mathematical form
as:
Note that the expression Σ(Le/D) is also multiplied by the Moody friction factor ƒ, because it is being treated just as though
it were an additional length of the same pipe.
The pipe length, L, in Equation (2) is the length of the straight pipe only. Some authors recommend that L include the flow
distance through the fittings but this is wrong. The (L e/D) factor is based on the overall pressure drop through the fitting
and therefore includes any pressure drop due to the length of the flow path. The error is small and usually well within the
tolerance of the data, so trying to measure all the flow path lengths is just a waste of time, as well as being technically
wrong.
The applicability of the equivalent length (Le/D) data to the laminar flow regime will be considered in section 3.4.3 below.
3.2 The resistance coefficient (K) method (sometimes called the "loss coefficient" method)
This method can be incorporated into the Darcy-Weisbach equation in a very similar way to what was done above for the
equivalent length method. In this case a dimensionless number (K) is used to characterise the fitting without linking it to
the properties of the pipe. This gives rise to:
Note that in this case the sum of the resistance coefficients (ΣK) is not multiplied by the Moody friction factor ƒ. Early
collections of resistance coefficient (K) values (for example the 3 rd Edition of Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook in
1950) gave single values for each type of fitting, with the intention that the value be applicable to all sizes of that fitting.
As more research was done it was found that in general the resistance coefficient (K) decreased as the fitting size
increased, and when the Hydraulic Institute published the "Pipe Friction Manual" in 1954 the coefficients were given in the
form of graphs covering a wide range of sizes.
Up until that point in time the derived K values were for use in the fully turbulent flow regime only, and the 3 rd Edition of
Perry's Handbook makes specific mention of the non-applicability of the data to laminar (or viscous) flow.
The valve manufacturer, Crane Company, had been producing technical information for flow calculations since 1935 and
launched their Technical Paper No. 410 "Flow of Fluids through Valves, Fittings and Pipe" in 1942. Since then this
document has been regularly updated and is probably the most widely used source of piping design data in the English
speaking world. The 1976 edition of Crane TP 410 saw the watershed change from advocating the equivalent length (L e/D)
method to their own version of the resistance coefficient (K) method. This is widely referred to in the literature as the
"Crane 2 friction factor" method or simply the "Crane K" method. Crane provided data for an extensive range of fittings,
and provided a method for adjusting the K value for the fitting size. Unfortunately this welcome advance introduced a
significant error and much confusion. The details of the Crane method, plus the error and source of the confusion are
discussed separately in section 4 below.
By the time the 4th Edition of Perry's Handbook was published in 1963 some meager data was available for resistance
coefficients in the laminar flow regime, and they indicated that the value of K increased rapidly as the Reynolds Number
decreased below 2000. The first comprehensive review and codification of resistance coefficients for laminar flow that I am
aware of was done by William Hooper (1981). In this classic paper Hooper described his two-K method which included the
influence of both the fitting size and the Reynolds Number, using the following relationship:
In this Equation K ∞ is the "classic" K for a large fitting in the fully turbulent flow regime and K 1 is the resistance coefficient
at a Reynolds Number of 1. Note that although the K's and Re are dimensionless the fitting inside diameter (D) must be
given in inches.
The advances made by Hooper were taken a step further by Ron Darby in 1999 when he introduced his three-K method.
This is the method used in the AioFlo pipe sizing calculator. The three-K equation is slightly more complicated than
Hooper's two-K but is able to fit the available data slightly better. This equation is:
In Equation (5) the fitting diameter (D) is again dimensional, and must be in inches. Possibly because of the significant
increase in computational complexity over the equivalent length (L e/D) and Crane K methods, the two-K and three-K
methods have been slow to achieve much penetration in the piping design world, apart from their use in some high-end
software where the complexity is hidden from the user. Also, both of these methods suffered from typographic errors in
their original publications and some effort is required to get reliable data to enable their use, adding to the hesitation for
pipe designers to adopt them.
This slow take-up of the new methods is reflected in the fact that Hooper's work from 1981 did not make it into the
7th Edition of Perry's Handbook in 1997 (which still listed "classic" K values with no correction for size or flow regime).
However, it is only a matter of time until some multi-K form becomes part of the standard methodology for pipe sizing.
The performance of the two-K and three-K methods can be compared over a range of pipe sizes by considering water
flowing through a standard radius 90 degree elbow at a rate to give a pressure drop in straight pipe of the same diameter
of 3 psi per 100 ft. For this exercise the coefficients for the two formulas were taken as
Hooper two-K: K1 = 800, K∞ = 0.25

Darby three-K: Km = 800, Ki = 0.091, Kd = 4.0
Pipe 2-K 3-K Diff %

Size K- K- (2K-
inch Value Value 3K)
1/4 1.096 0.743 38.4
1/2 0.715 0.574 21.9
3/4 0.593 0.516 13.8
1 0.501 0.463 8.0
2 0.379 0.392 -3.3
3 0.336 0.355 -5.7
4 0.315 0.333 -5.7
6 0.293 0.304 -3.9
8 0.282 0.287 -1.7

Pipe 2-K 3-K Diff %
Size K- K- (2K-
inch Value Value 3K)
10 0.276 0.274 0.6
12 0.271 0.264 2.6
14 0.269 0.260 3.7
16 0.267 0.253 5.4
18 0.265 0.247 7.0
20 0.264 0.242 8.4
24 0.261 0.234 11.0
30 0.259 0.224 14.5
36 0.257 0.217 17.0
Table Comparing K-Values for Hooper 2-K and Darby 3-K Methods
(Values are for std radius 90 deg bend in turbulent flow)
This table shows that for piping sizes between 1" and 24" as typically used in process plants the differences between these
two methods are small. What little experimental data has been published shows larger variations than the differences
between these two methods, and suggests that both these methods are slightly conservative.
3.3 The valve flow coefficient (Cv)

As the name suggests, this method is predominantly used in calculations for valves, but as will be seen later in this article
it is easy to convert between Cv and resistance coefficient (K) values so it is possible to define a C v for any fitting.
By definition, a valve has a Cv of 1 when a pressure of 1 psi causes a flow of 1 US gallon per minute of water at 60°F (i.e.
SG = 1) through the valve. Since the pressure drop through a valve is proportional to the square of the flow rate the
relationship between Cv, flow rate and pressure drop can be expressed as:
This is a dimensional formula and the dimensions must be in the following units
Q=volumetric flow rate in US gallon per minute
ΔP=pressure drop in psi
SG=specific gravity of liquid relative to water at 60°F
In Britain a similar expression is used to define a C v which is given in terms of Imperial gallons per minute, but using the
same units for pressure drop and SG as in the USA. Great care has to be taken when using C v values from valve
manufacturers' catalogs to ascertain which basis was used in the definition.
In continental Europe valves were traditionally rated with a valve coefficient designated as K v. This is also a dimensional
formula and the units are as defined below:
Q='volumetric flow rate in cubic metres per hour

ΔP'=pressure drop in kgf/cm²
SG'=specific gravity of liquid relative to water at 15°C
However, an updated definition is also used in Europe which has finally brought the valve coefficient into the modern era
with SI Units. At present this definition is not widely used, but as more and more contractual documents encourage the use
of SI Units it can be expected to grow in popularity. This coefficient is called the "Area Coefficient" and is written as A v. Its
definition is:
Q"=volumetric flow rate in cubic metres per second

ΔP"=pressure drop in pascal (≡ N/m²)
ρ=density of liquid in kg/m³
3.4 Comparison of the equivalent length (Le/D) and the resistance coefficient (K) methods
As mentioned earlier, both these methods use a multiplier with the velocity head term to predict the pressure drop through
the fitting. There is therefore no real difference between the two and provided that accurate characterizing data for the
fitting is used, both methods can give equally accurate results.
By comparing Equations (2) and (3) we can see that the constants for the two methods are directly related by:
Thus, in any specific instance where all the fluid and piping details are known it is possible to get an exact conversion
between the constants for the two methods. However, when engineers talk of comparing these two methods the real
questions are related to how a K value or an L e/D value obtained under one set of circumstances can be employed under a
different set of circumstances. These changed circumstances relate mainly to pipe material, fitting size, flow regime (ie
Reynolds Number) and the roughness of the fitting itself.
3.4.1 Effect of pipe material

The roughness of the piping attached to the fitting has no influence on the pressure drop through the fitting. However,
because the equivalent length (Le/D) method expresses the pressure drop through the fitting in terms of the pressure drop
through the attached piping, the pipe roughness does affect the length of piping that would have a pressure drop
equivalent to the fitting. This is best illustrated with an example:
A flow rate of 150 USgpm through a 3" globe valve with a C v of 105 (US units) would result in a pressure drop of 2.05 psi
(using Equation (6)). This pressure drop would not be affected by the roughness of the pipe attached to it. If the piping
were galvanized steel with a roughness of 0.006" the pressure drop in the pipe would be 2.72 psi per 100 ft. The length of
galvanized piping that would give an equivalent pressure drop to the valve would be 75 ft, giving an L e/D ratio of 290. If
the piping were smooth HDPE with a roughness of 0.0002" the pressure drop in the pipe would be only 1.89 psi per 100 ft
and the length of HDPE piping that would give an equivalent pressure drop to the valve would be 108 ft, giving an L e/D
ratio of 420.
In order to be able to use the equivalent length method as given in Equation (2) the L e/D values used should strictly be
relevant to the roughness of the piping in use. In practice the differences are often not important because of the "minor"
nature of the pressure drop through the fittings. In the example given here the difference is 44%, and if this applies to the
minor loss which is (say) 15% of the overall loss the effective error in the pipeline pressure drop is only 7% and this could
well be within the overall tolerance of the calculation.
Nevertheless, it is best to be aware of how reported L e/D values were obtained and to what piping they can be applied.
Unfortunately the Le/D values listed in texts do not usually mention the piping material, but in most cases it will be clean
commercial steel pipe. The inability of the equivalent length method to automatically cope with changes in pipe roughness
is a disadvantage of this method.
The resistance coefficient (K) method is totally independent of the pipe roughness and the material of the attached piping
is irrelevant when this method is used to calculate minor losses.
3.4.2 Effect of fitting size

In section 3.1 it was noted that it has been found that the L e/D ratio remains almost constant for a range of sizes of a
given type of fitting. On the other hand, it was noted in section 3.2 that in general the resistance coefficient (K) values
decreases with increasing fitting size. For the relationship of K/ƒ = Le/D from Equation (9) to apply it must mean
that K/ƒ remains constant, or that K and ƒ change at the same rate. This observation was the basis of the Crane K method
and is discussed further in section 4 below.
When using the equivalent length method, the (L e/D) ratio is multiplied by the friction factor and since the friction factor
decreases as the pipe size increases the term (ƒLe/D) decreases accordingly. This makes the equivalent length method
largely self-correcting for changes in fitting size and makes it very suitable for preliminary or hand calculations where
ultimate accuracy is not the main goal.
The best available method available at present to accommodate changing pipe sizes appears to be Darby's 3-K method.
This method predicts resistance coefficients slightly higher than some of the older data that did take fitting size into
account (for example, the Hydraulic Institute "Pipe Friction Manual") but because it is given in algebraic form it is much
easier to use in modern spreadsheets and computer programs than the graphical data presented in the older documents.
As an illustration, consider 2" and 20" long radius bends in a clean commercial steel pipeline. At fully turbulent flow the
resistance coefficient (K) calculated by the Darby method would be 0.274 for the 2" bend and 0.173 for the 20". This is a
37% decrease. If the equivalent length is calculated from these K values and from the Moody friction factor for clean
commercial steel pipe then the 2" bend has an (L e/D) value of 13.8 and the 20" bend has value of 14.0 - a change of just
over 1% and a strong recommendation for the equivalent length method.
3.4.3 Effect of flow regime (Reynolds Number)

The early "classic" K values were measured under fully turbulent flow conditions. This is the flow regime most often used in
industrial applications and it was an understandable place to start accumulating data. But it was observed that at lower
Reynolds Numbers in the transition zone between Re = 4,000 and fully developed turbulent flow the K values did increase
somewhat. When the investigations were extended into the laminar regime very large K value increases were found.
Continuing with the example of the long radius bends, at a Reynolds number of 100 the Darby 3-K method predicts that
both the 2" and the 20" L.R. bends would have K values of 8.2. This is a huge increase over the turbulent flow situation. It
should be remembered though that in the laminar flow regime velocities tend to be very low, making the velocity head
(v2/2g) low and since the pressure drop is calculated as the product of the K value and the velocity head, the effect of the
increase in K is partially offset and the pressure drop can be low in absolute terms.
Again, the equivalent lengths can be calculated from these K values and the Moody friction factors to give an (L e/D) ratio
and this turns out to be 12.8 for both bends. This small change in the (L e/D) ratio compared with those found in section
3.4.2, despite such a large change in Reynolds number, further reinforces the equivalent length method as a very useful
technique for preliminary and non-mission critical calculations.
There is another consideration of the flow regime that arises out of engineering convention, rather than from
fundamentals. Strictly, the velocity head (the kinetic energy term in the Bernoulli equation) should be expressed as
(αv2/2g). The correction factor, α, is required because by convention the velocity is taken as the average velocity (i.e. v =
flow rate / cross sectional area). In reality (average velocity) 2 is not equal to (average of v2) and the correction factor is
used to avoid having to integrate to get the true average. In turbulent flow α is very close to 1 and in laminar flow it has a
value of 2.
It was stated in section 2 above that to calculate the pressure drop in straight pipe the velocity head is multiplied by the
factor (ƒL/D). There is no α in the Darcy-Weisbach formula (Equation (1)), so what do we do for laminar flow? The answer
is that by engineering convention the effect of α is absorbed into the friction factor. We could include α and use a friction
factor that is only half the usual value, but to keep the arithmetic easy α is absorbed into the friction factor, ƒ, and the
velocity head is taken as (v2/2g).
A similar thing is done with the resistance coefficients (K values) for pipe fittings. We define the K values to include the
value of α just to keep the arithmetic easy.
There is one exception when it comes to minor losses. What is often called the "exit loss", but which is more accurately the
acceleration loss, is the kinetic energy in the stream issuing from the discharge of the pipe. This energy is lost and is equal
to one velocity head. There is no way of getting away from it that here you have to use the correct value of α to get the
"exit loss" correct. The only alternative would be to define it to have a K value of 2 in laminar flow, but it would then
appear that in laminar flow you lose 2 velocity heads.
In practice this is usually not important. In laminar flow the velocity is low enough that one velocity head is insignificant -
and even if doubled with an α value of 2, it is still insignificant. The K values of fittings in laminar flow can go into the
hundreds, or even thousands, and one measly little 2.0 isn't going to bother anybody.
3.4.4 Effect of the fitting roughness

The main causes of the pressure losses in pipe fittings are the changes in direction and cross sectional area. Both of these
changes result in acceleration of the fluid and this consumes energy. There will of course be some influence of the friction
between the inner surface of the fitting and the fluid on the pressure drop through the fitting, but it needs to be seen in
context. Sticking with the example of the L.R. bend, the flow path through the bend can be calculated to be approximately
2.5 times the inside diameter of the pipe.
The equivalent length of a long radius bend is usually taken (perhaps a bit conservatively) as 16. If the overall pressure
drop is equivalent to a pipe length of 16 diameters, and the pressure drop due to the actual flow path length (which is
affected by the roughness) is equivalent to only 2.5 diameters then it can be seen that a small change in the wall friction
inside the bend will have a very small effect on the total pressure drop. In a higher resistance fitting like a globe valve or
strainer the effect of the friction is even less.
Experimental work on flow in bends has shown that the roughness does have a measurable impact on the pressure drop.
But the experimental work also shows that there are measurable differences in the pressure drop through supposedly
identical fittings from different manufacturers. Because the differences are small, all the generally accepted methods have
ignored the roughness in the fitting and have rather selected slightly conservative values for (L e/D) and (K).
3.5 Conversions between the resistance coefficient (K) and the valve flow coefficient (C v)
In order to be able to convert between K and Cv values it is first necessary to re-arrange Equations (3) and (6) to be in
similar units. Equation (3) is in the form of a head of fluid while Equation (6) is in pressure terms. The relation ΔP = ρgh
can be used to bring the two equations into equivalent forms. Similarly, the velocity term in Equation (3) can be
substituted by volumetric flow/area and the area can of course be expressed in terms of the pipe diameter. Once all these
transformations, and a few unit conversions, have been done the relationship becomes:
Where, D is in inches.
4. The Crane "2 friction factor" Method for Determining the Resistance Coefficient (K)
There is no doubt that the Crane TP 410 "Flow of Fluids through Valves, Fittings and Pipe" manual has played a major role
in the improvement in the quality of hydraulic designs for piping over the last 7 decades. In pointing out some of the
weaknesses of the Crane method this section is not aimed at detracting from the enormous contribution made by Crane,
but rather to highlight those areas where the state of the art has advanced in the meantime and where engineers involved
in pipe flow rate, pipe sizing and pipe pressured drop calculations can take advantage of more accurate methods now
available.
Prior to 1976, Crane TP 410 used the equivalent length method for calculating the pressure drops through fittings. The
switch to using resistance coefficients (K) was made because they believed that the equivalent length method resulted in
overstated pressure drops in the laminar flow regime (which is partially true).
Crane found that in fully turbulent flow conditions the resistance coefficient (K) for many fittings varied with pipe diameter
at exactly the same rate at which the friction factor for clean commercial steel pipe varied with diameter. This is shown in
Figure 2-14 of Crane TP 410 (1991). In fully turbulent flow the friction factor ƒT is a function of ε/D (i.e.
roughness/diameter) only, and since ε is fixed by the assumption of clean commercial steel pipe ƒT becomes a function of
pipe size only. Crane never stated that lower values of ƒT in larger pipes were the cause of the decrease in the resistance
factor K, but it is common for people to forget that correlation does not imply causation.
It is difficult to understand why, but Crane believed that the resistance factors (K) that were determined in this way would
be constant for all flow rates for a given size of fitting. This was a strange conclusion to come to because data for
laminar flow had started appearing from around 1944, and by 1963 it was well enough known and accepted to be
mentioned in the 4thEdition of Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook.
Crane took advantage of the relationship between the equivalent length (L e/D) and resistance coefficient (K) as shown in
Equation (9) above to determine the new K values from their previously determined and reported equivalent length (L e/D)
values. The (Le/D) values that had been accumulated by Crane had all been measured under conditions of fully turbulent
flow, and expressed in terms of length of clean commercial steel pipe. They therefore used ƒT, the Moody friction factor for
fully turbulent flow in clean commercial steel pipe of the applicable diameter to convert the equivalent length (L e/D) values
to resistance coefficient (K) values.
The TP 410 manual makes it very clear that the resistance coefficient (K) values are to be regarded as constant for all flow
rates, and that only the friction factor for fully turbulent flow in clean commercial steel pipe ƒT should be used in the
conversion from the old equivalent length (L e/D) values. This was because they believed that the equivalent length (L e/D)
values that they had determined previously were valid only for fully turbulent flow, but that once they were converted to
resistance coefficient (K) values they were applicable to all flows.
Although the link between equivalent length (L e/D) and resistance coefficient (K) was clearly stated to be ƒT, many
engineers took it to be just ƒ, or the friction factor in the connected piping and these engineers used this relationship to
generate K values for use in smooth pipe and for lower Reynolds Numbers. Although both of these cases are in
contradiction to what Crane intended, one is a valid calculation while the other is wrong. This is the confusion between
correlation and causation mentioned earlier.
As was shown above in section 3.4.1, when working with smooth pipe the resistance coefficient (K) for the fitting remains
the same but the equivalent length (L e/D) changes. It is therefore wrong to take the Crane (L e/D) values and use the lower
friction factor in smooth pipe to generate a lower resistance coefficient (K) from Equation (9). Connecting a fitting to a
smooth pipe does not decrease the resistance of the fitting.
On the other hand, it was shown in section 3.4.3 that at lower Reynolds numbers both the friction factor and the fitting
resistance coefficient (K) increase, while the equivalent length (L e/D) of the fitting remains constant. It is therefore a valid
calculation to take the Crane (Le/D) values and to use the actual friction factor ƒ at the lower flow rate to generate a new
(higher) resistance coefficient (K) value, although this is not how Crane intended their method to be used.
In essence, Crane took Equation (2) and modified it by applying the actual friction factor, ƒ, in the pipe to the pipe flow
(which is obviously the right thing to do) while applying the friction factor for fully turbulent flow in clean commercial steel
pipe, ƒT, to the equivalent lengths of the fittings. This is shown in Equation (11):
This is why the Crane method is sometimes called the "two friction factor" K method. This also resulted in some engineers
developing the misunderstanding that the ƒT friction factor was somehow directly associated with the fitting, and because
the fitting had a friction factor it also had a roughness. You will find statements like "You must not mix the friction factor
for a fitting with the friction factor of a pipe" in the engineering forums on the internet, bearing testament to the belief that
fittings somehow have friction factors. Crane never intended people to associate friction factors with fittings, but Crane's
intentions have been misunderstood by many.
The result of the switch from the equivalent length (L e/D) method to the resistance coefficient (K) method was (apart from
the confusion caused) that while the (L e/D) method may have overstated pressure drops slightly in the laminar flow
regime, the new constant K value method horribly understated them. The examples in sections 3.4.2 and 3.4.3 show how
the resistance coefficient (K) for a L.R. bend can increase from around 0.2 to 8.2 when the Reynolds Number drops to 100.
Fortunately this error is usually not significant in practice because the pressure drops through the fittings tend to be a
small part of the overall pressure drop, and a large error in a small portion becomes a small error overall.
When Crane first published their piping design guidelines in 1935, industrial piping was manufactured almost exclusively
from carbon steel and the Crane methods were aimed at providing reliable design methods for that pipe. Also, the
overwhelming majority of industrial pipe flow is in the turbulent flow regime. Crane certainly succeeded in establishing a
comprehensive and accurate design method for turbulent flow in steel pipe. In modern times with the ever increasing use
of smooth plastic and high alloy pipe it is essential that engineers fully understand the design methods they use, and that
they employ the right method for the problem at hand. The right methods are available in the 2-K and 3-K resistance
coefficient methods discussed earlier, and it is time for the piping design world to break with the past and to embrace the
new methods.
5. Accuracy
Much of what has been said above could be seen to imply that determining the pressure losses in pipe fittings is an exact
science. It is not. Very few sources of equivalent length (L e/D) or resistance coefficient (K) values give accuracy or
uncertainty limits. A notable exception is the Hydraulic Institute's Engineering Data Book. At the very best the uncertainty
would be 10% and in general 25 to 30% is probably a more realistic estimate.
Standard fittings like elbows and tees vary from manufacturer to manufacturer and a tolerance of 25% should be assumed
in calculations. Precision engineered items like control valves and metering orifices will of course have much tighter
tolerances, and these will usually be stated as part of the accompanying engineering documentation.
An area that needs particular care is using generic data for proprietary items. Many of the data tables include values for
proprietary items like gate, globe, butterfly and check valves, strainers and the like. The actual flow data can vary very
widely and variations of -50% to +100% from generic data can be expected.
6. Conclusion
At some point in the past the equivalent length (L e/D) method of determining the pressure drop through pipe fittings
gained the reputation of being inaccurate. This was quite likely a result of Crane dropping this method in favour of the
resistance coefficient (K) method. Recently this attitude has changed in some circles, and hopefully the analysis done
above will help convince more design engineers that the equivalent length (L e/D) method is actually very useful and
sufficiently accurate in many situations. However, this method does suffer from two serious drawbacks. These are the
necessity of defining the pressure drop properties of the fitting in terms of an arbitrary external factor (i.e. the attached
piping) and the inability of this method to cope with entrances, exits and fittings with two characteristic diameters (e.g.
changes in diameter and orifices). For these reasons the resistance coefficient (K) method is the better route to accurate
and comprehensive calculations.
Darby's 3-K method has the capability of taking the fitting size and the flow regime into account. The quantity of data
available is gradually increasing and is now roughly equivalent in scope to the Crane TP 410 database. Already some of the
higher end software has switched to using Darby's method, and it can be expected that with time it will become more
widely used.
The data in Crane TP 410 remains a very valuable resource, but it should be used with an understanding of its range of
applicability. Fortunately this data is at its most accurate in the zone of fully turbulent flow, which is where most piping
operates. The errors introduced by this method when the flow rate is below the fully turbulent regime can be large relative
to the losses in the fittings themselves, but since these are often a small part of the overall losses the errors are often
insignificant. As always, an appreciation for the accuracy of the methods being employed enables the engineer to achieve a
safe and economical design.
7. References
Crane Co. Flow of Fluids Through Valves, Fittings and Pipe. Tech Paper 410, 1991
Darby, R. Chem Eng July, 1999, p. 101
Darby, R. Chem Eng April, 2001, p. 127
Hooper, WB. Chem Eng Aug 24, 1981, p. 97
Hydraulic Institute, Pipe Friction Manual, New York 1954
Hydraulic Institute, Engineering Data Book, 2nd ed, 1991
Perry, JH. "Chemical Engineers' Handbook", 3rd ed, McGraw-Hill, 1950
Perry, RH and Chilton, CH. "Chemical Engineers' Handbook", 4th ed, McGraw-Hill, 1963
Perry, RH and Green, DW. "Chemical Engineers' Handbook", 7 th ed, McGraw-Hill, 1997
Pipe Flow Calculations 3: The Friction Factor & Frictional Head Loss
written by: Harlan Bengtson • edited by: Lamar Stonecypher • updated: 8/30/2010
Frictional head loss (or pressure drop) in pipe flow is related to the friction factor and
flow velocity by the Darcy Weisbach equation. Reynolds number is needed to find
friction factor value. Fully developed turbulent flow is needed in order to use the
friction factor equation for pipe flow.
 Introduction
Pipe flow under pressure is used for a lot of purposes. Energy input to the gas or
liquid is needed to make it flow through the pipe or conduit. This energy input is
needed because there is frictional energy loss (also called frictional head loss or
frictional pressure drop) due to the friction between the fluid and the pipe wall and
internal friction within the fluid. The Darcy Weisbach Equation, which will be discussed
in this article, is commonly used for a variety of calculations involving frictional head
loss, pipe diameter, flow rate or velocity, and several other parameters. The friction
factor, which is used in the Darcy Weisbach equation, depends upon the Reynolds
number and the pipe roughness.
 Fully Developed, Turbulent Flow
The Darcy Weisbach Equation applies to fully developed,

turbulent pipe flow. Recall that pipe flow will be turbulent for a Reynolds number
greater than 4000. Fully developed flowwill be present in a pipe or conduit beyond the
entrance length. The entrance length is where the velocity profile is adjusting to the
constant profile that is present throughout thefully developed flow region. The
diagram at the left illustrates the concept of the entrance region and fully developed
flow.
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Most pipe and conduit flow of gases and liquids with a viscosity similar to water will be
turbulent flow. If the total pipe length is large compared to the entrance length, then
the entrance effects are negligible and the total pipe length is used for calculations.
 The Darcy Weisbach Equation for Frictional Head Loss

The Darcy Weisbach Equation provides an empirical relationship among several pipe
flow variables as shown here:
The equation is: hL = f (L/D)(V2/2g), where
hL = frictional head loss, ft-lb/lb
L = pipe length, ft
D = pipe diameter, ft
V = average flow velocity of fluid (= Q/A), ft/sec
g = acceleration due to gravity = 32.2 ft/sec2
f = friction factor, a dimensionless empirical factor that is a function of Reynolds
Number (Re = DVρ/μ) and/or ε/D, where
ε = an empirical pipe roughness, ft
The table at the right shows some typical values for pipe roughness for common pipe
materials.
 Relationship Between Frictional Head Loss and Frictional Pressure
Drop
The energy loss in pipe flow due to friction can be expressed as a pressure drop
instead of as a head loss. Chemical and mechanical engineers often work with
pressure drop, whereas civil engineers usually work with head loss. The relationship
between frictional head loss and frictional pressure drop is simply:
ΔPf = ρghL = γhL, where:
ΔPf = frictional pressure drop, lb/ft2,
hL = frictional head loss, ft-lb/lb (as noted above).
ρ = fluid density, slugs/ft3,
g = acceleration due to gravity, ft/sec2,
γ = specific weight, lb/ft3.
 The Friction Factor - Charts and Equations
The friction factor (also sometimes called the Moody friction

factor) can be determined for known values of Reynolds number and ε/D from
empirically derived charts and/or equations. A commonly used chart is the Moody
friction factor chart, shown in the diagram on the left. Clicking on the chart will give
you a larger scale diagram, so you can see it better. This chart helps to illustrate how
the friction factor, f, depends upon Reynolds number and pipe roughness/pipe
diameter (ε/D). The straight line at the upper left on the diagram represents laminar
flow, in which f is independent of ε/D and depends only on Re. The portion of the
chart with horizontal lines is called the completely turbulent region, in which f
depends only on ε/D. For the rest of the graph, the transition region, f depends upon
both Re and ε/D. The dark solid line represents "smooth pipe turbulent flow", in which
f depends only on Re.
There are equations available for friction factor for each of the four regions of the
chart identified above as follows.
For laminar flow (Re < 2100): f = 64/Re
For the completely turbulent region: f = [1.14 + 2 log10(D/ε)]-2
For smooth pipe turbulent flow: f = 0.316/Re1/4
For the transition region: f = {-2 log10[(ε/D)/3.7 + 2.51/Re(f1/2)]}-2
Note that the last equation requires an iterative solution to find f for given values of
ε/D and Re, or "solver" can be used in the Excel spreadsheet.
The Darcy Weisbach Equation relates the variable, h L, D, L, V, ε, ρ and μ. It's typical
use is to calculate hL, D, L, or V, when all of the other parameters are known. Some of
these require iterative calculations.
For Excel spreadsheet templates that can be downloaded to make pipe
flow/friction factor calculations, see the article, "Pipe Flow/Head Loss/Friction
Factor Calculations Using Excel Spreadsheet Templates."
 References
For further information:
1. Munson, B. R., Young, D. F., & Okiishi, T. H., Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, 4th
Ed., New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc, 2002.
2. Darcy Weisbach equation history -
http://biosystems.okstate.edu/darcy/DarcyWeisbach/Darcy-WeisbachHistory.htm
3. Source for pipe roughness values -
http://www.efunda.com/formulae/fluids/roughness.cfm
Pipe Flow Calculations 1: the Entrance Length for Fully Developed Flow
The Reynolds number is used to calculate the entrance length needed to reach fully
developed flow for turbulent flow or for laminar flow in a pipe. At the end of the
entrance length the pipe flow enters the fully developed flow region, where the
velocity profile remains constant.
 Introduction
Equations for analyzing pipe flow, such as the Darcy Weisbach equation for frictional
head loss, often apply only to the fully developed flow portion of the pipe flow. If the
total pipe length is large compared to the entrance length, then the effect of the
entrance length can usually be neglected and the total pipe length can be used in
calculations. If the total pipe length is relatively short in comparison with the entrance
length, however, then the entrance region may need to be analyzed separately. An
estimate of the entrance length is sometimes needed in order to determine how to
proceed with pipe flow calculations. The Reynolds number for pipe flow is needed to
calculate the entrance length for turbulent flow or for laminar flow.
 The Entrance Region
The diagram at the left illustrates the meanings of "entrance region" and "fully
developed flow." When fluid enters a pipe its velocity will often be uniform across the
pipe cross-section as shown in the diagram. Near the entrance, the fluid in the center
of the pipe isn't affected by the friction between fluid and pipe walls, but as the flow
proceeds down the pipe, the effect of the wall friction moves in toward the pipe
center, until the pattern of velocity variation across the pipe (called the velocity
profile) becomes constant. The entrance portion of the pipe, where the velocity profile
is changing is called the entrance region, and the flow after that entrance region is
called "fully developed flow." The next two sections will present equations for
estimating the length of the entrance region, called the entrance length, for pipe flow.
 Estimating the Entrance Length

The entrance length for pipe flow is a function of Reynolds number for both turbulent
flow and laminar flow. You probably recall that turbulent flow will occur for flow in a
pipe or duct if the Reynolds Number (Re) is greater than 4000. Most pipe flow of
gases and liquids with a viscosity similar to water is turbulent flow.
For turbulent flow the entrance length, Le, can be estimated from the equation: Le/D =
4.4Re1/6.
Where,
Re = DVρ/μ for flow in circular pipes and Re = 4RHVρ/μ for flow in non-circular ducts,
and
V = average flow velocity in pipe (= Q/A), ft/sec
ρ = fluid density, slugs/ft3
μ = fluid viscosity, lb-sec/ft2
RH = hydraulic radius, ft, where RH = A/P, and
A = cross-sectional area normal to flow, ft2
P = wetted perimeter of pipe or duct cross-section, ft
Laminar flow in pipes and ducts takes place for Reynolds Number less than 2100, with
Reynolds Number as defined just above. Laminar flow in pipes will occur only for very
viscous fluids and/or very slow flows.
For Laminar Flow, the entrance length, Le, can be estimated from the equation: Le/D
= 0.06 Re.
 Calculation of Typical Entrance Length
Consider flow of 1.2 cfs of water at 50o F through a 4" diameter pipe. What would the
entrance length be for this flow?
Solution: The density and viscosity of water at 50oF are: ρ = 1.94 slugs/ft3 and μ =

2.34 x 10-5.
The velocity, V, can be calculated from V = Q/A = 1.2/(πD2/4) = 1.2/[π(1/3)2/4] =
13.4 ft/sec.
Substituting values into Re = DVρ/μ, gives: Re = (1/3)(13.4)(1.94)/(2.34 x 10 -5) =
3.79 x 105.
The value of Reynolds number is greater than 4000, so this is turbulent flow, and the
entrance length can be estimated from the equation: Le/D = 4.4 Re1/6.
Thus: Le/(1/3) = 4.4[(3.79 x 104)1/6], Le/(1/3) = 37.4, and Le = 12.5 ft.
Pipe Flow Calculations 2: Reynolds Number and Laminar & Turbulent Flow
Written by: Harlan Bengtson • edited by: Lamar Stonecypher • updated: 8/22/2010
Pipe flow may be either laminar flow or turbulent flow. Laminar flow is characterized
by low flow velocity and high viscosity. Turbulent flow is characterized by high flow
velocity and low viscosity. For Reynolds number < 2100, flow is laminar. For Reynolds
number > 4000, flow is turbulent.
 Introduction
For pipe flow applications, it's often important to be able to determine whether a
given flow condition is laminar flow or turbulent flow. Different equations or methods
of analysis often apply to laminar flow and turbulent flow conditions.
The concepts of turbulent and laminar flow are shown in the diagram in the next
section. Laminar flow (also called streamline flow or viscous flow) occurs for low
Reynolds number, with relatively slow flow velocity and high viscosity It is
characterized by all of the fluid velocity vectors lined up in the direction of flow.
Turbulent flow, on the other hand occurs at high Reynolds number, with relatively
high flow velocity and low viscosity. It has point velocity vectors in all directions,
although the overall flow is in one direction, along the axis of the pipe.
Practical transport of water or air in a pipe or other closed conduit is typically
turbulent flow. Similarly, pipe flow of other gases or liquids with viscosity similar to
water will normally be transported in conduits under turbulent flow conditions.
Laminar flow will often be present with liquids of high viscosity, such as lubricating
oils.
 The Reynolds Number
The typical criterion for whether pipe flow is laminar or turbulent is the value of the
Reynolds Number. The Reynolds number for pipe flow is defined as Re = DVρ/μ,
where D is the pipe diameter, V is the average flow velocity in the pipe, ρ is the
density of the flowing fluid and μ is the dynamic viscosity of the flowing fluid. Re is a
dimensionless number. Any consistent set of units can be used for D, V, ρ and μ, and
will result in Reynolds number being dimensionless. The generally accepted criteria for
laminar flow and turbulent flow in terms of Re are as follows:
For Re < 2100, it is laminar flow.

For Re > 4000, it is turbulent flow.
For 2100 < Re < 4000, the flow is in the transition region.
For flow in the transition region, the flow may be either laminar or turbulent,
depending upon the nature of the entrance to the pipe and the pipe wall roughness.
 Non-circular Conduits - Hydraulic Radius

Fluids also flow through non-circular, closed conduits, such as HVAC ducts or heat
exchangers. In that case the definition of the Reynolds Number becomes: Re =
4RHVρ/μ. Note that pipe diameter, D, has been replaced with 4R H, where RH is the
hydraulic radius, defined as: RH = A/P = cross-sectional area normal to flow/wetted
perimeter. For example, the hydraulic radius for a 6" by 12" rectangular furnace duct
would be: RH = (0.5)(1)/[(2)(0.5) + (2)(1)] = 0.5/3 = 0.167 ft
 Example Calculations
Consider pipe flow of 1.2 cfs of water at 50oF through a 4" diameter pipe. What is the
Reynolds Number for this flow? Is it laminar flow or turbulent flow?
Solution: Values for the density and viscosity of water at 50oF are needed. Such
values are available in fluid mechanics or thermodynamics textbooks, handbooks and
on the internet.
The values needed for this problem are: ρ = 1.94 slugs/ft 3 and μ = 2.73 x 10-5 lb-
sec/ft2.
The flow velocity, V, can be calculated from V = Q/A = Q/(πD 2/4) = 1.2/[π(4/12)2/4]
= 1.34 ft/sec.
Substituting values into Re = DVρ/μ gives Re = (1/3)(1.34)(1.94)/2.73 x 10-5, or Re
= 3.17 x 104.
This value of Reynolds number is greater than 4000, so this is turbulent flow.
Pipe Flow Calculations 3: The Friction Factor & Frictional Head Loss
Frictional head loss (or pressure drop) in pipe flow is related to the friction factor and
flow velocity by the Darcy Weisbach equation. Reynolds number is needed to find
friction factor value. Fully developed turbulent flow is needed in order to use the
friction factor equation for pipe flow.
 Introduction
Pipe flow under pressure is used for a lot of purposes. Energy input to the gas or
liquid is needed to make it flow through the pipe or conduit. This energy input is
needed because there is frictional energy loss (also called frictional head loss or
frictional pressure drop) due to the friction between the fluid and the pipe wall and
internal friction within the fluid. The Darcy Weisbach Equation, which will be discussed
in this article, is commonly used for a variety of calculations involving frictional head
loss, pipe diameter, flow rate or velocity, and several other parameters. The friction
factor, which is used in the Darcy Weisbach equation, depends upon the Reynolds
number and the pipe roughness.
 Fully Developed, Turbulent Flow
The Darcy Weisbach Equation applies to fully developed, turbulent pipe flow. Recall
that pipe flow will be turbulent for a Reynolds number greater than 4000. Fully
developed flowwill be present in a pipe or conduit beyond the entrance length. The
entrance length is where the velocity profile is adjusting to the constant profile that is
present throughout thefully developed flow region. The diagram at the left illustrates
the concept of the entrance region and fully developed flow.
Most pipe and conduit flow of gases and liquids with a viscosity similar to water will be
turbulent flow. If the total pipe length is large compared to the entrance length, then
the entrance effects are negligible and the total pipe length is used for calculations.
 The Darcy Weisbach Equation for Frictional Head Loss

The Darcy Weisbach Equation provides an empirical relationship among several pipe
flow variables as shown here:
The equation is: hL = f (L/D)(V2/2g),
Where,
hL = frictional head loss, ft-lb/lb

L = pipe length, ft
V = average flow velocity of fluid (= Q/A), ft/sec
g = acceleration due to gravity = 32.2 ft/sec2
f = friction factor, a dimensionless empirical factor that is a function of Reynolds
Number (Re = DVρ/μ) and/or ε/D, where
ε = an empirical pipe roughness, ft
The table at the right shows some typical values for pipe roughness for common pipe
materials.
 Relationship Between Frictional Head Loss and Frictional Pressure
Drop
The energy loss in pipe flow due to friction can be expressed as a pressure drop
instead of as a head loss. Chemical and mechanical engineers often work with
pressure drop, whereas civil engineers usually work with head loss. The relationship
between frictional head loss and frictional pressure drop is simply:
ΔPf = ρghL = γhL, where:
ΔPf = frictional pressure drop, lb/ft2,
hL = frictional head loss, ft-lb/lb (as noted above).
ρ = fluid density, slugs/ft3,
g = acceleration due to gravity, ft/sec2,
γ = specific weight, lb/ft3.
 The Friction Factor - Charts and Equations

The friction factor (also sometimes called the Moody friction factor) can be determined
for known values of Reynolds number and ε/D from empirically derived charts and/or
equations. A commonly used chart is the Moody friction factor chart, shown in the
diagram on the left. Clicking on the chart will give you a larger scale diagram, so you
can see it better. This chart helps to illustrate how the friction factor, f, depends upon
Reynolds number and pipe roughness/pipe diameter (ε/D). The straight line at the
upper left on the diagram represents laminar flow, in which f is independent of ε/D
and depends only on Re. The portion of the chart with horizontal lines is called the
completely turbulent region, in which f depends only on ε/D. For the rest of the graph,
the transition region, f depends upon both Re and ε/D. The dark solid line represents
"smooth pipe turbulent flow", in which f depends only on Re.
There are equations available for friction factor for each of the four regions of the
chart identified above as follows.
For laminar flow (Re < 2100): f = 64/Re
For the completely turbulent region: f = [1.14 + 2 log10(D/ε)]-2
For smooth pipe turbulent flow: f = 0.316/Re1/4
For the transition region: f = {-2 log10[(ε/D)/3.7 + 2.51/Re(f1/2)]}-2
Note that the last equation requires an iterative solution to find f for given values of
ε/D and Re, or "solver" can be used in the Excel spreadsheet.
The Darcy Weisbach Equation relates the variable, h L, D, L, V, ε, ρ and μ. It's typical
use is to calculate hL, D, L, or V, when all of the other parameters are known. Some of
these require iterative calculations.
For Excel spreadsheet templates that can be downloaded to make pipe

flow/friction factor calculations, see the article, "Pipe Flow/Head Loss/Friction
Factor Calculations Using Excel Spreadsheet Templates."
 References
For further information:
2. Darcy Weisbach equation history -
http://biosystems.okstate.edu/darcy/DarcyWeisbach/Darcy-WeisbachHistory.htm
3. Source for pipe roughness values -
http://www.efunda.com/formulae/fluids/roughness.cfm
Excel Formulas to Calculate Water Flow Rates for Different Pipe Sizes
Written by: Harlan Bengtson • edited by: Lamar Stonecypher • updated: 5/26/2011
Excel formulas to calculate water flow rates for pipe sizes (diameters and lengths) can
be downloaded as Excel templates in this article. The Hazen Williams formula is used
for water flow rate calculations. Either S.I. units or U.S. units can be used in the Excel
spreadsheet templates.
 Limitations on the Hazen Williams Formula for Water Flow Rate
Calculations
The Hazen Williams formula is an empirical equation that can be used for turbulent
flow of water at typical ambient temperatures. The turbulent flow requirement is not
very limiting. Most practical applications of water transport in pipes are in the
turbulent flow regime. For a review of this topic see the article, 'Reynolds Number and
Laminar & Turbulent Flow.' Strictly speaking, the Hazen Williams formula applies to
water at 60oF, but it works quite well for a reasonable range of water temperatures
above or below 60oF. For fluids with viscosity different from water, or for water
temperatures far above or below 60oF, the Darcy Weisbach Equation works better
than the Hazen Williams Formula. Click on the following link for more details about
the Darcy Weisbach Equation.
Following presentation and discussion of several forms of the Hazen Williams equation
in the next couple of sections, a downloadable Excel spreadsheet template will be
presented and discussed for making Hazen Williams water flow rate calculations,
using Excel formulas.
 Forms of the Hazen Williams Formula

There are several different forms of the Hazen Williams Formula in use for water flow
rate calculations. It can be written in terms of water velocity or water flow rate, in
terms of pressure drop or head loss, and for several different sets of units. The
traditional form of the Hazen Williams formula is:
U.S. units: V = 1.318 C R0.633 S0.54,
Where:
 V = water flow velocity in ft/sec
 C = Hazen Williams coefficient, dependent on the pipe material and
pipe age
 R = Hydraulic radius, ft (R = cross-sectional area/wetted perimeter)
 S = slope of energy grade line = head loss/pipe length = hL/L, which is
dimensionless
S.I. units: V = 0.85 C R0.633 S0.54, where:
 V is in m/s and R is in meters
The Hazen Williams Formula is used primarily for pressure flow in pipes, for which the
hydraulic radius is one fourth of the pipe diameter (R = D/4). Using this relationship
and Q = V(πD2/4), for flow in a circular pipe, the Hazen Williams formula can be
rewritten as shown in the next section.
 Water Flow Rates for Pipe Sizes over a Range of Diameters with the
Hazen Williams Formula

For flow of water under pressure in a circular pipe, the Hazen Williams formula shown
above can be rewritten into the following convenient form:
in U.S. units: Q = 193.7 C D2.63 S0.54, where:
 Q = water flow rate in gal/min (gpm)
 D = pipe diameter in ft
 C and S are the same as above
in S.I. units: Q = 0.278 C D2.63 S0.54, where
 Q is in m3/s and D is in meters
The Hazen Williams formula can also be expressed in terms of the pressure difference
(ΔP) instead of head loss (hL) across the pipe length, L, using ΔP = ρghL:
In S.I. units, a convenient form of the equation is: Q = (3.763 x 10-6) C
D2.63 (ΔP/L)0.54, where
 Q is water flow rate in m3/hr,
 D is pipe diameter in mm
 L is pipe length in m,
 ΔP is the pressure difference across pipe length, L, in kN/m2
In U.S. units: Q = 0.442 C D2.63 (ΔP/L)0.54, where
 Q is water flow rate in gpm,
 D is pipe diameter in inches
 L is pipe length in ft,
 ΔP is the pressure difference across pipe length, L, in psi
This is a form of the Hazen Williams formula that is convenient to use for estimating
water flow rates for pipe sizes and lengths in U.S. units, as illustrated in the section
after next on the second page.
The second page of this article has a table with values for the Hazen Williams
coefficient, a table with example water flow rate calculations for several PVC pipe
lengths and diameters, and a link to download a spreadsheet template with Excel
formulas to make the water flow rate calculations.
 Values for the Hazen Williams Coefficient
In order to use the Hazen Williams formula for water flow rate
calculations, values of the Hazen Williams coefficient, C, are needed for the pipe
material being used. Values of C are available in many handbooks, textbooks, and on
internet sites. C values typically used for some common pipe materials are shown in
the table at the left.
Source:Toro Ag Irrigation (PDF)
 Example Calculation of Water Flow Rates for Pipe Sizes and Lengths
The table below was prepared using the equation: Q = 0.442 C D2.63 (ΔP/L)0.54, with
units as given above, to calculate the water flow rates for PVC pipe with diameters
from 1/2 inch to 6 inches and length from 5 ft to 100 ft, all for a pressure difference
of 20 psi across the particular length of pipe. The Hazen Williams coefficient was
taken to be 150 per the table in the previous section.
WATER FLOW RATE IN GPM
Pipe Diameter in Inches

length, ft
.0.5.......0.75.......1........1.5.........2........2.5........3.........4.........5...........6
5........23.......66.......140......407......868....1560.....2520...5371.....9659......15,601
10......16.......45........96.......280......597....1073.....1733...3694.....6643......10,730
15.....13........36........77.......225......479.....862......1393....2968.....5337........862
0
20.....11.......31........66.......193.......410.....738......1192....2541.....4569........738
0
40.....7.........21........46.......132......282......508......820.....1747.....3142........5076
100...4.........13........28........81.......172.....309.......500.....1065.....1916........3096
The table shows a pattern that you should intuitively expect. For a given pressure
difference driving the flow, the water flow rate increases as diameter increases for a
given pipe length and the water flow rate decreases as pipe length increases for a
given pipe diameter. The equation above can be used to calculate water flow rates for
pipe sizes and lengths with different pipe materials and pressure driving forces, using
the Hazen Williams equation as demonstrated in the table above.
 An Excel Template to Calculate Water Flow Rates for Pipe Sizes and
lengths.
The spreadsheet template at the left has the Excel formulas built in to calculate water
flow rates for different pipe sizes as illustrated in the previous section. This Excel
spreadsheet template that can be downloaded below, allows for input of the Hazen
Williams coefficient value and the pressure drop across the length of pipe being
considered. Also, the pipe diameters and lengths can be changed from those currently
in the spreadsheet, so the flow rate can be calculated for any combination of pipe
diameter and length if the Hazen Williams coefficient is known and the pressure drop
across the pipe is known.
The example spreadsheet has U.S. units, but an S.I. version and a U.S. version are
available for download.
 References
References for Further Information:
1. Bengtson, H., Fundamentals of Fluid Flow, An online continuing education course
for PDH credit.
3. Liou, C.P., "Limitations and Proper Use of the Hazen-Williams Equation," Journal of
Hydraulic Engineering, Vol. 124, No. 9, Sept. 1998, pp. 951-954.
Natural Convection Heat Transfer Coefficient Estimation Calculations
Download Excel spreadsheets to calculate natural convection heat transfer

coefficients. We've included several configurations, including vertical plate or from a
horizontal cylinder.
 Newton’s Law of Cooling for Forced and Natural Convection Heat
Transfer
Convection heat transfer takes place when a fluid flows past a solid surface, with a
difference in temperature between the fluid and the surface. If the fluid flow is due to
an external force, like a pump or fan, it is forced convection. If the fluid flow is caused
by density differences within the fluid due to internal fluid temperature differences,
then it is natural convection, also sometimes called free convection.
An equation that is widely used for both forced and natural convection heat transfer is
Newton's Law of Cooling: Q = h A ΔT, where
Q is the rate of heat transfer between the fluid and the surface, Btu/hr (W for S.I.),
A is the area of the surface that is in contact with the fluid, ft2 (m2 for S.I.),
ΔT is the temperature difference between the fluid and the solid surface, oF (oC or K
for S.I.),
h is the convective heat transfer coefficient, Btu/hr-ft2-oF (W/m2-K for S.I.)
Determining the value for the heat transfer coefficient is the major part of convective
heat transfer calculations. The article, "Calculation of Forced Convection Heat Transfer
Coefficients with Excel Spreadsheets," provides information about correlations and
Excel spreadsheets to calculate heat transfer coefficients for several forced convection
heat transfer configurations. This article provides similar information and Excel
spreadsheets to calculate natural convection heat transfer coefficients.
 Dimensionless Prandtl, Grashof, Rayleigh and Nusselt Numbers

The equations used to calculate natural convection heat transfer coefficients come
from correlations of dimensionless numbers. The dimensionless

numbers typically appearing in these correlations are the Nusselt number, the Prandtl
number, the Grashof number, and sometimes the Rayleigh number. The equations for
the Nusselt, Prandtl, and Grashof numbers (Nu, Pr, and Gr) are shown in the box at
the right. The Rayleigh number is simply: Ra = Gr Pr.
Following are the parameters that appear in these dimensionless numbers (units are
given for the U.S engineering system with S.I. units in parentheses):
 D is a characteristic length parameter (e.g. diameter for natural
convection from a circular cylinder or a sphere or height of a vertical plate) in ft (m
for S.I.)
 ρ is the density of the fluid in slugs/ft3 (Kg/m3 for S.I.)
 μ is the viscosity of the fluid in lb-sec/ft2 (N-s/m2 for S.I.)
 k is the thermal conductivity of the fluid in Btu/hr-ft-oF (W/m-K for S.I.)
 Cp is the heat capacity of the fluid in Btu/lb-oF (J/kg-K for S.I.)
 g is the acceleration due to gravity (32.17 ft/sec2 or 9.81 m/s2)
 β is the coefficient of volume expansion of the fluid in oR (K for S.I.)
 ΔT is the temperature difference between the solid surface and the
fluid, oF (oC or K for S.I.)
 Natural Convection Heat Transfer Configurations

The natural convection heat transfer configurations that will be covered in this article
are natural convection from:
 a vertical plate
 a horizontal plate
 an inclined plate
 a horizontal cylinder
 a sphere
The following sections will each present the correlation equation(s) for one of these
natural convection heat transfer configurations and will present and discuss an Excel
spreadsheet to calculate the natural convection heat transfer coefficient using the
correlation(s) for that configuration. All of the dimensionless number correlations
presented and discussed in this article are described in detail in Reference #1
(Inprocera et al). Several of them are also covered in Reference #2 (Leinhard and
Leinhard).
 Natural Convection Heat Transfer from a Vertical Plate
An Excel spreadsheet template for calculating heat transfer coefficients for natural
convection heat transfer between a fluid and a vertical plate is shown at the left. The
dimensionless number correlations for this natural convection heat transfer
configuration are shown in the box at the right. For these correlations, the D in the
Nusselt number and Grashof number becomes L, the height of the vertical plate.
The Excel spreadsheet requires input of several parameters such as the height of the
vertical plate, the temperatures of the fluid and the plate and values for several fluid
properties (density, viscosity, heat capacity, and thermal conductivity). The fluid
properties should be evaluated at the film temperature, which is calculated by the
spreadsheet as:
film temperature = (fluid temperature + surface temperature)/2
The Excel formulas built into the spreadsheet calculate the absolute film temperature,
the thermal expansion coefficient of the fluid, the temperature difference, and the
Prandtl, Grashof and Rayleigh numbers. Then it is set to calculate the Nusselt number
and the natural convection heat transfer coefficient, h using each of the two
correlations shown in the box above.
To download this Excel spreadsheet in either U.S. or S.I. units, click on one of the
links below:
Click here to download this spreadsheet template in U.S. units.
Click here to download this spreadsheet template in S.I. units.
 Natural Convection Heat Transfer from a Horizontal Plate

Editor's Note: It was reported to us by a Plant Engineer that the following
spreadsheet contains some errors. We are working on verifying the contents. In the
mean time we wanted to inform our readers of the following possible problems:
"1. The Fluid Thermal Expansion Coefficient "beta" is taken as the inverse of the
absolute temperature. This is only correct if the fluid is a gas. The correlation is in
error for use of water.
2. The Prandtl number calculation is wrong. The units as in the spreadsheet come out
to (sec^2-ft)/(ft-slug) and this is supposed to be a dimensionless number. You must
change the density input to units of lb/ft^3 and viscosity units to lb-sec/ft^2.
3. The Grashoff number calculation is wrong. The units as in the spreadsheet come
out to (ft^2-slugs^2)/(sec^4-lb^2) and this is supposed to be a dimensionless
number. You must change the density input to units of lb/ft^3 and viscosity units to
lb-sec/ft^2. Then it will work."
The author of the article has a new website where he may have provided corrections
for some of these issues. You may follow him
at www.engineeringexcelspreadsheets.com or www.engineeringexceltemplates.com.
The original article continues below.
An Excel spreadsheet for natural convection heat transfer between a fluid and a
horizontal plate is shown at the right. The dimensionless number
correlations for this natural convection configuration, and the applicable range of
Rayleigh number for each, are as follows:
For heat transfer from the upper surface of a plate hotter than the fluid or to the
lower surface of a plate that is cooler than the fluid:
Nu = 0.54 Ra1/4 ( 104 < Ra < 107 )
Nu = 0.15 Ra1/3 ( 107 < Ra < 1011 )
For heat transfer from the lower surface of a plate hotter than the fluid or to the
upper surface of a plate that is cooler than the fluid:
Nu = 0.27 Ra1/4 ( 105 < Ra < 1010 )
The input parameters for this Excel spreadsheet are similar to those needed for
natural convection from a vertical plate. One difference is the definition of the length
parameter, L, for use in the Nusselt number and the Rayleigh number. For a
horizontal plate, the length parameter is defined as: L = area of plate/perimeter of
plate, as noted on the spreadsheet. The Excel formulas calculate the Nusselt number
and natural convection heat transfer coefficient, h, for each of the three correlations
given above. You then need to choose the correct correlation based on the heat
transfer configuration and the value of the Rayleigh number.
links below:
 Natural Convection Heat Transfer from an Inclined Plate
Calculations used in the spreadsheet at the left for natural convection heat transfer
from an inclined plate are made with the same equations used for a vertical plate, as
given and discussed in a previous section on page 2. For an inclined plate, the
acceleration due to gravity, g, is replaced by g*cosθ for calculating the Grashof
number, Gr, where θ is the angle of the inclined plane from the vertical as shown in
the diagram included with the equations for this heat transfer configuration at the
right.
The equations shown in the diagram apply to natural convection heat transfer from an
inclined plane in the range from 0 < θ < 60o. The input parameters needed are
exactly the same as those for vertical plate convection with the addition of the angle
of the plate from the vertical, θ. The Excel formulas are set up to calculate Gr using
g*cosθ, instead of g. Then the rest of the calculations are the same as for the vertical
plate convection configuration.
links below:
 Natural Convection Heat Transfer from a Horizontal Cylinder
The Nusselt number/Rayleigh number/Prandtl number correlation for natural

convection heat transfer between a fluid and an isothermal horizontal cylinder is
shown in the box at the left. The Excel spreadsheet image for this configuration is at
the right.
As shown in the equations in the box, the length parameter used in the Nusselt
number and Grashof number is the cylinder diameter, D. There is a single correlation
for the Nusselt number for this configuration. It applies for Rayleigh number less than
1012.
links below:
 Natural Convection Heat Transfer from a Sphere

The Nusselt number/Rayleigh number/Prandtl number correlation for

natural convection heat transfer between a fluid and an isothermal sphere is shown in
the box at the right. The Excel spreadsheet image for natural convection from a
sphere is shown at the left.
For natural convection heat transfer from a sphere, the sphere diameter, D, is the
length parameter in Nu and Gr. The Nusselt number correlation shown at the right is
good for Rayleigh number up to 1011 and Prandtl number of at least 0.7.
links below:
 References
1. Incropera, F.P., DeWitt, D.P, Bergman, T.L., & Lavine, A.S., Fundamentals of Heat
and Mass Transfer, 6th Ed., Hoboken, NJ, John Wiley & Sons, (2007).
2. Lienhard, J.H, IV and Lienhard, J.H. V, A Heat Transfer Textbook: A Free Electronic
Textbook
3. Bengtson, Harlan H, Fundamentals of Heat Transfer, an online continuing
education course for engineering PDH credit
Combined Thermal Conduction and Convection Heat Transfer Calculations

Heat transfer by a combination of thermal conduction and thermal convection can be analyzed using conductive thermal resistance and convective thermal
resistance. These thermal resistances are functions of thermal conductivity, convective heat transfer coefficient(s), and geometrical parameters.
 Introduction
Fourier's Law of Conduction is typically used for thermal conduction calculations and Newton's Law of Cooling is used for thermal convection
calculations. Thermal conduction and thermal convection seldom take place in isolation, however. Often conduction, convection and/or radiation take place
together. For heat transfer calculations involving convection, conduction, and/or radiation combined, it's convenient to use thermal resistances for each type
of heat transfer in calculations. This article will cover the use of thermal resistances in combined conduction and convection heat transfer calculations,
including an example problem. The convection thermal resistance is calculated from the convection heat transfer coefficient and the conduction thermal
resistance is calculated from the thermal conductivity.
 Fourier's Law of Conduction

As mentioned above, Fourier's law of heat conduction and Newton's law of cooling are typically used for heat transfer calculations involving thermal
conduction or thermal convection, when there is enough information about each individual heat transfer process.
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Fourier's Law for Heat Conduction will be presented in this section. Newton's Law of Cooling will be presented in
the next section. Then the procedure for rearranging the equations to make them useful for combined convection conduction heat transfer will be
considered.
Fourier's Law of Thermal Conduction is: q = kA(ΔT/L), where
q = the rate of conduction heat transfer in Btu/hr,
k = thermal conductivity of the material through which thermal conduction is taking place, in Btu/hr- oF-ft,
A = area perpendicular to heat flow, ft2,
ΔT = the temperature difference that is driving the heat transfer, oF,
L = the distance through which conduction heat transfer is taking place, ft.
These parameters are illustrated for conduction heat transfer in the diagram above.
 Newton's Law of Cooling

Newton's Law of Cooling is used for both natural convection (fluid flow due to temperature induced fluid density variation) and forced convection (fluid
flow caused by external forces such as wind, fans, pumps, etc.). Following is the normal form of Newton's law of cooling as it is used for convection heat
transfer:
q = h A ΔT, where
q = the rate of convection heat transfer in Btu/hr,
h = the convection heat transfer coefficient in But/hr-ft2-oF,

A = the area perpendicular to heat flow in ft2,
ΔT = the temperature difference which is driving the convective heat transfer in oF.
These parameters are illustrated for convection heat transfer in the diagram at the right.
For downloadable Excel spreadsheets to calculate forced convection heat transfer coefficients for a variety of common forced convection heat transfer
configurations, see the article, "Calculation of Forced Convection Heat Transfer Coefficients with Excel Spreadsheets."
 Thermal Resistance for Conduction and Convection Heat Transfer

Fourier's Law of Conduction and Newton's Law of Cooling can each be rearranged into the form:
flow rate = (driving force)/resistance, where q is the flow rate (of heat), ΔT (or T1 - T2) is the driving force for the
heat flow, and the denominator on the right hand side is the thermal resistance to heat flow in each of the following equations:
Conduction heat transfer: q = ΔT/(L/kA) ;
thus {Rcond = L/kA is the resistance to conductive heat transfer}

Convective heat transfer: q = ΔT/(1/hA) ; thus {Rconv = 1/hA is the resistance to convective heat transfer}
With these equations for conductive and convective thermal resistance available, analysis of combined convection/conduction heat transfer taking place in
series or in parallel can be done using the same equations used for electrical resistances in series or parallel, as follows:
Resistances R1 and R2 in series (either electrical or thermal resistances): Rtot = R1 + R2
Resistances R1 and R2 in parallel (either electrical or thermal resistances): 1/Rtot = 1/R1 + 1/R2 or Rtot = R1R2/(R1 + R2)
The concept of convection/conduction thermal resistances in series and in parallel are illustrated in the figures above in this section.
 Example Thermal Conduction/Convection Calculation

Problem Statement: Consider heat flow through a two layer wall as shown in the diagram on the left above in the previous section. Given:
T1 = inside wall surface temperature = 250oF;
T4 = outside air temerature = 40oF;
L1 = 0.8 ft; L2 = 1.2 ft;
h = convection heat transfer coeffient at the outside of the wall = 3 Btu/hr-ft2-oF;
k1 = 0.70 Btu/hr-ft-oF; and k2 = 1.1 Btu/hr-ft-oF.
Calculate the rate of heat flow through the wall per unit area, q/A in Btu/hr-ft2.
Solution: The rate of heat flow will equal the total temperature difference divided by the sum of the three thermal resistances (since the three thermal
resistances are in series):
q = (T1 - T4)/[L1/k1A + L2/k2A + 1/hA]; This can also be written as:
q/ A = (T1 - T4)/[L1/k1 + L2/k2 + 1/h] =(250 - 40)/(0.8/0.7 + 1.2/1.1 + 1/3) Btu/hr-ft2 = 81.8 Btu/hr-sq.ft.
 References
1. Bengtson, Harlan H, Fundamentals of Heat Transfer, an online continuing education course for engineering PDH credit
2. Incropera, F.P., DeWitt, D.P, Bergman, T.L., & Lavine, A.S., Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, 6th Ed., Hoboken, NJ, John Wiley & Sons,
(2007).
3. Lienhard, J.H, IV and Lienhard, J.H. V, A Heat Transfer Textbook: A Free Electronic Textbook
Natural Convection Heat Transfer Coefficient Estimation Calculations

Download Excel spreadsheets to calculate natural convection heat transfer coefficients. We've included several configurations, including vertical plate or
from a horizontal cylinder.
 Newton’s Law of Cooling for Forced and Natural Convection Heat Transfer
Convection heat transfer takes place when a fluid flows past a solid surface, with a difference in temperature between the fluid and the surface. If the fluid
flow is due to an external force, like a pump or fan, it is forced convection. If the fluid flow is caused by density differences within the fluid due to internal
fluid temperature differences, then it is natural convection, also sometimes called free convection.
An equation that is widely used for both forced and natural convection heat transfer is Newton's Law of Cooling: Q = h A ΔT, where
Q is the rate of heat transfer between the fluid and the surface, Btu/hr (W for S.I.),
A is the area of the surface that is in contact with the fluid, ft2 (m2 for S.I.),
ΔT is the temperature difference between the fluid and the solid surface, oF (oC or K for S.I.),
h is the convective heat transfer coefficient, Btu/hr-ft2-oF (W/m2-K for S.I.)
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Determining the value for the heat transfer coefficient is the major part of convective heat transfer calculations. The article, "Calculation of Forced
Convection Heat Transfer Coefficients with Excel Spreadsheets," provides information about correlations and Excel spreadsheets to calculate heat transfer
coefficients for several forced convection heat transfer configurations. This article provides similar information and Excel spreadsheets to
calculate natural convection heat transfer coefficients.
 Dimensionless Prandtl, Grashof, Rayleigh and Nusselt Numbers

The equations used to calculate natural convection heat transfer coefficients come from correlations of dimensionless numbers. The dimensionless
numbers typically appearing in these correlations are the Nusselt number, the Prandtl number, the Grashof
number, and sometimes the Rayleigh number. The equations for the Nusselt, Prandtl, and Grashof numbers (Nu, Pr, and Gr) are shown in the box at the
right. The Rayleigh number is simply: Ra = Gr Pr.
Following are the parameters that appear in these dimensionless numbers (units are given for the U.S engineering system with S.I. units in parentheses):
 D is a characteristic length parameter (e.g. diameter for natural convection from a circular cylinder or a sphere or height of a
vertical plate) in ft (m for S.I.)
 ρ is the density of the fluid in slugs/ft3 (Kg/m3 for S.I.)
 μ is the viscosity of the fluid in lb-sec/ft 2 (N-s/m2 for S.I.)
 k is the thermal conductivity of the fluid in Btu/hr-ft-oF (W/m-K for S.I.)
 Cp is the heat capacity of the fluid in Btu/lb-oF (J/kg-K for S.I.)
 g is the acceleration due to gravity (32.17 ft/sec 2 or 9.81 m/s2)
 β is the coefficient of volume expansion of the fluid in oR (K for S.I.)
 ΔT is the temperature difference between the solid surface and the fluid, oF (oC or K for S.I.)
 Natural Convection Heat Transfer Configurations

The natural convection heat transfer configurations that will be covered in this article are natural convection from:
 a vertical plate
 a horizontal plate
 an inclined plate
 a horizontal cylinder
 a sphere
The following sections will each present the correlation equation(s) for one of these natural convection heat transfer configurations and will present and
discuss an Excel spreadsheet to calculate the natural convection heat transfer coefficient using the correlation(s) for that configuration. All of the
dimensionless number correlations presented and discussed in this article are described in detail in Reference #1 (Inprocera et al). Several of them are also
covered in Reference #2 (Leinhard and Leinhard).
 Natural Convection Heat Transfer from a Vertical Plate
An Excel spreadsheet template for calculating heat transfer coefficients for natural convection heat transfer
between a fluid and a vertical plate is shown at the left. The dimensionless number correlations for this natural convection heat transfer
configuration are shown in the box at the right. For these correlations, the D in the Nusselt number and Grashof
number becomes L, the height of the vertical plate.
The Excel spreadsheet requires input of several parameters such as the height of the vertical plate, the temperatures of the fluid and the plate and values for
several fluid properties (density, viscosity, heat capacity, and thermal conductivity). The fluid properties should be evaluated at the film temperature, which
is calculated by the spreadsheet as:
film temperature = (fluid temperature + surface temperature)/2
The Excel formulas built into the spreadsheet calculate the absolute film temperature, the thermal expansion coefficient of the fluid, the temperature
difference, and the Prandtl, Grashof and Rayleigh numbers. Then it is set to calculate the Nusselt number and the natural convection heat transfer
coefficient, h using each of the two correlations shown in the box above.
To download this Excel spreadsheet in either U.S. or S.I. units, click on one of the links below:

 Natural Convection Heat Transfer from a Horizontal Plate

Editor's Note: It was reported to us by a Plant Engineer that the following spreadsheet contains some errors. We are working on verifying the contents. In
the mean time we wanted to inform our readers of the following possible problems:
"1. The Fluid Thermal Expansion Coefficient "beta" is taken as the inverse of the absolute temperature. This is only correct if the fluid is a gas. The
correlation is in error for use of water.
2. The Prandtl number calculation is wrong. The units as in the spreadsheet come out to (sec^2-ft)/(ft-slug) and this is supposed to be a dimensionless
number. You must change the density input to units of lb/ft^3 and viscosity units to lb-sec/ft^2.
3. The Grashoff number calculation is wrong. The units as in the spreadsheet come out to (ft^2-slugs^2)/(sec^4-lb^2) and this is supposed to be a
dimensionless number. You must change the density input to units of lb/ft^3 and viscosity units to lb-sec/ft^2. Then it will work."
The author of the article has a new website where he may have provided corrections for some of these issues. You may follow him
at www.engineeringexcelspreadsheets.com or www.engineeringexceltemplates.com. The original article continues below.
An Excel spreadsheet for natural convection heat transfer between a fluid and a horizontal plate is shown at the right. The dimensionless number
correlations for this natural convection configuration, and the applicable range of Rayleigh number for each, are as
follows:
For heat transfer from the upper surface of a plate hotter than the fluid or to the lower surface of a plate that is cooler than the fluid:
Nu = 0.54 Ra1/4 ( 104 < Ra < 107 )

Nu = 0.15 Ra1/3 ( 107 < Ra < 1011 )
For heat transfer from the lower surface of a plate hotter than the fluid or to the upper surface of a plate that is cooler than the fluid:
Nu = 0.27 Ra1/4 ( 105 < Ra < 1010 )

The input parameters for this Excel spreadsheet are similar to those needed for natural convection from a vertical plate. One difference is the definition of
the length parameter, L, for use in the Nusselt number and the Rayleigh number. For a horizontal plate, the length parameter is defined as: L = area of
plate/perimeter of plate, as noted on the spreadsheet. The Excel formulas calculate the Nusselt number and natural convection heat transfer coefficient, h,
for each of the three correlations given above. You then need to choose the correct correlation based on the heat transfer configuration and the value of the
Rayleigh number.

 Natural Convection Heat Transfer from an Inclined Plate
Calculations used in the spreadsheet at the left for natural convection heat transfer from an inclined plate are made
with the same equations used for a vertical plate, as given and discussed in a previous section on page 2. For an inclined plate, the acceleration due to
gravity, g, is replaced by g*cosθ for calculating the Grashof number, Gr, where θ is the angle of the inclined plane
from the vertical as shown in the diagram included with the equations for this heat transfer configuration at the right.
The equations shown in the diagram apply to natural convection heat transfer from an inclined plane in the range from 0 < θ < 60o. The input parameters
needed are exactly the same as those for vertical plate convection with the addition of the angle of the plate from the vertical, θ. The Excel formulas are set
up to calculate Gr using g*cosθ, instead of g. Then the rest of the calculations are the same as for the vertical plate convection configuration.

 Natural Convection Heat Transfer from a Horizontal Cylinder

The Nusselt number/Rayleigh number/Prandtl number correlation for natural convection heat
transfer between a fluid and an isothermal horizontal cylinder is shown in the box at the left. The Excel spreadsheet
image for this configuration is at the right.
As shown in the equations in the box, the length parameter used in the Nusselt number and Grashof number is the cylinder diameter, D. There is a single
correlation for the Nusselt number for this configuration. It applies for Rayleigh number less than 1012.

 Natural Convection Heat Transfer from a Sphere
The Nusselt number/Rayleigh number/Prandtl number correlation for natural convection heat transfer between a
fluid and an isothermal sphere is shown in the box at the right. The Excel spreadsheet image for natural convection from a sphere is shown at the left.
For natural convection heat transfer from a sphere, the sphere diameter, D, is the length parameter in Nu and Gr. The Nusselt number correlation shown at
the right is good for Rayleigh number up to 1011 and Prandtl number of at least 0.7.

 References
(2007).
2. Lienhard, J.H, IV and Lienhard, J.H. V, A Heat Transfer Textbook: A Free Electronic Textbook
3. Bengtson, Harlan H, Fundamentals of Heat Transfer, an online continuing education course for engineering PDH credit
Calculation of Forced Convection Heat Transfer Coefficients
Forced convection heat transfer coefficient correlations are in terms of Nusselt, Prandtl, and Reynolds numbers. Download Excel spreadsheets to help
calculate coefficients for several common forced convection heat transfer configurations.
 Background
Forced convection heat transfer takes place between a solid surface and a fluid that is moving past it. The equation typically used for forced convection
heat transfer calculations is Newton's Law of Cooling: Q = h A ΔT, where
Q is the rate of heat transfer between the surface and the fluid in Btu/hr (W for S.I.),
A is the area of the surface in contact with the fluid in ft2 (m2 for S.I.),
ΔT is the temperature difference between the solid surface and the fluid in oF (oC or K for S.I.),
h is the convective heat transfer coefficient in Btu/hr-ft2-oF (W/m2-K for S.I.)
The biggest part of forced convection heat transfer calculations is determination of a value for the convective heat transfer coefficient, h, for the heat
transfer configuration of interest. Empirical correlations are available for common forced convection configurations, such as flow through a circular pipe,
external flow around a cylinder or a bank of cylinders, and flow through an annulus. These empirical correlations are usually in terms of the dimensionless
numbers discussed in the next section. The rest of the article is devoted to presentation and discussion of correlations for several forced convection heat
transfer configurations with downloadable Excel spreadsheets for each.
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 Dimensionless Nusselt, Reynolds, and Prandtl Numbers

The dimensionless numbers shown in the box at the right are the Nusselt Number, Nu, the Reynolds Number, Re, and the Prandtl Number,
Pr. These three dimensionless numbers are used in empirical correlations for forced convection heat transfer. The
Nusselt number is typically the dependent variable, because the convective heat transfer coefficient, h, is the parameter for which a value is needed. Thus
values are needed for the following parameters (units are given for the U.S engineering system with S.I. units in parentheses):
 D, a characteristic length parameter (e.g. diameter for flow through a pipe or around a circular cylinder), ft (m for S.I.)
 k, the thermal conductivity of the fluid, Btu/hr-ft-oF (kJ/hr-m-K for S.I.)
 V, a characteristic velocity (e.g. average velocity for flow through a pipe or tube), ft/sec (m/s for S.I.)
 ρ, the density of the fluid, slugs/ft 3 (Kg/m3 for S.I.)
 μ, the viscosity of the fluid, lb-sec/ft2 (N-s/m2 for S.I.)
 Cp, the heat capacity of the fluid, Btu/lb-oF (kJ/kg-K for S.I.)
 Common Forced Convection Heat Transfer Configurations

The forced convection heat transfer configurations for which convective heat transfer coefficient correlations will be presented and discussed in this article
are:
 turbulent flow inside a circular pipe

 laminar flow inside a circular pipe
 flow inside a circular annulus
 flow through non-circular ducts
 flow across a single circular cylinder or a tube bank
Some of the configurations have correlations for both constant wall temperature and for constant wall heat flux.
 Correction for Temperature Variation in the Fluid

For any case where there are significant temperature variations in the fluid, one of the following factors should be multiplied times the Nusselt number
(Nuo) that is calculated using the appropriate correlation from the next several sections.
Liquids in laminar or turbulent flow: Nu = Nuo(μb/μw)0.14, where:
 μb = viscosity at bulk mean fluid temperature ( Tb = (Tin + Tout)/2 )
 μw = viscosity at wall temperature
Gases in Turbulent Flow: Nu = Nuo(Tb/Tw)0.36, where:
 Tb = bulk mean fluid temperature ( Tb = (Tin + Tout)/2 )
 Tw = wall temperature
Gases in Laminar Flow: no correction factor is needed ( Nu = Nuo )
 Correlations/Excel Spreadsheets for Turbulent Flow inside a Circular Pipe

The Dittus Boelter equation (1930, ref #1) is the simplest forced convection correlation for turbulent flow in pipes,
but has the narrowest range of acceptable values for Re and Pr. The Dittus Boelter equation is:
Nuo = 0.023 Re0.8Pr0.4 , for 'heating' (temperature of wall > temperature of fluid), and
Nuo = 0.026 Re0.8Pr0.3 , for 'cooling' (temperature of wall < temperature of fluid).
Subject to: 0.7 < Pr < 120 ; 10,000 < Re < 160,000; L/D > 10 ( L/D > 50 according to some authors).
A second correlation (ref #2) is shown in the upper box at the right, along with its range of application.
A third correlation, which is a minor variation of the second one, is described by Petukhov (ref #3). It covers a
wider range of values for Re and Pr, as shown in the lower box at the right. Note that in some places f is defined in terms of log 10(Re) rather than in terms of
ln(Re) as follows: f = (1.82 log10(Re) - 1.64)-2. Both expressions give nearly the same value of f for a given Re value.
Excel spreadsheets work well for calculations with these correlations. The spreadsheet template shown at the left (2
pages) has Excel formulas to calculate the Nusselt number (and then the forced convection heat transfer coefficient, h,) by all three of these correlations,
based on a set of input values that allow calculation of Re and Pr, and allow calculation of h from Nu.
To download one of these Excel spreadsheets (U.S. units or S.I. units) click one the links below:
Click here to download this Excel spreadsheet in U.S. units.

Click here to download this Excel spreadsheet in S.I. units.
 Correlations/Excel Spreadsheets for Laminar Flow inside a Circular Pipe

The Excel spreadsheets in this section are all for laminar flow inside a circular pipe (Re < 2300). The equations in this section all come
from Incropera et al (ref #4). The simplest case is for fully developed laminar flow. In that case the equations for
Nuo are as follows:
Constant Wall Temperature: Nuo = 3.66

Constant Heat Flux: Nuo - 4.36
For laminar flow, the length of the entrance region, Le, can be estimated from: Le/D = 0.06*Re. If Le is quite small compared with the total pipelength,
then the flow can be treated as fully developed flow. For background information about fully developed laminar flow, see the article, "Pipe Flow
Calculations 1: The Entrance Length for Fully developed Flow." If the length Le is a significant portion of the total flow, then the equations given next, for
developing flow should be used.
For a thermal entrance region or combined thermal and hydrodynamic entrance region with Pr > 5 and constant
wall temperature, the equation in the upper box at the right can be used.
For a combined thermal and hydrodynamic entrance region with constant wall temperature, lower Pr as shown, and the μb/μw condition shown, the equation
in the lower box at the right can be used.
The spreadsheet template shown at the left above (2 pages) has Excel formulas to calculate the Nusselt number (and then the forced convection heat
transfer coefficient, h,) by all three of these correlations, based on a set of input values that allow calculation of Re and Pr, and allow calculation of h from
Nu.
Editor's Note: We have been told the spreadsheet with U.S. units contained an error. We have corrected the error and the updated spreadsheet is available
by clicking this link.
Click here to download this Excel spreadsheet in U.S. units. (May contain error).
 Correlations/Excel Spreadsheets for Turbulent Flow Inside Non-circular Ducts

A general approach for turbulent flow in a non-circular duct is to use the hydraulic diameter, Dh, in place of the diameter, D, in any of
the correlations for turbulent flow in a circular pipe. The hydraulic diameter is defined as follows:
Dh = 4 A/P, where A is the cross-sectional area of flow and P is the wetted perimeter.
The particular non-circular cross-section, the annulus, is of interest for applications like the double pipe heat exchanger. For flow through an annular duct
with inner diameter = Diand outer diameter = Do, the hydraulic diameter is:
Dh = 4 A/P = 4[ (π/4(Do2 - Di2))/(π(Do + Di), which simplifies to: Dh = Do - Di

The spreadsheet template shown in the two images at the right is set up to calculate Nuo, ho, and h for turbulent flow through an annulus. The Excel
formulas in this spreadsheet use the three correlations used above for turbulent flow inside a circular pipe. The only difference is use of D h ( = Do- Di) in
place of D in Re, Nu, and the correlations.

 Correlations/Excel Spreadsheets for Flow across a Circular Cylinder or a Bank of Tubes

For flow across a circular cylinder or across a bank of tubes, the following definitions apply to the Reynolds number and Nusselt number:
Reλ = λVρ/μ, Nuλ = hλ/k, and λ = πD/2, where:

D = cylinder diameter; V = free stream fluid velocity; and all fluid properties are at the bulk mean fluid temperature [ (T in + Tout)/2 ].
Following is a correlation (Gnielinski, Ref #5) for flow past a single circular cylinder:
Nuλo = 0.3 + ( (Nuλ lam)2 + (Nuλ turb)2 )1/2, where
Nuλ lam = 0.664(Reλ)1/2(Pr)1/3, and Nuλ turb = (0.037 Reλ0.8 Pr)/[ 1 + 2.44 Reλ-0.1 (Pr2/3 - 1) ]

This correlation is valid for 10 < Reλ < 107 and 0.6 < Pr < 1000
Flow past a bank of tubes approximates the flow pattern in the shell side of a shell and tube heat exchanger with
baffles. For flow past a bank of tubes, the correlations above are used with some modification, but additional definitions are needed as follows:
Transverse pitch ratio: a = SQ/D
Longitudinal pitch ratio: b = SL/D (SQ and SL are shown in the diagrams at the right.)
Void ratio: ψ = 1 - π/(4a), for b > 1 ; ψ = 1 - π/(4ab), for b < 1

The Nusselt number for a tube bank is then: Nuo bank = fANuλo with Nuλo calculated with the equation for flow past a
single cylinder given above, with Reλ replaced by Reψλ = λVρ/ψμ (Gnielinski, Ref #5).
The equations for fA for in-line and staggered tube banks are included in the diagrams at the right.
The spreadsheet template shown in the two images at the left above is set up to calculate Nuλo, ho, and h for flow past a single cylinder and flow past a bank
of tubes. The Excel formulas in this spreadsheet use the correlations and equations given in this section.

 References
1. Dittus, P.W. and Boelter, L.M., Univ. Calif. Pub. Eng., Vol. 1, No. 13, pp 443-461 (reprinted in Int. Comm. Heat Mass Transfer, Vol. 12, pp 3-22
(1985).
2. egr.msu.edu
3. Petukhov, B.S., "Heat transfer and friction in turbulent pipe flow with variable physical properties," Adv. Heat Transfer6, 503-565 (1970).
(2007).
5. Gnielinski, V., "Berechnung mittlerer Warme- und Stoffubergshoeffizienten an laminar und turbulent uberstromten Einzellkorpern mit Hilfe einer
einheitlichen Gleichung," Forschung im Ingenierwesen, Vol. 41, pp 145-153, (1975).
 Sample contents.
Fundamentals of Heat Exchanger Theory and Design

Heat exchanger theory leads to the heat exchanger design equation that relates the overall heat transfer coefficient, heat transfer surface area, and log mean
temperature difference to the rate of heat transfer. This heat exchanger design equation is used to find the area needed for heat exchangers.
 Introduction
The heat exchanger design equation can be used to calculate the required heat transfer surface area for a variety of specified fluids, inlet and outlet
temperatures and types and configurations of heat exchangers, including counterflow or parallel flow. A value is needed for the overall heat transfer
coefficient for the given heat exchanger, fluids, and temperatures. Heat exchanger calculations could be made for the required heat transfer area, or the rate
of heat transfer for a heat exchanger of given area.
 The Heat Exchanger Design Equation

Heat exchanger theory leads to the basic heat exchanger design equation: Q = U A ΔTlm, where
Q is the rate of heat transfer between the two fluids in the heat exchanger in But/hr,
U is the overall heat transfer coefficient in Btu/hr-ft2-oF,

A is the heat transfer surface area in ft2,
and ΔTlm is the log mean temperature difference in oF, calculated from the inlet and outlet temperatures of both fluids.
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For design of heat exchangers, the basic heat exchanger design equation can be used to calculate the required heat exchanger area for known or estimated
values of the other three parameters, Q, U, and ΔTlm. Each of those parameters will now be discussed briefly.
 Log Mean Temperature Difference
The driving force for any heat transfer process is a temperature difference. For heat exchangers, there are two
fluids involved, with the temperatures of both changing as they pass through the heat exchanger, so some type of
average temperature difference is needed. Many heat transfer textbooks have a derivation showing that the log mean temperature difference is the right
average temperature to use for heat exchanger calculations. That log mean temperature is defined in terms of the temperature differences as shown in the
equation at the right. THin and THout are the inlet and outlet temperatures of the hot fluid and TCin and TCout are the inlet and outlet temperatures of the cold fluid.
Those four temperatures are shown in the diagram at the left for a straight tube, two pass shell and tube heat exchanger with the cold fluid as the shell side
fluid and the hot fluid as the tube side fluid.
 Heat Transfer Rate, Q

Heat exchanger calculations with the heat exchanger design equation require a value for the heat transfer rate, Q, which can be calculated from the known
flow rate of one of the fluids, its heat capacity, and the required temperature change. Following is the equation to be used:
Q = mH CpH (THin - THout) = mC CpC (TCout - TCin), where

mH = mass flow rate of hot fluid, slugs/hr,
CpH = heat capacity of the hot fluid, Btu/slug- oF
mC = mass flow rate of cold fluid, slugs/hr,
CpC = heat capacity of the cold fluid, Btu/slug- oF,
and the temperatures are as defined in the previous section.
The required heat transfer rate can be determined from known flow rate, heat capacity and temperature change for either the hot fluid or the cold fluid.
Then either the flow rate of the other fluid for a specified temperature change, or the outlet temperature for known flow rate and inlet temperature can be
calculated.
 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient, U

The overall heat transfer coefficient, U, depends on the conductivity through the heat transfer wall separating the two fluids, and
the convection coefficients on both sides of the heat transfer wall. For a shell and tube heat exchanger, for example,
there would be an inside convective coefficient for the tube side fluid and an outside convective coefficient for the shell side fluid. The heat transfer
coefficient for a given heat exchanger is often determined empirically by measuring all of the other parameters in the basic heat exchanger equation and
calculating U. Typical ranges of U values for various heat exchanger/fluid combinations are available in textbooks, handbooks and on websites. A
sampling is given in the table at the right for shell and tube heat exchangers:
 Summary
Preliminary heat exchanger design to estimate the required heat exchanger surface area can be done using the basic heat exchanger equation, Q = U A ΔT lm,
if values are known or can be estimated for Q, U and ΔTlm. Heat exchanger theory tells us that ΔTlm is the right average temperature difference to use.
For example preliminary heat exchanger design calculations, see the article, "Preliminary Heat Exchanger Design Example."
For Excel spreadsheet templates that can be downloaded to make preliminary heat exchanger design calculations, see the article: "Excel Spreadsheet
Templates for Preliminary Heat Exchanger Design."
 References and Image Credit

1. Bengtson, H., Fundamentals of Heat Exchangers, an online, continuing education course for PDH credit

2. Kakac, S. and Liu, H., Heat Exchangers: Selection, Rating and Thermal Design, CRC Press, 2002.
3. Kuppan, T., Heat Exchanger Design Handbook, CRC Press, 2000.
Image Credit:
Straight tube, two pass, shell and tube heat exchanger: http://www.e-steamboilers.com/en/shell_tube_heat_ex.asp
Preliminary Heat Exchanger Design Example

Design of heat exchangers is an iterative process, using the heat exchanger design equation to estimate the needed heat transfer area, based on an estimate
of the overall heat transfer coefficient, specified heat load, and log mean temperature difference (from inlet and outlet temperatures).
 Introduction - The Heat Exchanger Design Equation

The basic heat exchanger design equation,
Q = U A ΔTlm,
was introduced and discussed in another article, "Fundamentals of Heat Exchanger Theory and Design." When used as a design equation to calculate the
required heat transfer surface area, the equation can be rearranged to become:
A = Q/(U ΔTlm),
where Q is the required heat transfer rate in Btu/hr, U is the overall heat transfer coefficient in Btu/hr- oF, and Δtlm is the log mean temperature difference
in oF.
 The Overall Heat Exchanger Design Process

Design of heat exchangers is an iterative (trial & error) process. Here is a set of steps for the process
1. Calculate the required heat transfer rate, Q, in Btu/hr from specified information about fluid flow rates and temperatures. (See
more details in the next two sections.)
2. Make an initial estimate of the overall heat transfer coefficient, U, based on the fluids involved.
3. Calculate the log mean temperature difference, ΔTlm, from the inlet and outlet temperatures of the two fluids. (See more details
in the next two sections.)
4. Calculate the estimated heat transfer area required, using: A = Q/(U ΔTlm).
5. Select a preliminary heat exchanger configuration.
6. Make a more detailed estimate of the overall heat transfer coefficient, U, based on the preliminary heat exchanger configuration.
7. Estimate the pressure drop across the heat exchanger. If it is too high, revise the heat exhcanger configuration until the pressure
drop is acceptable.
8. If the new estimate of U is significantly different than the previous estimate, repeat steps 4 through 7 as many times as necessary
until the two estimates are the same to the desired degree of accuracy.
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 Input Information Needed

In order to start the heat exchanger design process, several items of information are needed as follows:
1. The two fluids involved need to be identified.

2. The heat capacity of each fluid is needed.
3. The required initial and final temperatures for one of the fluids are needed.
4. The design value of the initial temperature for the other fluid is needed.
5. An initial estimate for the value of the Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient, U, is needed.
Knowing the first four items allows determination of the required heat transfer rate, Q, and the inlet and outlet
temperatures of both fluids, thus allowing calculation of the log mean temperature difference, ΔTlm. With values now available for Q, U, and ΔTlm, an initial
estimate for the required heat transfer area can be calculated from the equation,
A = Q/(U ΔTlm).
 Example Calculations
Example #1: Calculate a preliminary estimate of the heat exchanger area needed to cool 55,000 lb/hr of a light oil (specific heat = 0.74 Btu/lb- oF) from
190oF to 140oF using cooling water that is available at 50oF. The cooling water can be allowed to heat to 90oF. An initial estimate of the overall heat transfer
coefficient is 120 Btu/hr-ft2-oF. Also estimate the required mass flow rate of cooling water.
Solution: First calculate the required heat transfer rate based on the required light oil cooling:
Q = (55,000 lb/hr)(0.74 Btu/lb-oF)(190 – 140)oF = 2,035,000 Btu/hr.
Next calculate the log mean temperature difference:
ΔTlm = [(190 – 90) – (140 – 50)]/ln[(190 – 90)/(140 – 50)] = 94.9oF

The preliminary area estimate can now be calculated as:
A = Q/(U ΔTlm) = 2,035,000/(120)(79.58) = 178.7 ft2 = A

The required mass flow rate of water can be calculated from Q = m Cp ΔT.
Rearranging: m = Q/Cp ΔT = (2,035,000 Btu/hr)/(1 Btu/lb-oF)(40oF) = 50,875 lb/hr

Example #2: A shell and tube heat exchanger is to be used for the light oil cooling described in Example #1. How many tubes of 3 inch diameter and 10 ft
length should be used?
Solution: The surface area per tube will be πDL = π(3/12)(10) ft2 = 7.854 ft2. The number of tubes required would thus be:
n = 178.7 ft2/7.854 ft2/tube = 22.7 tubes (round up to 23 tubes).
The next step would be to check on the pressure drop for this tube configuration and the specified flow. If the pressure drop is acceptable, then the overall
heat transfer coefficient could be re-estimated for this heat exchanger configuration. These topics will be dealt with in a future article.
 Summary
Calculations for preliminary design of heat exchangers are illustrated through the examples in this article. The basic heat exchanger design equation is the
centerpiece of the process and uses the overall heat transfer coefficient and log mean temperature difference in the calculations.
For downloadable Excel spreadsheet templates to make preliminary shell and tube and double pipe heat exchanger design calculations, see the article,
"Excel Spreadsheet Templates for Preliminary Heat Exchanger Design Calculations."
 References and Image Credits

1.Bengtson, H., Fundamentals of Heat Exchangers, an online, continuing education course for PDH credit.

2. Bengtson, H., Excel Spreadsheets for Preliminary Heat Exchanger Design.
Image Credits:
Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger - Grand Kartech heat exchangers

A Spiral Heat Exchanger Picture - Tranter/Europe
Preliminary Heat Exchanger Design - Calculations Involved

Excel spreadsheet templates for heat exchanger design can be downloaded in either S.I. units or U.S. units. The spreadsheets calculate heat transfer area
needed and number of tubes or pipe length, for given values of several variables, including an estimate of the overall heat transfer coefficient.
 Equations and Parameters

The heat exchanger design equation, Q = U A ΔTlm, can be used to determine the required heat transfer area, A, for a heat exchanger. The heat transfer area
can be calculated after values have been determined or estimated for the required heat transfer rate, Q; the overall heat transfer coefficient, U, and the log
mean temperature difference for the heat exchanger, ΔTlm, based on the values of several input parameters. Excel spreadsheet templates for calculating the
heat transfer area needed for a heat exchanger are presented and discussed in the next section.
For more details about preliminary heat exchanger design, the parameters involved, and example heat exchanger calculations, see the articles: "Preliminary
Heat Exchanger Design Example" and "Fundamentals of Heat Exchanger Theory and Design."
 Excel Template - Page 1: Calculation of Heat Transfer Area
The Excel spreadsheet template shown at the left will calculate the heat transfer area required for a heat exchanger
after values for several parameters have been input. The parameters that need input values are the mass flow rate, specific heat, inlet temperature and outlet
temperature of one of the fluids; the heat capacity, inlet temperature and outlet temperature of the second fluid; and an estimated value for the overall heat
transfer coefficient. After values are entered for those parameters the Excel formulas in the spreadsheet will calculate the heat transfer rate, the log mean
temperature difference, the required heat transfer area, and the needed mass flow rate for the second fluid.
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Column C has cells for entry of several parameter values. Column I contains the Excel formulas to calculate the parameters noted above. This example
spreadsheet shows calculations in U.S. units, however an S.I. version and a U.S. version are available for download just below.
Click here to download this Excel spreadsheet template (in U.S. units).
Click here to download this Excel spreadsheet template (in S.I. units).
 Excel Template - Page 2: Number of Tubes for a Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger
The Excel spreadsheet template at the right is for shell and tube heat exchanger design. This spreadsheet
calculates the number of tubes needed for a specified tube length and diameter. In the spreadsheet templates that
can be downloaded below, this page 2 and page 1 from the previous section are both included as part of the same Excel template. Thus the heat exchange
area calculated on page 1 can be used for the page 2 calculations.
This example spreadsheet shows calculations in U.S. units, however an S.I. version and a U.S. version are both available for download just below.
Click here to download this Excel spreadsheet template (pages 1 and 2, in U.S. units).
Click here to download this Excel spreadsheet template (pages 1 and 2, in S.I. units).
For more background information about the different types of shell and tube heat exchangers, see the article: "Types of Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers."
 Excel Template- Alternate Page 2 Length of Pipe for a Double Pipe Heat Exchanger
The Excel spreadsheet template at the left is for double pipe heat exchanger design. This spreadsheet
calculates the length of pipe needed for a double pipe heat exchanger of specified inner pipe diameter and known
heat transfer area. The page 1 spreadsheet from the second section in this article is included with this page 2 in the spreadsheet templates that can be
downloaded below. The required heat transfer area can thus be taken from the page 1 calculations.
This example spreadsheet shows calculations in U.S. units, however an S.I. version and a U.S. version are both available for download just below.
Click here to download this Excel spreadsheet template (pages 1 and 2, in U.S. units).
Click here to download this Excel spreadsheet template (pages 1 and 2, in S.I. units).
For more background information about double pipe heat exchangers, see the article: "Double Pipe Heat Exchanger Design."
 References and Image Credits

1. Bengtson, H., Fundamentals of Heat Exchangers, an online, continuing education course for PDH credit.
Image Credits:
1. Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger - Grand Kartech heat exchangers

2. Double Pipe Heat Exchanger - Chin
Excel Formulas for Pressure Drop in Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger Design
Excel formulas for calculation of frictional pressure drop in shell and tube and double pipe heat exchanger design can be downloaded from this article. The
pressure drop calculation is for the tubes in a shell and tube heat exchanger or for the inside pipe in a double pipe heat exchanger.
 Preliminary Heat Exchanger Design Background

Heat exchanger design is a multi-step, iterative process made up of the following steps:
1. Calculate the heat transfer rate, Q, in Btu/hr, based on specified information about fluid flow rates and temperatures.
2. Determine an estimated value for the overall heat transfer coefficient, U, based on the fluids involved.
3. Calculate the log mean temperature difference, ΔTlm, using the inlet and outlet temperatures of the two fluids.
4. Make an initial estimate of the heat transfer area required, using: A = Q/(U ΔTlm).
5. Choose a preliminary configuration for the heat exchanger and make necessary calculations (e.g. number and size of tubes in a
shell and tube heat exchanger or pipe diameters and length for a double pipe heat exchanger).
6. Estimate the pressure drop across the heat exchanger. If it is too high or too low, revise the configuration of the heat exchanger
until the pressure drop is acceptable.
7. Make a more detailed estimate of the overall heat transfer coefficient, U, based on the current configuration of the heat exchanger.
8. If the latest estimate of U is significantly different than the previous estimate, repeat steps 4 through 7 as many times as necessary
until the two estimates are the same to the desired degree of accuracy.
More details about this process are available in the first two articles of this series, "Fundamentals of Heat Exchanger Theory and Design," and "Preliminary
Heat Exchanger Design Example."
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 Background on Pressure Drop Calculation for Pipe Flow

The most widely used equation for frictional head loss or frictional pressure drop in pipe flow (and the equation used in the Excel formulas in this article's
spreadsheet templates) is the Darcy Weisbach equation:
hL = f(L/D)(V2/2g) or in term of pressure drop: ΔPf = ρghL = ρf(L/D)(V2/2), where

1. hL = frictional head loss, ft-lb/lb
2. L = pipe length, ft
3. D = pipe diameter, ft
4. V = average flow velocity of fluid (= Q/A), ft/sec
5. g = acceleration due to gravity = 32.2 ft/sec2
6. f = friction factor, a dimensionless empirical factor that is a function of Reynolds Number (Re = DVρ/μ) and/or ε/D, where
7. ε = an empirical pipe roughness, ft
8. ΔPf = frictional pressure drop, lb/ft2
9. ρ = fluid density, slugs/ft 3
More details about the Darcy Weisbach equation, the parameters used in it, a table of pipe roughness (ε) values for typical pipe materials, typical values for
friction factor, f, and equations and graphs for friction factor f as a function of Re and ε/D are available in the article, "Pipe Flow Calculations 3: The
Friction Factor & Frictional Head Loss."
 Excel Formulas for Pressure Drop Calculation in Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger Design
The Excel spreadsheet template at the left will calculate the frictional head loss and frictional pressure drop across
the tubes of a shell and tube heat exchanger for the flow of the tubeside fluid. The parameters that need input values are the tube diameter and length; the
tube roughness; the number of tubes; the tubeside flow rate; and the density and viscosity of the tubeside fluid. The Excel formulas in the spreadsheet
template will then caclulate the cross-sectional area for the tubeside fluid flow through the tube bank, the average velocity, the Reynolds number, and an
initial estimate of the friction factor. An iterative set of calculations is then used to calculate a value for the friction factor. Then the frictional head loss and
the frictional pressure drop are calculated using the Darcy Weisbach equation.
Excel spreadsheet templates that carry out the first 5 steps of the preliminary heat exchanger design process given above for a shell and tube heat exchanger
are discussed in, and can be downloaded (in U.S. and S.I. versions) from, the article, "Excel Spreadsheet Templates for Preliminary Heat Exchanger
Design." The Excel spreadsheets that can be downloaded below include the spreadsheet portion shown above plus the portion that carries out the first 5
steps of the design process, so many of the inputs needed for calculation of frictional head loss/pressure drop can be calculated in the first part of the
spreadsheet.
Click here to download this Excel spreadsheet template in U.S. units.
Click here to download this Excel spreadsheet template in S.I. units.
 Excel Formulas for Pressure Drop Calculation in Double Pipe Heat Exchanger Design
The first part of this Excel template is shown on the left and the second part on the right
. It will calculate the frictional head loss and frictional pressure drop for the flow through the inside pipe of a
double pipe heat exchanger. The parameters that need input values are diameter and total length of the inside pipe; the pipe roughness; the flow rate
through the inside pipe; the pipe length between bends; and the density and viscosity of the fluid flowing through the inside pipe. The Excel formulas in the
spreadsheet calculate the frictional head loss and pressure drop due to the straight pipe flow in much the same manner as in the shell and tube spreadsheet
just discussed above. For the double pipe heat exchanger design, however, there is an additional section for calculation of the 'minor losses' due to all of the
180o bends. The two components are then added together to get the total frictional head loss and pressure drop.
As discussed above for the shell and tube heat exchanger design spreadsheet, the Excel spreadsheet templates that can be downloaded below contain the
spreadsheet portions for the first 5 steps of the preliminary design procedure, as well as the portions shown in the images in this section.
Click here to download this Excel spreadsheet template in U.S. units.

Click here to download this Excel spreadsheet template in S.I. units.
 References
1. Munson, B. R., Young, D. F., & Okiishi, T. H., Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, 4th Ed., New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc, 2002.
2. Bengtson, H., Excel Spreadsheets for Preliminary Heat Exchanger Design.

3. Bengtson, H., Fundamentals of Heat Exchangers, an online, continuing education course for PDH credit
Background
Heat exchanger design is an iterative process. At the beginning an estimated value of the overall heat transfer coefficient, U, is needed,
based on the type of heat exchanger and the fluids involved. Information about the fluid temperatures, flow rates, and properties allows
determination of the required heat transfer rate, Q, and the log mean temperature difference, ΔTlm. Then, using the heat exchanger design
equation, Q = UAΔTlm, allows an initial calculation of the needed heat transfer area, and then choice of a preliminary configuration for the heat
exchanger can be made (e.g. pipe diameters and length for a double pipe heat exchanger or number and size of tubes for a shell and tube
heat exchanger). At this point, a more detailed estimate of the overall heat transfer coefficient can be made, as described in this article. For
more details on the overall heat exchanger design process, see the articles in this series like, "Fundamentals of Heat Exchanger Theory and
Design," and "Preliminary Heat Exchanger Design Example."
Equations for the Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

The overall heat transfer coefficient for a heat exchanger depends upon the convective heat transfer coefficient between the hot fluid and the
heat transfer surface, the thermal conductivity and thickness of the heat transfer surface, and the
convective heat transfer coefficient between the heat transfer surface and the cold fluid. Emphasis in this article will be on a cylindrical shape
for the heat transfer surface, as in a shell and tube or double pipe heat exchanger. The general principles can be applied to heat exchangers
of other shapes as well.
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Excel Spreadsheets for Estimation of an Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
The Excel spreadsheet shown in the image at the left is set up to calculate the overall heat transfer
coefficient, U, based on the indicated input values, which are: the wall thermal conductivity, k; the
outside diameter of the tube, 2ro; the tube wall thickness, ro - ri; the outside convective heat transfer coefficient, ho; the inside convective heat
transfer coefficient, hi; the outside fouling resistance, Rfo; and the inside fouling resistance, Rfi.
The Excel formulas are set up to calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient, U, using the equation discussed in the previous section:
1/U = 1/ho + Rfo + (ro - ri)/k + 1/hi + Rfi.

Values for the tube dimensions should be available from preliminary heat exchanger design calculations, which could be done using Excel
spreadsheets like those available from the articles, "Excel Spreadsheet Templates for Preliminary Heat Exchanger Design," and "Excel Formulas for
Pressure Drop in Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger Design." The table at the upper right gives BWG (Birmingham Wire Guage) wall thicknesses for
heat exchanger tubes, which typically have diameters between 1/4" and 2".
The inside and outside convective heat transfer coefficients could be determined from the Excel spreadsheets that can be downloaded from
the article, "Calculation of Forced Convection Heat Transfer Coefficients with Excel Spreadsheets."
Typical fouling resistance values for various combinations of fluids, temperatures and velocities are given in reference #1 below. Most of the
fouling resistance values fall between 0.0005 and 0.01 ft2-oF-hr/Btu. For many common heat exchanger situations, the fouling resistance will
be between 0.001 and 0.005 ft2-oF-hr/Btu.
The overall heat transfer coefficient calculated in the example Excel spreadsheet shown above turned out to be 116 Btu/hr-ft2-oF, which is
amazingly close to the initial 'rough estimate' of 120 Btu/hr-ft2-oF, made in the article, "Preliminary Heat Exchanger Design Example several
months ago!"
The example Excel spreadsheet uses U.S. units, however the spreadsheet template can be downloaded below with U.S. units or with S.I.
units.

References
1. Wolverine Tube Heat Transfer Data Book - has tables of typical fouling resistance values and tables of typical overall heat transfer coefficient values.
2. Bengtson, H., Fundamentals of Heat Exchangers, an online, continuing education course for PDH credit.

Flow Coefficient Definition

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Flow Coefficient Definition

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Flow Coefficient Definition

Go to online calculation of the Flow coefficient Cv and Kv

(Equivalence between flow coefficients Kv and Cv)

Mathematically the flow coefficient can be expressed as:

Coefficient of discharge is the ratio of actual flow rate to theoretical discharge.

One way is to characterize the amount of resistance that is offered by the system or

Another way to characterize the performance of the system or a component is by

The flow coefficient is commonly used by control valve manufacturers to characterize

 the advantages and disadvantages of each method

 Reynolds Number and the flow regime (turbulent vs laminar)

 the fitting size

 the roughness of the fitting

 the roughness of the attached piping

 converting data from one method to another

The terms and dimensions in Equation (1) are:

3. The Three Methods for Minor Loss Determination

3.1 The equivalent length method (Le/D)

Gate valve, full open 8

Ball valve, full bore 3

Ball valve, reduced bore 25

Globe valve, full open 400

90° screwed elbow 30

90° long radius bend 16

45° screwed elbow 16

45° long radius bend 10

Standard Tee, thru-run 20

Standard Tee, thru-

Hooper two-K: K1 = 800, K∞ = 0.25

Pipe 2-K 3-K Diff %

1/4 1.096 0.743 38.4

1/2 0.715 0.574 21.9

3/4 0.593 0.516 13.8

1 0.501 0.463 8.0

2 0.379 0.392 -3.3

3 0.336 0.355 -5.7

4 0.315 0.333 -5.7

6 0.293 0.304 -3.9

8 0.282 0.287 -1.7

10 0.276 0.274 0.6

12 0.271 0.264 2.6

14 0.269 0.260 3.7

16 0.267 0.253 5.4

18 0.265 0.247 7.0

20 0.264 0.242 8.4

24 0.261 0.234 11.0

30 0.259 0.224 14.5

36 0.257 0.217 17.0

3.3 The valve flow coefficient (Cv)

Q='volumetric flow rate in cubic metres per hour

Q"=volumetric flow rate in cubic metres per second

3.4.1 Effect of pipe material

3.4.2 Effect of fitting size

3.4.3 Effect of flow regime (Reynolds Number)

3.4.4 Effect of the fitting roughness

 Fully Developed, Turbulent Flow

The Darcy Weisbach Equation applies to fully developed,

 The Darcy Weisbach Equation for Frictional Head Loss

 Relationship Between Frictional Head Loss and Frictional Pressure

 The Friction Factor - Charts and Equations

The friction factor (also sometimes called the Moody friction

 The Entrance Region

 Estimating the Entrance Length

 Calculation of Typical Entrance Length