Ore Geology Reviews, 7 (1992) 279-356 279

Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam - - Printed in The Netherlands

Manganese deposits in the global lithogenetic system:

Quantitative approach

Peter Laznicka
Department of Geological Sciences, Universityof Manitoba, Winnipeg 19, Man. R3T 2N2, Canada
(Received May 17, 1992; revised version accepted February 20, 1992 )

ABSTRACT

Laznicka, P., 1992. Manganese deposits in the global lithogenetic system: Quantitative approach. Ore Geol. Rev., 7: 279-
356.

A computerized data base, including 330 localities and believed to represent at least 95% of the presently recorded spot
accumulations of ore-grade Mn on land, is the basis for a quantitative analysis of terrestrial Mn resources. This file is
reprinted in full (Appendix).
The present subaerially exposed global ore Mn resources are calculated as 17.9 X 10 9 t Mn ~. In this figure are included
the actually mineable straight Mn deposits ( 8.7 × 109 t Mn ); potentially mineable land-based Mn accumulations ( 9.2 X 109
t Mn), and actual or potential Mn that could be extracted as a byproduct of mining other metals (0.6× 10 9 t Mn). This
distribution is strongly influenced by giant accumulations, where the single, exceptional Kalahari Mn field contains over
50% of the presently economic Mn ore reserves, or 23.42% of the global land Mn resources.
A set of attributes has been selected to treat the global ore Mn population in terms of genesis, geotectonic and environ-
mental setting, and lithologic associations. In terms of genesis, precipitation from aqueous solutions was responsible for at
least 99% of the contemporaneous, and probably also the past Mn accumulations now exposed on land. Weathering of Mn
orebodies has left its mark on 93% of the Mn localities, and 24% are now represented entirely by supergene assemblages.
Less than 0.01% of the ore Mn resources, however, are formed by weathering-related accumulation over silicate rocks
(ultramafics).
In terms of geotectonic environments, the bulk of the land-based Mn deposits (97%) formed in intraplate and stable
continental margin settings; 3.1% formed along Pacific-type and rift-type continental margins; and only 0.00045% of the
deposits formed in an oceanic setting. This is in contrast with the outstanding Mn-accumulating capacity of the present
ocean and is a consequence of the low preservation potential of the oceanic domain.
In terms of lithologic associations, 96% of the Mn in land-based deposits is present in marine-sedimentary associations
(70% of Mn is in banded iron formations, 14.4% is in detrital and 11.1% is in carbonate-dominated associations). Chert
and jasper, limestone, sandstone, shale, and banded iron formation are statistically the most common immediate hosts to
Mn ores with recorded hosting frequencies of 79, 50, 45, 37 and 35, respectively.
In terms of geological history, the lower Proterozoic accounts for 58.9% of the preserved ore Mn on land, followed by
Oligocene (17.2%), Jurassic (6.2%) and middle Proterozoic (4.5%). In terms of the intensity of Mn accumulation per
one million years of geological time, Oligocene ( 110 X 106 t M n / m a ) is two orders of magnitude greater than the nearest
time periods: Jurassic (8.9X 10 6 t M n / m a ) and lower Proterozoic (6.5 X 106 t Mn/ma).
The historical distribution pattern of the land-based Mn deposits seems to indicate that accumulation of the bulk of the
present ore-grade Mn is the result of repeated recycling with a land -,ocean trend, abruptly initiated at the time of early
cratonization (about 2.5 Ga). This has been supplemented by a substantially less significant, but remarkably steady re-
verse trend of addition of juvenile Mn released from the mantle into the crust. Mafics and particularly basalts are the most
important intermediaries in the cumulative secular increase of liberated and accumulated Mn in the crust. Direct to indi-
rect, proven to hypothetical spatial coincidence of "basalts" and Mn ores can be demonstrated on at least 169 localities
out of 330 ( = 51%) evaluated.

Correspondence to: P. Laznicka, Department of Geological Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg 19, Man. R3T
2N2, Canada.
JAil tonnages in this paper are in metric tonnes (t), except where directly quoted from the literhture. In such case, they
are in short tons (tons), i.e., about 0.9 tonne.

0169-1368/92/$05.00 © 1992 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. All rights reserved.

280
"Ores are rocks in which natural processes of segrega-
tion of the elements have operated with uncommonly high
efficiency to produce extreme geochemical anomalies of
useful metals". Charles Meyer (1981)
Introduction
Manganese considered in a geoscientific
context has a vast literature, amounting to a
minimum of 110 computer-retrievable titles
annually (i.e., those titles where the keyword
manganese appears in the title) and a mini-
mum of 3000 titles cumulatively until 1990.
Several distinct research and publication trends
are dominant, including the geochemistry and
metallogeny of Recent ocean-floor deposits
(Glasby, 1977,1988a; Rona et al., 1983;
McKelvey, 1986; Baturin, 1988; Rona, 1988);
descriptive, comparative and interpretative
works on terrestrial Mn deposits (Byetekhtin,
1946; Gonz~iles, 1956; Varentsov, 1964; Se-
menenko, 1973; Roy, 1976, 1981; Hildebrand
et al., 1977; Borchert, 1978; Varentsov and
Grasselly, 1980); manganese geochemistry
(Ronov and Yermishkina, 1959; Strakhov et
al., 1968; Peacor and Wedepohl, 1972; Wede-
pohl, 1976; Crerar et al., 1980; Lisytsin et al.,
1985 ); computer-assisted ore-deposit modell-
ing (Cox and Singer, 1986; Mosier and Page,
1988 ) and others.
The progress in computer technology, com-
bined with the, almost exponential, growth in
the volume of international data on Mn (and
other) deposits, has made a global quantita-
tive treatment increasingly possible. The pres-
ent contribution considers the place of the re-
corded anomalous manganese accumulations
in the overall terrestrial Mn budget. Its back-
bone is a computer-processible file on 330 Mn
localities of the world (Appendix).
Regional geochemistry, metallogeny and
economic geology
Regional geochemistry usually considers the
distribution of major elements and trace quan-
tities of minor elements in a relatively un-
p. LAZNICKA
biased scientific framework. Its emphasis, re-
garding the ore metals, is on their "normal"
distribution in common rocks.
Metallogeny (De Launay, 1913 ) deals with
the distribution of metallic deposits in geolog-
ical time and space. The contemporaneous
metallogeny is essentially an extension of re-
gional geochemistry applied to anomalous
metal accumulations in various geological set-
tings. This contribution strives to produce es-
sentially metallogenic conclusions. There is a
tendency in recent literature to use the term
"metallogenesis" when considering the mech-
anisms and conditions of ore-grade metal ac-
cumulation, and to use "metallogeny" when
dealing with the regional pattern of ore distri-
bution, and when referring to a branch of sci-
ence. This usage is retained here.
Economic and mining geology, as well as ore
petrology, are branches of geology limited to
actually or potentially profitable metal accu-
mulations. Although classical ore deposits are,
at the same time, geochemically anomalous
metal concentrations (thus natural anoma-
lies), many of the "modern" earth materials
from which metals are recovered, or will likely
be recovered in the future, are not only consid-
ered as a natural anomaly. Economic and tech-
nological considerations, such as prices, mar-
kets, cost of recovery, harmful impurities, by-
products, etc., dilute and distort the "metallo-
genic" component of published mining data so
that such data are not ideal for metallogenetic
(geochemical) considerations. They are, how-
ever, the only data available that provide mea-
sured quantitative information on delineated
and quantified metal accumulations in the
form of ore deposits and, as such, they have to
be used.
Being dependent on mining data involves
some problems that have to be anticipated and
minimized by, for example, frequent "data re-
constructions" and some estimates, in order to
achieve credible metallogenic conclusions. Al-
though this certainly reduces accuracy, it elim-
inates a pseudo-accuracy resulting from the
MANGANESE DEPOSITS IN THE GLOBAL LITHOGENETIC SYSTEM: QUANTITATIVE APPROACH
uncritical use of imperfect and biased data.
Manganese has a particularly high share of
economy-imposed problems some of which
(e.g., the notion of an "ore deposit" as applied
to a seafloor covered by F e - M n nodules ) have
a tendency to disrupt or completely invalidate
the fragile framework of the classical mineral
deposits science.
Metallogenetic trends
Metallogenesis, an accumulation of metals in
above-average crustal abundance, can follow
positive, neutral or negative trends (Fig. 1).
Positive metallogenesis shows a substantial in-
crease in metal concentration and accumula-
tion that could result in the formation of new
metallic deposits in a setting previously free of
them. Neutral metallogenesis is marked by an
absence of change; non-mineralized terranes
continue to remain such, whereas already min-
eralized terranes persist through time without
a marked deterioration (removal/reduction)
or upgrading (addition) of existing ore depos-
its. Neutral metallogenesis, however, does not
exclude transformations when deposits of
"Type A" change into deposits of "Type B",
both of which could have different mineral-
ogy, textures, structures and shapes, but more
or less constant metal budgets. The conversion
of Mn-carbonates into Mn-oxides caused by
surficial exposure, or the conversion of impure
(siliceous) Mn-carbonates into Mn-silicates by
thermal metamorphism at igneous contacts, are
suitable examples.
Economic geology of manganese
Data base
Manganese benefits from a rather extensive
review literature (De Villiers, 1960; Roy, 1981;
China Dep. Geology, 1985); several sympo-
sium volumes; and a number of statistical
summaries (Wissink, 1972; De Young et al.,
1984; Jones, 1985; Laznicka, 1985b), and nu-
281
merous papers scattered in the international
literature. The present data base (Appendix)
has been retrieved from "Data Metallogenica"
(Laznicka, in press), revised and sufficiently
expanded. It is believed that the selected Mn
deposits, districts and areas represent at least
95% of the Mn produced to-date and remain-
ing in reserves (and some resources) eco-
nomic at present or assumed economic in the
near future.
All major accumulations of Mn (i.e., those
above about 10,000 t contained Mn, with a
grade greater than 3% Mn, with some excep-
tions) have been considered, regardless of
whether Mn was the only product, a by-prod-
uct or a non-recoverable gangue to base- or
precious metals. The tonnage and grade fig-
ures quoted should ideally represent "geologi-
cal tonnages": that is, reserves available at the
onset of mining, cumulative total production
of mined-out deposits, or sums of past produc-
tions and remaining reserves.
In the recent terminology applied in the U.S.
Government publications (e.g., "Mineral Facts
and Problems", 1985 Edition), the term "re-
serve base" would be the closest equivalent.
The corresponding reserve category used in the
former, centrally planned economies (Stair-
nov, 1950), would be C1.
Because most of the Appendix data have
been retrieved from published literature, the
compiler had only in exceptional cases an op-
portunity to chose from several figures quoted
under the variable reserve/resource cate-
gories. In most cases, only one unspecified ton-
nage figure was provided, hence it had to be
accepted. Many quoted figures were incom-
plete, obsolete or inaccurate; often, there has
been a tremendous discrepancy in the produc-
tion/reserve figures listed for various deposits
by various authorities. Consequently, the
Mexican Molango has been credited with 2.94,
13.59, 415.5, 523.6, and 1,359 million tonnes
of Mn in the literature published between 1972
and 1989. This discrepancy reflects not only a
steady increase in reserves, as the exploration
282 P. LAZNICKA

NEGATIVE METALLOGENESIS

T
~
I..t.I

w
45~

z5£-;:/
/fb-\.
. .

20% -~" exposure of

primary
orebody
. .
oxidation, enrichment

\
'\,
\\

\.
\,,,
erosion, removal

=g0.1%
o z

F--
NEUTRAL METALLOGENESIS

z
o
ca ona e /:T.i!i.i i:i "- •

granitoid
I.sJ

bedded Mn carbonate buried in sedimentarw p i l e

N 20%
N
POSITIVE METALLOGENESI S

20%

/
/ deposition preservation
/ completed
Hn clarke //
'background // i n f l u x and Mn sedimentation begins
0.1% ~J

metallogenesis progressing in time

concentration curves Mn orebody

Fig. 1. Contrasting Mn metallogeneses. Positive metallogenesis results in a substantial increase in concentration of an

element (in our case Mn). Negative metallogenesis is equal to dissipation of a previously more concentrated element.
(See explanation in text. )

progressed and mixing of the various unstated Although the present database (Appendix)
reserve/resource categories, but also a plain is much more complete, and hopefully sub-
error in placement of the decimal point. In stantially more accurate than earlier publica-
cases like this, the most credible figure has been tions, some degree of unreliability of quanti-
selected on the basis of the compiler's personal tative data is an unavoidable "fact of life", that
familiarity with many Mn deposits of the inevitably affects statistical conclusions. A
world. Alternative techniques of estimating similar problem has been recognized and dealt
tonnages of foreign deposits have been dis- with in several recent works based on litera-
cussed by Ross and Travis ( 1981 ), Laznicka ture data (Cox and Singer, 1986; Veizer et al.,
( 1985c), and others. 1989).
MANGANESE DEPOSITS IN THE GLOBAL LITHOGENETIC SYSTEM: QUANTITATIVE APPROACH
The notion of a "manganese deposit"
Databases and statistical exercises in metal-
logeny usually list entries under the heading
"ore deposit". Such "deposits" can, however,
be members of a wide range of objects, ranging
from small, single, continuous and internally
homogeneous orebodies, through internally
complex ore deposits, to regional groupings of
deposits in areas and territories ranging from
several square kilometres to 10 7 km a (such as
the entire Pacific Ocean floor). Given the het-
erogeneity and incompleteness of the source
literature, and the technical limitations caused
by large numbers (tens of thousands) of mostly
small deposits and occurrences, the use of
group and territorial entries is unavoidable.
The category of the data entity, however, has
to be clearly marked and non-comparable cat-
egories should not be used for certain types of
statistical treatment. In the present data base
(Appendix), several categories of Mn accu-
mulations have been distinguished on the ba-
sis of increasing dimensions and complexity
and they are more fully explained in the legend
to the Appendix.
The economic viability of manganese ores is
strongly influenced by their mineralogical
composition, grade and impurities, depth,
softness/hardness of the ore (usually related to
the degree of decomposition), labour costs,
markets, etc. Mn oxides in tropically weath-
ered, enriched profiles over earlier orebodies
are the cheapest to process, often by the sim-
plest techniques of labour-intensive selective
mining and handpicking (Fig. 2). As a conse-
quence, low-investment and low-cost mining
can be simultaneously carried out at tens of
separate sites and the final product shipped
from a central stockpile, from a central mill, or
lumped together with the output of a larger lo-
cal mine. The locality registered in the litera-
ture is thus a group locality and is not repre-
sentative of any single deposit. The published
ore grade is the grade of a handpicked ore or a
mill concentrate, and it tends to be much higher
283
than the true grade of an orebody (or
orebodies).
At the old Crimora Mine in Virginia (Eilert-
sen and Feiss, 1946), "about 14 (short) tons
of manganiferous clay was processed per ton
of concentrate", so the actual grade of this or-
ebody should have been recorded as 2.93% Mn
rather than the 41% Mn as listed in the
literature.
Manganese reserves~resources of the worm
The world's Mn reserves in terrestrial de-
posits have been variously estimated at 6.5 bil-
lion tons of ore (Brobst and Pratt, 1973 ), 630
million tons Mn (reserve) and 42 billion tons
Mn (i.e., recoverable resource potential; Er-
ickson, 1973), 1.62 billion tons Mn (Morgan,
1976), 1.76 billion tonnes (reserve) and 1.62
billion tonnes Mn (potential reserve; Bender,
1977; Hildebrandt et al., 1977 ). To this should
be added the tonnage of Mn produced to-date
(222 million tons to 1975). The "geological
content" of Mn in strata-related deposits was
calculated as 2043 tonnes Mn by Laznicka
(1985b).
The revised data resulting from the present
study are expressed as the "geological content
of Mn" (i.e., past production and reserves) as
follows.
(1) In actually mined "straight" Mn depos-
its: 8,727,958,000 t.
(2) In potentially mineable, terrestrial Mn
accumulations: 9,179,500,000 t.
(3) In mined deposits where Mn is a co-prod-
uct or by-product of another metal (this
manganese, however, may not have been
actually recovered): 589,806,000 t.
(4) In potentially mineable, terrestrial Mn
co/by-product ores (or ores not re-
covered in the past): 41,921,000 t.
(5) Total: 17,907,458,000 t
No average or cutoffgrades are available for
the tabulation above. The Mn tonnages are in-
cluded as listed in the literature and some
"super low-grade" deposits (e.g., Chamber-
284 P. LAZNICKA

Fig. 2. Labour-intensive,selective Mn mining in tropical regolith and coluvium over the Archean Iron Ore Series near
Joda, Orissa, eastern India. (a) Hand-excavatedpit, exposingRecent latosol, in-situ and transported rubble to fragmental
clay and saprolitic bleached "shale". (b) Residual block composed of massive goethite, cryptomelaneand minor pyrolu-
site. (c) Coluvial clay-rubbleof dominant jasper fragments containing between 5 and 20% Mn-oxide fragments, concre-
tions and powdery wad coatings. (d) Selectivehand mining and sorting produces 40% Mn concentrate out of a material,
with an actual average Mn grade of well under 5%.

lain, South Dakota: 1% M n ) are involved.
In global speculations, M n resources in ter-
restrial deposits are often augmented by Mn
tonnages in the potentiallyrecoverable sea- and
lake-floor F e - M n nodules. These figures are
entirely speculative, influenced by a lack of
data, as well as by different outlines of the ar-
bitrarily designated "orebodies". Mero ( 1977 )
put the reasonably assured Mn resources in the
North Pacific "high-grade" nodule area at 11
billion tons Mn. Kirk (1985) estimated the
world's total nodule resources to be 80 billion
tons (about 20 billion tons M n ) , to which
could be added 500 million tons of Mn-oxide
crusts (i.e., about 170 million tons Mn ) on the
Blake Plateau. Bezrukov et al. (1970) placed
the a m o u n t of Mn in Pacific floor nodules at
71 billion tonnes. Mero ( 1969 ) estimated the
nodule resource in the world ocean at 350-
1700 billion tons (about 70-340 billion tons
M n ) . Further speculations are available a n d /
or can be made.
MANGANESEDEPOSITS1N THE GLOBALLITHOGENETICSYSTEM:QUANTITATIVEAPPROACH
Grade of Mn deposits
Literature data on Mn deposits usually list
average grades, a range of grades, or the grade
of the shipping product (concentrate). In most
cases, the quoted figure is not further classified
and the distribution of Mn grades within a de-
posit can be approximately visualized, if the
ore deposit type is known. Hildebrand et al.
(1977) gave the average grade of the world's
Mn ores mined in the 1970s as 35% Mn.
The bulk of the "primary" Mn deposits, both
sedimentogenic and hydrothermal, have a re-
markably uniform grade throughout an ore-
body or, if the orebody is complex and com-
posed of several ore layers/bands separated by
a non-ore, throughout a band (Fig. 3a). This
uniformity is destroyed by supergene modifi-
cation of "primary" orebodies caused by ex-
posure or by groundwater. In the example rep-
resentative of outcrops of Mn veins or Mn
carbonate/gondite layers (Fig. 3b), the de-
posit is subdivided into the "primary" zone
(often considered a protore) and the second-
ary, enriched zone. There, the enrichment fac-
tor rarely exceeds two to three, both zones have
a relatively uniform grade distribution and the
mutual contact tends to be sharp.
Weathering-generated deposits (c and d on
Fig. 3 ) have concentration factors (i.e., grade
of shipping concentrate/grade of Mn proto-
UVWEATHERED WEATHERING SLIGHTLY
(PRIMARY) ENRICHED
DEPOSIT DEPOSIT
shipped c o n c e n t r a t e ~ I M n
i"!!j!n
Fig. 3. Distribution of Mn grades in five characteristic styles of manganese deposits.
285
lith) greater and often much greater than 10.
The Mn ore substance, usually Mn-oxide par-
ticles (lumps, concretions, pisoliths, "buck-
shot", fragments, etc. ) is irregularly dispersed
throughout a soft (usually clay) matrix from
which it is recovered by handpicking or hy-
draulic mining. Outcrops of similar deposits,
most of which are located in the tropical belt,
have usually developed higher-grade residual
capping from which a portion of the clay im-
purity has been winnowed. Elsewhere, rede-
posited and partly sorted rubble deposits with
a still higher grade (d) can form.
Regional distribution of Mn deposits
Manganese is, or was, mined in about 20
belts/areas (provinces) of widespread Mn oc-
currences, in about 70 districts, and in some
5300 individual mines that originally con-
tained more than 50 tonnes Mn each. Japan,
with its 378,000 km 2, is credited with 1045 Mn
mines. This amounts to one mine per 362 km 2.
Canada, on the other hand, has only 170 re-
corded Mn occurrences for an area of 9.93 mil-
lion km 2 which represents one occurrence per
58,353 km 2. Out of this, only 18 occurrences
contain more than 100 t Mn (i.e., one Mn mine
per 551,000 km2).
Some small mineralized belts, areas, or dis-
tricts, contain large numbers of individual
WEATHERING STRONGLY
ENRICHED DEPOSITS
lag rubble
45%
Mn 30%
~ Mn
thin extensive sheets
e
286 p. LAZNICKA

mines; there are 453 of them in the Franciscan TABLE 1

Complex of California (one deposit per 53 Grade-tonnage distribution of ore Mn in terrestrial deposits
km2); 200 each in the Central India Mn Belt, of the world (tonnesX 103)
the Ouarzazate region of Morocco, the South
Grade Alllocalities "Straight" Mn Weathering-enriched
Urals, and the western United States, respec- (%) deposits "straight" Mn deposits
tively. There are 192 small mines in the Huelva
Province of Spain; 150 mines in the U.S. Ap- 1-3 25,077 - -
3-6 1,458,943 - -
palachians; 119 deposits in the Santiago Prov- 6-9 43,122 - -
ince Mn Belt, Cuba; 109 deposits in the Olym- 9-12 1,583,113 985 -
pic Peninsula of Washington; 91 deposits in 12-15 6,571,385 4110 1000
15-18 10,763 1624 1407
Cyprus; and 18 showings on the small island of
18-21 1,795,267 819,551 1640
Viti Levu, Fiji (Johnston and McCartney, 21-24 65,152 59,652 2940
1965; Hewett, 1966; Saito et al., 1960; Roy, 24-77 510,976 510,824 3962
1981). 27-30 484,685 484,653 634
30-33 4,213,860 4,210,328 13,975
Mosier and Page (1988) compared statisti- 33-36 304,687 304,687 303,491
cally the dimensions, volumes, tonnages, 36-39 50,339 50,339 49,940
grades and geological controlls of four types of 39-42 26,255 26,255 23,078
42-45 223,164 223,164 4506
volcanics-hosted Mn deposits and their overall 45-48 134,652 134,652 37,723
conclusions regarding distribution frequences 48-51 149,845 149,845 110,337
seem to be paralleled in many Mn-rich belts 51-54 13,823 13,823 12,223
54-57 1390 1390 1390
around the world with the exception of the five
57-60 56 56 56
or six belts with giant Mn accumulations in 60-65 20 20 20
solitary ore horizons.

Grade-tonnage distribution Mn was the only, or dominant, commodity

Table 1 lists and Fig. 4 plots average Mn
grades against Mn tonnages at the 330 locali-
ties assembled in the Appendix. As explained
earlier, many of the localities are group entries
so that many of the grades plotted are regional
averages and many tonnages are aggregate pro-
ductions. This, and the inclusion of only the
major Mn localities, explains the relative
scarcity of plots in the 100 and 1000 tonnage
ranges. Figure 4 thus shows only the "tip of the
iceberg" distribution. It is also apparent that
several rounded grade values (30%, 40%) con-
stitute distribution maxima. This reflects the
often approximate grade figures as they appear
in the literature.
Figure 5 shows the cumulative grade/ton-
nage distribution based on the same sample
population, but classified into three sub-pop-
ulations as follows: (a) all the localities in Ap-
pendix; (b) actually mined deposits in which
produced ("straight" Mn deposits); and (c)
weathering-enriched "straight" deposits.
The "straight" Mn deposits pattern ap-
proaches a lognormal curve with a mean grade
of about 31% Mn. This mean is to a consider-
able degree influenced by the giant Kalahari
Field which has the same grade. The left side
of the histogram comprises low-grade Mn ores,
"ores of the future" and ores where Mn is a re-
covered by-product of Fe, Pb-Zn-Ag, Au-Ag,
Co and Ni mining, or an anomalously concen-
trated non-recovered component.
Weathering-enriched Mn deposits occupy, as
expected, the high-grade (right) side of the
diagram and the ratio of enriched/non-en-
riched ores increases sharply from the grade of
48% Mn up.
Accumulation magnitude and giant deposits
On global scale, the magnitude distribution
MANGANESE DEPOSITS IN THE GLOBALLITHOGENETIC SYSTEM: QUANTITATIVEAPPROACH 287

10 t°
x MOANDA-HORIZONS x KALAHARI- MAMATWAN
x SINGLE LOCATION
MOLANGO -HORIZON
x x ® TWO LOCATIONS
10 9- NIKOPOL x
x
BOLSHOI TOKMAK
CHIATURA x MOLANGO
x MOANDA x GROOTE EYLANDT
UJ x
Z x x x MOLANGO

Z 10 a-
K

ILl x c~x'~ x x x x
n- ~.~ AROOTOOK x
0%'~ x xCUYUNA x x x x x x
O xi x x x x
_z ~ 1 0 7 ~ x XIARTILLERY
XxXx x x x x~
~ x x

I- x x x x
Z × X.x~ ~ . . . . . x ~xxxx x AROOSTOOK
LU
I-- r ~ 1 0 ~-
Z t~
0 x x x x x x x x~ x x x

r- ®XxX
~ 1 0 s-
O x x xX × Xx x
O. x ~ x x~XXxxx~Xx x (~x x x x x
iii x xX × x x x
x
x x
t'~ 104_ x x
x
x xx

x
103
''l''l''lllll ,I,,I,, I,, I,,I,,I,,I ,,I,,I,,I,II,III I'l,Zl'Jl"l' I
03 6 912 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 39 42 45 48 51 54 57 60 65
GRADE % Mn
Fig. 4. G r a d e - t o n n a g e distribution in 330 localities listed in the Appendix.

09
LU lo

10 a

Z 107 ul~

8r- 10e
\

5 " ~10' \

104 I"1"1" ' l " l ' ' l " ] " l " l ' r l " l " l " [ " l " l " l " l " l ' I"l"l"
t.) 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 39 42 45 48 51 54 57 60 65
GRADE %Mn
~ ALL Mn ACCUMULATIONS
~ MINED "STRAIGHT" Mn DEPOSITS
~ WEATHERING-ENRICHED "STRAIGHT" Mn DEPOSITS

Fig. 5. C u m u l a t i v e M n g r a d e - t o n n a g e distribution based on data in the A p p e n d i x (n = 330).

of Mn occurrences is extremely uneven (Table the world, or 23.42% if the giant, but presently
2, Figs. 6,7). A single exceptional deposit uneconomic Mn-rich horizons, are also in-
(mineralized horizon ), the Kalahari, has over cluded. Five exceptional deposits have, to-
50% of the metal accumulated in Mn ores of gether, 78.63% of the world's "straight" Mn
288 P. LAZNICKA

TABLE 2 ber, 1980); the Molango Mn carbonate hori-

List of exceptionally large Mn localities that contain over 0.1%
zon ( 1.5 billion tonnes Mn; Cannon and Force,
of the World's ore Mn 1983 ); and the extensive but low-grade Fe-Mn
Rapid Creek, Yukon horizon (1.1625 billion
ore Mn % of World's tai
( X 106) total ( X 109 )
tonnes Mn; Young and Robertson, 1984 ), will
increase the share of the largest supergiant Mn
Supergiant accumulations to 36.30% of the global ore Mn,
Moanda Mn horizon 6500 36.30 6500 and the share of the five largest accumulations
Kalahari-Mamatwan type 4193 23.42 4193
Molango Mn horizon 1500 8.38 1500 to 79.85%. The exceptional Mn deposits dom-
Rapid Creek F e - M n horizon 1162 6.50 I 162 inate dramatically the national and continen-
tal Mn endowment (Fig. 8, Table 3) and this
Giant accumulations
Nikopol 940 5.25 940
has obvious political implications.
Chiatura 600 3.35 600 Laznicka (1983) applied a tonnage-accu-
Bol'shoi Tokmak 490 2.74 490 mulation index, tai:
Molango 465 2.60 465
Moanda 275 1.54 275 m X 10 6
Groote Eylandt 222 1.24 222 tai - - -
ck
Mezhdurechye 180 1.00 180
Kalahari-Wessels type 175 0.98 175 where: r e = o r e metal content in a deposit,
Leglier F e - M n 150 0.84 150
Urucum 121 0.68 121 tonnes; ck=average crustal abundance (or
clarke) in ppm, as a common denominator
Large accumulations needed to compare magnitudes of accumula-
Atasu district 61 0.34 61
Kerch F e - M n 57 0.32 57 tion of various metals. The variables com-
Sausar Group 46 0.26 46 pared are tonnages of the average crust that
Mutun 45 0.26 45 contains, in clarke concentrations, the equiva-
Uda 43 0.24 43
N. Urals Mn Basin 32 0.18 32
lent of ore metal present in a deposit.
Skhmerskoe 26 0.15 26 Deposits and metal accumulations with
Serra do Navio 25 0.14 25 t a i = 101° and greater are designated as large
Aroostook 25 0.14 25
deposits. Those with t a i = 1011 plus are giant
Cuyuna Range 25 0.14 25
Azul 24 0.13 24 deposits, and those with t a i = 1012 and more
Usa (Usinskoe) 20 0.11 20 are supergiant deposits. The four largest Mn
Woodstock 19 0.11 19 accumulations in the Appendix containing in
Nsuta 18 0.10 18
excess of 1x 109 Mn are supergiant accumula-
tai = tonnage accumulation index; the tonnage of the average tions (Table 2, Fig. 6 ). The single largest pres-
crust that contains, in clarke concentration, the equivalent of
ore metal present in a deposit:
ently mined Kalahari Mn Field has
tai=4193× 10 9. Is the very uneven distribu-
ore Mn content in a deposit ( t o n n e s x 106)
tai = tion of Mn ore/protore accumulations unique,
1,000
or are other metals distributed in a similar
fashion? Giant deposits dominate the distri-
ores. The proportion of huge Mn accumula- bution of many other metals (Laznicka, 1983 ).
tions in the global ore Mn budget is even more Measured by the share of a single supergiant
striking when the so far unmined and still in- accumulation out of the overall global ore
sufficiently delineated resources of "protore" metal balance, Mn occupies the position no. 7
under or in the extension of major orebodies (after Hg in the Almaden deposit, Spain; Cr,Ti
are included in the calculation. Inclusion of the and Pt metals in the Bushveld Complex; Nb in
Moanda (Okouma Plateau) Mn carbonate ho- Araxa, Brazil; rare earths in Bayan Obo,
rizon (6.5 billion tonnes Mn; Leclerc and We- China), and is approximately at par with gold
MANGANESE DEPOSITS IN THE GLOBAL LITHOGENETIC SYSTEM: QUANTITATIVE APPROACH 289

i000

319 localities in Appendix 322 localities in Appendix

#

%F~ %~
100 ~R
~ma~

r~

MezhdurechyeY /b//.
Moanda . ~ Groote Eylandt / "
-y Molango I
J B. Tokmak i JRapid Creek
Nikopol / - Chiatura i /-Molango-
.. . I ~ Horizon
/ .Moande- _ ~ K a l ahari . . . . .
I Kalaharl~ Horizon~ i
109 ~4 15 16- 17 '8 i 9 [ 1010 i 15 20
Mn ORE CONTENT,TONNES
Fig. 6. Partition of the world's Mn ore into magnitude categories, showing the important role of exceptional (giant)
accumulations. (a) Standard Mn and Mn by-product deposits; (b) the above, plus three presently uneconomic large
manganiferous horizons at Moanda (Gabon), Molango (Mexico) and Rapid Creek (NW Canada).

(when the Witwatersrand is treated as a single
"locality" ).
Trace Mn distribution in the earth's crust
Concentrations of trace Mn
Manganese geochemistry has been exten-
sively reviewed by Peacor and Wedepohl
(1972), Beus (1976), Wedepohl (1980),
Crerar et al. (1980) and others. Manganese
having the crustal abundance of 900 ppm
(Beus, 1976); 930 ppm (Peacor and Wede-
pohl, 1972); 1000 ppm (Li Tong, 1984) or
1100 ppm (Taylor and McLennan, 1985 ) is the
tenth most abundant element in the crust and
the fourth most abundant metal after A1, Fe
and Ti.
The average Mn content in the solar system
based on C 1 carbonaceous chondrite is 0.294%
Mn (Goles, 1971); the content in the solid
Earth is quoted as 0.26% Mn (Ahrens, 1965);
the Mn contents of the mantle are between
0.085 and 0.16%; of the oceanic crust between
0.08 and 0.10%; of the continental crust be-
tween 0.07 and 0.11%; and of the "sedimen-
tary layer" between 0.023-0.052% (Fig. 9).
Magmatic rocks
In contrast to many petrochemically impor-
tant trace elements, Mn underwent no sub-
stantial systematic fractionation during proto-
crystallization of the mafic to intermediate
magmatic suite extracted from the mantle, so
the many derivational varieties of basalt have
all almost a uniform Mn content (Anderson,
1981; Basaltic Volcanic Study Project, 1981 ).
In mafic to felsic differentiation sequences
of various parentages, Mn shows a strong neg-
290 P. LAZNICKA

LEGL~R
o~'

UOA

KERC • SKHMEnSKOE
d ~

Q
0

' NAVm
RR^CO

i -'~ w ..... / aC
!o0.rE~ oO
LANDT

\\ 'J @Unmined Mn ~ ~ \ ©
J
PERCENTAGEOF WORLD'SORE I n

Fig. 7. Map showingthe major exceptional Mn accumulations of the world.

Europe i0.0~
Europe 20.8~ Asia 6.0% ~ ~,~
S.America 1.5~
Asia I0.8 L
~ ~ S . . ~ e r i c a 3.2~ ~ i i i i ~ i / N'America 18"1%

iiiiiiiiiiiiiiii =r~oa ="======iY

'iiiiiiiiiiiiliiiiiiiiiiiii

Mrica 55.4%
Fig. 8. Distribution of the world's Mn-ore resources per continent. Left: large, presently uneconomic manganiferous ho-
rizons included; Right: ditto, excluded.

ative correlation relative to silicon, strikingly
apparent on variation diagrams (e.g., Crerar et
al., 1980, p. 301 ). In igneous rocks, Mn con-
centrates in rock-forming ferromagnesian
minerals (olivine: 0.187% Mn; low-Ca pyrox-
ene: 0.212%; hornblende: 0.372%; biotite:
0.225%; chlorite: 0.224%; Wedepohl, 1980)
and is depleted in silica-aluminous minerals
(feldspars: 0.001-0.01%; quartz: less than
0.001%).
In non-alkaline magmatic differentiation se-
ries, Mn reaches the greatest concentration in
MANGANESEDEPOSITSIN THE GLOBALL1THOGENETICSYSTEM:QUANTITATIVEAPPROACH 291

TABLE 3 phenson (1974) described Mn-enriched oli-

Distribution of ore Mn by continents and major resource-rich
vines from South Q6roq (southern Green-
countries ( 103 tonnes Mn) land). Carbonatites are the most Mn-enriched
magmatic rocks known. Their average Mn
tX 103 %
content is 0.6% (six times the crustal abun-
Mexico 468,657 5.45 dance; Peacor and Wedepohl, 1972 ) but some
Cuba 2937 0.03 siderite and ankerite carbonatites have up to
others l 12,742 1.31 4.39% Mn (Chilwa Island, Malawi; Garson,
North America 584,336 6.79
1956) or more (rhodochrosite carbonatite,
Brazil 206,725 2.40 Muambe Hill, Mozambique; Gittins, 1966 ). It
Chile 8690 0.10 can be concluded that, with the possible excep-
others 58,705 0.69
South America 274,120 3.19 tion of carbonatites, no Mn accumulations ap-
proaching ore concentrations resulted from
European former USSR 1,670,520 19.42 magmatic differentiation, not even in associa-
Hungary 4400 0.05
others 113,662 1.33
tion with magmatic iron ores. In the Bushveld
Europe 1,788,582 20.79 titaniferous magnetite layers, the ore running
over 50% Fe has between 0.14 and 0.40% Mn,
India 77,133 0.89 and some ilmenite separates have up to 1.77%
China 16,902 0.2
others 11,932 0.14 Mn (Reynolds, 1986).
Asian former USSR 819,903 9.53
Asia 925,870 10.77 Metamorphic rocks
Morocco 4792 l.l 2
Gabon 275,000 3.20 It is stated (e.g., Wedepohl, 1980, p.347;
South Africa 4,387,701 51.05 Beus, 1976, p.266) that trace Mn contents of
Africa 4,764,102 55.40
the common metamorphics have the same or-
Australia 263,279 3.06 der of magnitude as their unmetamorphosed
progenitors so that major transfer of Mn dur-
Oceania 1542 0.02
ing metamorphism has not taken place. This is
World 8,601,831 100.00 generally confirmed by literature data where
amphibolites and eclogites average between
0.15 and 0.157% Mn (same order of magni-
magnetite (average 0.446% Mn) and ilmenite tude as basalts/gabbros) and gneisses are
(Peacor and Wedepohl, 1972 ), but even so, its around 0.06% (same order as shales). Com-
concentration factor rarely exceeds 10. In some parisons of large populations of trace Mn de-
late-stage magmas, Mn becomes relatively terminations, however, indicate that amphib-
concentrated to form minor and accessory olites and greenstones are consistently 10-20%
minerals as in some pegmatites. There, the bulk higher in Mn than gabbros and Cainozoic ba-
of Mn enters the spessartite molecule of gar- salts (e.g., Glikson, 1971 ). This could be at-
nets. In highly evolved pegmatites with a sig- tributed to metamorphic differentiation (e.g.,
nificant hydrothermal-metasomatic compo- Belevtsev, 1979) or, more likely, to incorpo-
nent, Mn accumulates in phosphates ration of the Mn dissolved in seawater into
(triphylite-lithiophyllite, graftonite and hu- seafloor basalts during their aging (i.e., weath-
reaulite contain up to 2.3% Mn; Von ering and hydration; Salisbury and Christen-
Knorring, 1970 ). sen, 1973); most amphibolites are former
Alkaline rocks are ocassionally enriched in "geosynclinal" metabasalts. Naqvi and Rogers
Mn, up to a concentration clarke of 50. Ste- ( 1987 ), on the other hand, documented loss of
 I-J
l-J

whole Earth . . . . . ( I. . . . . tal clarke

Black Sea floor i interstitial waters SEAWATER

anoxic waters
I JI
-- dissolved Mn 7
SUSlended Mn STREAMS
SUBSURFACE FLUIDS I lake Kivu I Red Sea f l o o r k_J S a l t o n Sea
BOTTOMSEDIMENTS, SHELF, EPICONTINENTAL
l[ J [ Baltic Sea euxinic sediments
OCEANIC SEDIMENTS Pacific abyssal clays | Fe/Mn sediments
SOILS U.S. soils metall i ferous laterites
SHALES ore shales
BLACK SHALES ~ ore shales
SANDSTONES quartz arenite ,,,a f i e vol c a r e n i t e s
CARBONATES
ore carbonates
CiIERT, JASPER ore cherts
ORGANIC SEDIMENTS petroleum blackcoal br¢':~ coa I
IRONSTONES, IRONFORMATIONS i- Fe-Iln f o r m a t i o n
VOLCANIC-SEDIMENTARY MASSIVESULFIDES I -- I Rammelsberq
BASALTS ~'~ rloanda
I _ --I
ANDESITES II

RHYOLITES - - - - - ~ ~ g b
i
_~ felsic t u f f , F r a n c e , i l i l a , ~
L,
TRACHYTES
GRA~IITES peraluminous m - J peralkaline
GPJ~NODIORITE, DIORITE ----I
GABBROS ' . ~
ULTRABASICS . _ ~ _ m a n t l e nodules
ALICJ~LINE syenites I " Fe-Mn carbonatites
GNEISS, IIICASCHIST, GRANULITE I I_--- . . . . . ore grleisses
AMPHIBOLITE, GREENSTONE ~~Z~----~-- ? ~-~ --
I '
i I I ltI I J - -
I
0. I ppb I ppb I0 ppb O.l ppm i ppm IO ppm I00 ppm 0.1% i% ID i00~

Fig. 9. Trace Mn contents in the Earth's crust and the hydrosphere. (Compiled from data from Cronan, 1969; Vine and Tourtelot, 1970; Peacor
and Wedepohl, 1972; Beus, 1976; Anderson, 1983; Barwise and Whitehead, 1983; Lisitsyn et al., 1985; Taylor and McLennan, 1985; Tong,
1989; and scattered data in 450 references.)

N
Z
MANGANESE DEPOSITS IN THE GLOBAL LITHOGENETIC SYSTEM: QUANTITATIVE APPROACH
some 40-50% Mn during metamorphic con-
version of Indian greenstone metabasalts into
amphibolites.
The general immobility of Mn under condi-
tions of Barrovian, high-pressure and thermal
metamorphism, is convincingly demonstrated
by the large number of isochemically meta-
morphosed bedded Mn deposits in metavol-
canic and metasedimentary associations in
metamorphosed Mn carbonates, gondites and
skarnoids (Roy, 1981). Major Mn transfer
(remobilization) took place only by the action
of (metamorphic) hydrothermal fluids along
shears and faults that provided the necessary
permeability.
Water bodies
Wedepohl ( 1971 ) gives the average content
of dissolved Mn in freshwater as 9 ppb, but
there are substantial variations depending on
the oxygen budget. The well-aerated waters of
running streams and lakes are lower in Mn
(average for U.S. rivers: 7 ppb Mn), whereas
the anoxic waters of stagnant lakes could con-
tain 1 ppm and more. The suspended load of
rivers is extremely high by comparison: 0.25-
0.43% Mn. Wedepohl (1980) calculated that
the oceans receive yearly 3 × 105 t of dissolved
and 4 X 105 t of suspended Mn.
Estimates of the Mn content in seawater vary
between 0.2 and 4.32 ppb. Based on the annual
influx of terrestrial manganese, Wedepohl
(1980) calculated the Mn residence time in the
world ocean to be 6 X 103/y if the Mn content
in seawater is 0.3 ppb. At 1.5 ppb Mn in sea-
water , the Mn residence time would be
3 X 104/y. The Mn content in groundwater is
highly variable, but generally higher to much
higher than in surface waters. It increases
sharply in thermal waters and active hydro-
thermal systems. The Salton Sea hydrothermal
brines contain around 0.14% Mn (White,
1968).
293
Sediments and sedimentary rocks
Sediments and sedimentary rocks have the
highest variability of trace Mn contents
(Ronov and Yermishkina, 1959) and the
highest proportion of Mn-anomalous to Mn-
normal rocks. Mn distribution in sediments is
controlled more by their mineralogical and
chemical composition, provenance and setting
than by grain size; yet grain size is the basic
attribute of detrital rock classification. As a re-
suit, trace metal averages in the literature are
quoted in terms of granulometric classes. The
consequence is widespread averaging, so that
the average Mn contents of sandstones or shales
approach the average Mn values quoted for
large divisions of the lithosphere.
Among pelites, the richest in Mn sediments
are the oceanic abyssal clays or clay/carbonate
mixtures. Their average trace Mn contents
range from 0.1 to 0.63% Mn (on carbonate-free
basis; Wedepohl, 1980), and the Pacific
oceanic clays are about two times higher in Mn
than the Atlantic and Indian Ocean clays. The
average Mn contents of clay (0.05% Mn) and
shale (0.085% and 0.060% Mn; Beus, 1976;
Wedepohl, 1980), seem to be mostly repre-
sentative of shallow-marine terrigenous pelites
with granite and gneiss provenances. The low
average Mn content of carbonaceous shales
(0.015% Mn) calculated from a population of
779 samples by Vine and Tourtelot (1970),
comes as a surprise considering the preferred
association of many bedded Mn deposits with
black sediments.
The average Mn concentrations in arenites
are in the literature usually treated in terms of
"graywacke" (litharenite; including both vol-
caniclastics and terrigenous immature to semi-
mature arenites, 0.069% Mn; Wedepohl, 1976)
and "sandstone" (this covers the whole range
of arenites with bias towards the better-sorted,
terrigenous varieties, 0.031-0.049% Mn; We-
depohl, 1980). Coarse detrital sediments
(conglomerates) are impossible to meaning-
fully average.
294
Carbonates are also extremely difficult to
average in terms of their trace Mn given their
considerable variability. Wedepohl (1980)
quoted the figure of 0.056% Mn,but Ronov and
Yaroshevsky (1969) found that over 50% of
carbonates contained less than 100 ppm Mn.
Some carbonates are regionally anomalously
enriched in Mn (e.g., Cambrian Shady and
Tomstown Dolomites of the southern Appala-
chians, 0.2-1.2% Mn; King et al., 1944).
Chemical and volcanichemical sediments
Most economic Mn deposits are chemical
precipitates from hydrous and hydrothermal
fluids. There is a gradation between "ore sedi-
ments", anomalously Mn-enriched sediments
and "rocks" with ordinary trace Mn contents.
In contrast to industrial Mn ores most of which
have an excellent to good separation of Mn
from Fe (Mn:Fe ratios are greater to much
greater than 2), most Mn-enriched (vol-
cani)chemical sediments are iron-rich and
their Mn:Fe ratios range from about 0.02 (i.e.,
mean crustal ratio) to about 0.3.
Ironstones, iron formations and their "lean"
varieties (e.g., various "exhalites") are often
enriched in Mn, but the enrichment is not sys-
tematic or predictable. The Olenegorsk (Kola
Peninsula) and Kursk magnetite quartzites
have 300-350 ppm Mn and the average con-
tent of the Soviet Precambrian banded iron
formations is only 770 ppm. The Lower An-
gara (Siberian Platform) ironstones have only
400 ppm Mn; the Lisakovsk ironstones (Rus-
sian Platform) have 0.16% Mn; the German
exhalative Lahn-Dill ores have 0.12% Mn and
the Minas Gerais itabirites have 0.18% Mn.
The West Siberian Basin and Fricktal (Swiss
Jura) ironstones have 0.27% and 0.30% Mn,
respectively. The Dunderland (Norway) iron
ores carry 0.35% Mn, the Tajmigte (Yugoslav
Macedonia) leptochlorite ores have 0.40% Mn;
the Biwabik iron formation of Minnesota has
0.51% Mn. The Ayat (Kazakhstan) ironstones
contain 0.83% Mn, but because of the large
P. LAZNICKA
13.2 billion tonnes ore reserve this represents
a content of 102 million tonnes of Mn (For-
mozova, 1973; Svinndal, 1977; Zitzmann,
1977; Walther, 1986).
Several ironstones and iron formations, the
Mn content of which is higher than 3%, are
listed in the Appendix. There, the Rapid Creek
Ironstone of the northern Yukon (Young and
Robertson, 1984) contains 1.162x 109 tonnes
Mn in ores having a grade of 3.9% Mn.
Metallogeny of manganese: Organization
Existing classification~organization of Mn
deposits
Several global classifications/organizations
of Mn deposits have been proposed, based on
different premises. Most of the conventional
hierarchical classifications (Roy, 1976, 1981 )
subdivide Mn deposits into:
Mn deposits:
-sedimentary (nonvolcanic and volcanic-
sedimentary);
-supergene concentrations; and
-hydrothermal.
Non-hierarchical "expert systems" (the So-
viet system of "ore formations" meaning as-
sociations; Shatskii, 1954; Western-style "ore
deposit models"), selectively handpick and
treat sets of distinct and mutually comparable
deposits out of the global Mn population, leav-
ing the "atypical", transitional and controver-
sial examples out.
In the recent collection of the U.S. Geologi-
cal Survey Mineral Deposits Models (Cox and
Singer, 1986 ), the following models of Mn de-
posits are included: "replacement Mn" (p.
105 ); "volcanogenic Mn" (p. 139 ); "epither-
mal Mn" (p. 166) and "sedimentary Mn" (p.
231 ). In the follow-up contribution by Mosier
and Page (1988), the "volcanogenic Mn"
model is further subdivided into Cyprus,
MANGANESE DEPOSITS IN THE GLOBAL LITHOGENETIC SYSTEM: QUANTITATIVE APPROACH
Olympic Peninsula, Franciscan and Cuban
types.
The existing Mn classifications are hardly
perfect, but they serve the practical purpose to
break the large number of recorded Mn depos-
its into manageable categories. There is, how-
ever, a scope for improvement. Any attempt to
upgrade existing classifications of ore deposits
meaningfully has to take into account the fol-
lowing constraints and ramifications:
( 1 ) Mn deposits can be arranged by their in-
ternal complexity, setting and genetic history
into an end-member sequence at one end of
which are "simple" (single-stage, monoge-
netic, "straight-line" ) deposits, at the other end
being "complex" (multi-stage, polygenetic, in-
teractive, etc.) deposits. Simple deposits are,
for example, represented by rhodochrosite
veins or sedimentary-diagenetic braunite beds.
These are uniform products of a single-stage
fissure infilling, or seafloor chemical sedimen-
tation followed by "ordinary" diagenesis and
lithification. Complex deposits include many
possible combinations; for example, an origi-
nally siliceous Mn sedimentary bed later de-
formed and metamorphosed into a Mn-garnet
quartzite (gondite), the latter in turn weath-
ering-reconstituted into a body of"secondary"
Mn oxides. The second example is a product
of at least three evolutionary phases, linked by
mutations.
When the supergene modification was par-
tial, products of the two latest phases (gondite
and Mn oxides) coexist, whereas the product
of the earliest metallogenetic phase (Mn sedi-
mentary bed) is not preserved and has to be
interpreted. When the supergene modification
of gondite was complete (no relics left), the
pre-weathering history of the orebody has been
obliterated and has to be interpreted using in-
direct (usually laboratory) evidence.
(2) When a fixed classification system is
erected (any system!), there are deposits that
would fit snugly; deposits that are marginal;
and deposits that cross the boundaries of cate-
gories or "types". Most classification fits are
295
statistical: the majority of deposits fits, the mi-
nority does not. In brief and superficial re-
views and classifications the incompatible de-
posits are usually left out or "forced" into a
category not entirely appropriate. Detailed
classifications facilitate incorporation of
unique entries better, but they are bulky and
cluttered by detail, often utilized only by their
creator but shunned by the readers.
( 3 ) Transitionality. Virtually all mineral de-
posits occurring in nature, as well as their host
rock associations, environments, metal sources,
etc., are transitional. Purely volcanogenic de-
posits are transitional into volcanic-sedimen-
tary ones which in turn change into purely sed-
imentary. The boundary of the categories is
subjective, so a single deposit can be placed into
a different category by different authors.
Quantitative approach (like the one applied to
terminology of two-component mixtures such
as plagioclases) is rarely possible, because of
the lack of accurate data and a uniqueness of
every ore deposit or occurrence.
The constraints listed above are real and
cannot be avoided. As a consequence, every
classification of Mn and other deposits is by
nature tentative, inaccurate and temporary. It
can often be improved but never made perfect.
Component organization of Mn
accumulations
Complex objects assembled in large data
bases can best be organized if they are broken
down into lesser components. Each compo-
nent is further classified or subdivided. Entries
are coded or expressed in keywords. Keywords
are listed in a thesaurus.
Some components are sharply delineated and
internally objective so they can stand on their
own and be treated independently (e.g.: Mn
mineralogy). Others are mutually transitional
and interactive, so that a change of a variable
in one component requires adjustment in the
other component. In spite, of limitations, in-
formation can be sorted by data items in com-
296 P. LAZNICKA

weathering and pedogenesis

d e t r i t a l sedimentation
chemical precipitation
(cold f l u i d s )
active geothermal systems
GENESIS
ocean floor / Weathering crust rocks
pelagic domain / subaerial
continental margins / marine sedimentary
active (Pacific) / marine volcanic-sedimentary
passive (Atlantic) + / metamorphosed
epicontinental basins / intrusive and
continental subaerial / thermalites
intracrustal

GEOTECTONICAND LITHOLOGIC
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATION
SETTING

Fig. 10. Organization of Mn accumulations based on three fundamental components as applied in the Appendix and
discussed in the text. The components are overlapping and often mutually interactive.

puterized files and easily retrieved. This pro-
vides for flexibility and custom-made
classifications keyed to various needs.
Figure 10 shows the component organiza-
tion of Mn deposits applicable to localities in
the Appendix. Each component is discussed in
detail in the subsequent text.
Genetic organization of Mn deposits
Direct observation of Mn accumulation by
contemporaneous processes in existing envi-
ronments is of great help for genetic interpre-
tation of ancient deposits. But the reverse is
also true. Certain ancient Mn ore types that
lack Recent counterparts alert us to the possi-
ble existence of not yet recognized Recent near-
surface Mn accumulating environments, or
deep-seated environments that cannot be di-
rectly observed.
From the genetic point of view, contempor-
aneous Mn-concentrating systems can be most
conveniently treated in the framework of four
mutually transitional sets (Fig. 11): (1)
weathering and pedogenesis, (2) detrital sedi-
mentation, (3) hydrous chemical sedimenta-
tion, and (4) active geothermal systems.
"Contemporaneous", as used here, is a broader
category than "Recent" (which means younger
than Pleistocene). It includes some long-last-
ing environments (regimes), the products of
which (as old as Jurassic in case of a small por-
tion of the unconsolidated Pacific floor sedi-
ments), are still in their original depositional
setting and not yet fully diagenetically lithi-
fled. This also applies to most weathering
crusts.
Weathering and pedogenesis
In the bulk of weathering profiles, Mn mo-
bility is intermediate between the relatively
immobile Fe, AI, Ti and the more mobile Ni,
Cu, Zn and Pb. Mn is rapidly leached from de-
composing mafic rocks and dispersed, except
for a small proportion precipitated in the form
of infiltrated or fracture-coating Mn-oxide pig-
ments ("desert varnish", "dendrites"). The
overall metallogenesis is negative. Exceptions
to this rule exist, but all require rather special
conditions the single most important one being
an exceptional supply of Mn.
Under conditions of humid tropical weath-
ering o f " c o m m o n rocks", Mn relatively accu-
MANGANESEDEPOSITSINTHEGLOBALLITHOGENETICSYSTEM:QUANTITATIVEAPPROACH 297

1 V~r_ATHERINGANDPEDOGENESIS

HUMID ARID
over
I MR laterite I I MR'crete ordinary
Mn-calcrete rocks

rln-enriched karst
I over Mn
carbonates
I over
Enriched Mn-oxideregolith primary Mn
ore/protore
I over sulfide
Mn-oxide rich gossans ores

2 DETRITALSEDIMENTATION 3 CHEMICAL
SEDIMENTATION
I
I OCEANIC SHALLOLI
TERRIGENOUSCONTINENTAL
I PELAGIC
COARSE MEDIUM I FINE IVOLCANIC
I
I cold spring
precipitates
I REWORKEDREGOLITHS I
bogs

playas
Mn rubble Mn granule lake floor
canga ooliths Mn clay nodules
(proximal) fragments silt J metalliferous
sediments

talus crusts
~ nodules metallif.
rubble metallif. nodules sediments
~ sediments crusts
glacial merges
drift with
chemical
sediments crusts
concretions nodules
I metallif.
lag I
deposits sediments
I
I

L
4 ACTIVE GEOTHERMALSYSTEMS
SIJ~aI~UEOLIS SIBAERIAL
crusts, metalliferous hot spring sinters
sediments, exhalites _ ~

hot spring roots, cementedbreccias,

mineralized wallrocks, travertine

epithermal veins, breccias, impregnations,

replacements

plutonic hydrothermal veins, impregnations,

replacements

Fig. 11. Genetic organization of lithospheric Mn-concentrating systems based on four mutually transitional sets, as dis-
cussed in text.
298
mulates in the "mottled clay" (Al-hydrosili-
cates) zone of the weathering profile in
concentrations rarely exceeding clarke X 10
(Lelong et al., 1976; Nambiar et al., 1981; Na-
hon, 1986). Marginally economic ore deposits
are exceptional. Several pocket and blanket-like
bodies of loose to cemented concretionary Mn
oxides not exceeding 15,000 tonnes of 20-40%
Mn and 0.1-1% Co, have been mined from the
lower part of the "limonite zone" in a polyge-
netic (humid, then arid) regolith on ultramaf-
ics and diabase in the Ora Banda-Siberia area
N.W. of Kalgoorlie, Western Australia (Elias
et al., 1981; Loftus-Hills, 1975). The Mn-Co
orebodies were situated above the lateritic Mn-
enriched (up to 1% Mn) "clay zone" near the
base of a discontinuous arid calcrete-silcrete
profile and could have been the result of local
precipitation or nodular calcrete replacement
by Mn lifted from below by ascending
groundwater.
In the New Caledonia lateritic Ni province
developed on Eocene ultramafics (Paris,
1981), megascopically recognizable accumu-
lations of black powdery "asbolite" dispersed
in clay, grade to small pockets of concretionary
to massive asbolite in the ferralitic red clay
zone. A small quantity of the richest ore has
been produced in the past and a resource of
several 107 tonnes of low-grade powdery asbol-
ite ore remains.
The overwhelming majority of "lateritic",
"weathering-generated", "supergene", etc.,
economic Mn deposits has developed by inter-
action of weathering agents with high-Mn pro-
genitors. The weathering resulted in a Mn con-
centration increase of the order of 1-5,
exceptionally 10-20. The latter is true mostly
in terrains of uneven topography (such as
karsts), where depressions are filled by physi-
cally redeposited residue collected from a larger
area.
Weathering-enriched earlier (primary) Mn
ore deposits have much in common with their
Fe and AI counterparts, such as the "direct
shipping" Fe ores formed on siliceous iron for-
P.LAZNICKA
mations and siderite-pyrite-rich rocks, or la-
teritic bauxites formed on aluminous progeni-
tors, such as clay, shale or phonolite. Fully
developed deposits can be subdivided, by the
effects of weathering, into three fundamental
zones (from top to bottom):
( 1 ) Zone of residual tropical metalliferous
soil. Here, the metal-bearing minerals formed
by authigenic precipitation from ionic or col-
loidal solutions transported for a short dis-
tance, sometimes augmented by physical ag-
gregation of metalliferous clay or larger
particles. The growth took place in an open
space (pores) or in a soft, permissive medium
that has made the expansion possible, or by re-
placement. The ore particles could have the
form of loose to cemented concretions to mi-
croconcretions, pisoliths, granules, encrusta-
tions, etc. Reworked microconcretions could
easily be confused with ooliths.
Mn deposits dominated by Mn-oxide con-
cretions/pisoliths or composed exclusively of
them, cap erosional surfaces (e.g., Peak Hill,
W. Australia; Casey, 1956 ) and have in the lit-
erature been often designated as "lateritic"
(Thienhaus, 1967). Equivalent deposits else-
where (e.g., the "secondary" ores of Moanda,
Gabon; Leclerc and Weber, 1980), have only
occasionally been included under the laterite
heading. Still other deposits formerly treated
almost exclusively in the context of sedimen-
togenic/diagenetic lithofacies (e.g., Nikopol,
Chiatura, Groote Eylandt) have only recently
been interpreted as heavily modified to en-
tirely pseudomorphosed by subaerial pedoge-
nesis (e.g., Pracejus et al., 1988).
In analogy with the ferricrete (or cuirasse;
Percival, 1965)or "bauxitic duricrusts" (AI-
eva, 1981 ), the tops of monotonous tropical
soil profiles could be indurated and converted
into almost solid crusts (cappings) recently
termed Mn-cretes, mangancretes or ma-
ngcretes (e.g., Pracejus et al., 1988 ). There, the
concretions are initially cemented by authi-
genic Mn-oxide cements and ultimately en-
tirely destroyed by dissolution/reprecipitation
MANGANESE DEPOSITS IN THE GLOBAL LITHOGENETIC SYSTEM: QUANTITATIVEAPPROACH
or recrystallization to form a solid to internally
breccia-structured mass.
(2) Zone of complete to partial in-situ su-
pergene reconstitution of the progenitor ("Mn-
saprolite"). Here, the weathering-induced
change was mostly chemical or mineralogical
(breakdown of Mn silicates or carbonates into
manganite and oxides of Mn) and structural
modifications resulted mainly from volume
change, load and collapse. This zone is transi-
tional into partly decomposed and oxidized
progenitors and ultimately into the Zone (3)
of fresh, unweathered primary Mn material.
The latter is sometimes crisscrossed by frac-
tures infilled by Mn oxides precipitated from
descending solutions.
In most existing deposits, changes produced
by physical reworking are additional to the es-
sentially in-situ chemical transformations. This
includes the formation of an in-situ (lag) talus;
coluvial and alluvial rubble to gravel ("Mn-
canga") and a variety of more distal redepos-
ited ore sediments, discussed later.
Mn karst
Mn-oxides mineralized karst is a variety of
manganiferous weathering profiles, empiri-
cally and genetically close to the "Mediterra-
nean-type" bauxites (B~.rdossy, 1982) or to
some iron deposits, such as those in the Fran-
conian and Schwabian Alb, West Germany
(Walther, 1986). A "standard" Mn-karst de-
posit (e.g., Waldalgesheim, Germany; Bottke,
1969) consists of Mn oxides structurally and
texturally equivalent to the zone 2 discussed
above, filling karst sinks and depressions on a
Mn-enriched limestone or dolomite. The Mn-
source relationship to the underlying carbon-
ate has not always been demonstrated and there
is a possibility that many "Mn-karst" ores have
been transported to their present location from
elsewhere. Many ancient "Mn-karst" deposits
are situated under unconformities.
299
Mn-rich gossans over sulfide orebodies
Mn sulfides (alabandite and hauerite) are
rare minerals, but Mn carbonates and silicates
(rhodonite) are common gangues to Fe, Zn,
Cu, Pb vein and replacement orebodies. Mn
oxides produced by oxidation and residually
accumulated in some gossans (e.g., Butte and
Philipsburg, Montana) correspond to the zone
2 of the general profile. Concretionary pedo-
genic ores are rare, probably because of the very
small outcrop area of veins that makes their
discovery difficult in the tropics.
Distribution
Figure 12 shows the intensity of weathering
modification at localities assembled in the Ap-
pendix, deducted from deposit descriptions,
especially mineralogy. 93.4% of the localities
are slightly to completely modified and at
23.9% of the localities, the conversion into a
supergene assemblage is total. Only 6.6% of the
localities, all of them located in recently gla-
ciated regions or entirely in subcrop, are free
of weathering products.
Detrital Mn sedimentation
The obvious and indisputable accumula-
tions of Mn ore-grade detritus can be seen on
flanks of elevated or erosion-dissected existing
minor 22.7Z
lht ii.2%
none 6.6%
moderate 18.0Z
al 23.9Z
high I
almost t o t a l 5.6%
Fig. 12. Weathering modification of Mn localities listed
in the Appendix (n = 322).
300
Mn deposits. Where the dominant ore was a
solid, hard bed, the product is an ore-grade
talus or a mixture of ore or wallrock fragments
embedded in Mn-oxide fines, Fe hydroxide or
soil matrix (e.g., "Mn-canga"). These mate-
rials represent the first step towards dispersal
of originally higher concentrated Mn, so this
variety of mass wasting has a negative
metallogenesis.
When the original Mn orebody was "soft"
ore composed of a mixture of "hard" (e.g.,
concretions, pisoliths) and "soft" (powdery,
soily matrix) components, the "hard" compo-
nent has been commonly proximally redepos-
ited to form a gravel or a conglomerate ore-
body. This can upgrade low-grade primary Mn
deposits in which scattered Mn-rich particles
(e.g., nodules) rest in soft non-ore matrix as
near Chamberlain, South Dakota (Crittenden,
1956) and in Manitoba. In both areas, small
lag gravel deposits of F e - M n nodules formed
on banks of the Missouri River (USA) and on
the bottom of creeks draining the Riding and
Porcupine Mountain (Canada). These accu-
mulations, however, never contain more than
several tonnes of material, so they are of aca-
demic interest only. Sizeable Mn-gravel/con-
glomerate deposits equivalent to known iron
deposits of comparable type (e.g., Robe River,
Western Australia; Salzgitter, West Germany;
Zitzmann, 1977 ) have not yet been discovered.
Detrital Mn accumulation resulting from
glacial reworking face similar constraint on
their formation: the lack of an extensive Mn-
rich source area, although this condition could
have been fulfilled in the time of sedimenta-
tion of Proterozoic and Karoo tillites in the
Kalahari region of southern Africa. Minor ac-
cumulations of Mn in Quaternary glaciofluvial
gravels are known from the Atikokan region of
southwestern Ontario and from the Cautin
Province of southern Chile (Ruiz, 1965). At
the first locality, pyrolusite nodules, encrusta-
tions and cement were c o m m o n in the iron-ore
gravel derived from the Steep Rock Fe deposit
and mined, in the 1960s, in the Canadian
P. LAZNICKA
Charleson pit. In Chile, cobbles of quartzite,
veined or encrusted by Mn oxides in the grav-
els, were derived from Mn ore lenses in Pre-
cambrian schists.
Transport and temporary deposition of sand-
to clay-size Mn-ore material is apparent in the
vicinity of many existing Mn deposits, perhaps
most graphically at Imini, Morocco. This, too,
is part of a metallogenically negative process
of dispersion perhaps capable of forming small
temporary accumulations along the fringe of
earlier Mn giants (e.g., the Kalahari Field).
Hydrous chemical Mn precipitation
Precipitation from aqueous solutions con-
sidered in the broadest sense is responsible for
at least 99% of the contemporaneous, and
probably also the past, Mn accumulations. If
only direct chemical precipitation from waters
at ambient temperature is considered, this will
drop to some 90%.
Rivers and streams
These are "fluid channels" rather than ore
depositories. However, small, transient quan-
tities of Mn can accumulate in fluvial sedi-
ments especially in rivers draining Mn-miner-
alized or anomalous basins. Strakhov et al.
(1968) recorded the presence of a 15-30 cm
thick Mn-ore crust with 12.16% Mn, discon-
tinuously present over most of the 150 km long
course of the Vyg River in the Soviet Karelia.
Peat bogs and organics-rich spring aprons
Most "metalliferous bogs" are situated at or
near orifices of cold springs that have anoma-
lously high dissolved Mn (and Fe). Mn pre-
cipitates in the form of black manganiferous
m u d (wad) mixed with travertine, vegetal re-
mains or soil, or they encrust plant debris.
Close to 100 small deposits have been re-
corded mostly in Canada, Scandinavia and the
former USSR and some have been mined (e.g.,
MANGANESE DEPOSITS IN THE GLOBAL LITHOGENETIC SYSTEM: QUANTITATIVE APPROACH
Dawson Settlement, New Brunswick; Brown,
1964; Kaslo Creek, British Columbia; Riding
Mountain, Manitoba; Johnston and Mc-
Cartney, 1965; Central Jutland, Denmark;
Sorensen et al., 1978).
Small temperate and boreal lakes
Mn precipitates with a grade ranging from 0
to almost 30% Mn (average 3.8-16% Mn)
have been identified in several hundreds of
small forest lakes located in the Baltic and Ca-
nadian Shields (Harris and Troup, 1969; Cal-
lender and Bowser, 1976; Terasmae, 1971).
Mn oxides occur in the nearshore setting as
impregnations and cement of sands or as soft,
porous microconcretions ("beans"). In the
lake nodules, metalliferous muds, crusts and
coatings prevail. The Punnus-Yarvi Lake in
Karelia has been studied and described in the
greatest detail by Strakhov et al. (1968). The
lake formed as a result of deglaciation about
5000 years ago, but the duration of active
chemical precipitation of Fe and Mn probably
lasted only about 1000 years. The Mn accu-
mulation there has an area of almost 9 km 2 and
about 8% of nearshore sands have a dense ma-
trix of Mn oxide forming a 6-8 cm thick ore
horizon with an average grade of 17% Mn. A
simple reserve estimation gives a resource of
about 150,000 tonnes of ore, with about 25,000
t Mn. It is estimated that the streams are bring-
ing yearly about 85 tonnes Mn and 100 tonnes
Fe. Provided the supply has remained steady,
this would represent a cumulative supply of
about 85,000 t Mn. The Mn precipitation was
very rapid, exceeding the rate of precipitation
of hydrogenous oceanic nodules. Strakhov et
al. ( 1968 ) reported a find of several man-made
objects that entered the lake during the World
War 2 (that is, some 15-20 years before their
research), already coated by F e - M n crusts.
Small Mn accumulations have been re-
ported from at least 50 other Scandinavian,
Russian and Canadian lakes and, although
Punnus-Yarvi could be exceptional, a cumula-
301
tive resource of about 200,000 t Mn is proba-
bly a very conservative estimate.
Large perennial lakes
Large perennial lakes in the temperate zone,
such as Lake Michigan (Callender et al., 1973 ),
Lake Superior (Mothersill and Shegelski,
1973), Lake Ontario (Cronan and Thomas,
1972), and other lakes have local accumula-
tions of Mn comparable in form and in setting
with the hydrogenous seafloor accumulations.
Nodules, coatings, crusts, sand impregnations
and dispersions of Mn oxides and rare carbon-
ates rest on the lake floor on glacial or young
postglacial sediments.
Not enough data have been published to es-
timate the available global tonnages of the ac-
cumulated Mn. Sheridan (1970) estimated the
presence of 10-15X10 4 tonnes Mn per square
mile (2.56 km 2) in the first 30-cm thick layer
of sand in the Green Bay, Lake Michigan. The
richest Mn field covers 180-200 square miles
(460-512 km 2) that could correspond to about
18-30 x 106 t Mn.
Shallow epicontinental seas and shelves
Local accumulations of seafloor ferroman-
ganese nodules and encrustations composed of
Mn oxides and more rarely carbonates have
been described from numerous localities (Gulf
of Bothnia, Gulf of Finland, Riga Bight in the
Baltic Sea; Barents and White Sea; Norwegian
fiords and Scottish coast; Arctic Ocean; Black
Sea; Atlantic coast; and others (Manheim,
1965 ). Not enough quantitative data are, how-
ever, available.
Calvert and Price (1970) estimated the
nodule-rich seafloor layer in the Loch Fyne,
Scotland, to be 0.2 m thick, covering an area
over 10 km 2 and having a grade of 5-10% Mn.
This would represent about 3-6 X 105 t Mn.
The Gulf of Finland accumulations could rep-
resent several 107 tonnes Mn (Strakhov et al.,
302
1968 ). The global total could be at least 5 X 108
t Mn.
All the occurrences noted above are in or
near stable continental margin settings, having
terrigenous detrital provenance and Mn sup-
plied by continental runoff (Crerar et al.,
1980). In contrast, the substantial Mn accu-
mulation in the shallow marine sediments of
the Blake Plateau discussed later has largely
pelagic sediment and Mn provenance.
Abyssal ocean floor, seamounts, oceanic
islands
The ocean floor is the dominant repository
of above-average concentrations of Mn in the
lithosphere (Bostrom and Kunzendorf, 1986;
Glasby, 1988). Ore and near-ore Mn concen-
trations reside in seafloor and shallow sub-
seafloor Fe-Mn nodules (Mero 1965, 1977;
Bezrukov et al., 1970; Glasby, 1977; Heath,
1981; McKelvey, 1986; Piper et al., 1987; Ba-
turin, 1988 ); in Mn-oxide crusts (Toth, 1980;
Hein et al., 1985); and in metalliferous sedi-
ments (Field et al., 1983; B~icker and Lange,
1987).
The nodules and crusts are considered hy-
drogenous (precipitated from seawater) and/
or diagenetic (Mn supplied by upward diffu-
sion from bottom sediments). The Mn in sea-
water was derived, in turn, from the land
(transported by streams and the wind); from
halmyrolysis of submarine volcanics; and from
hydrotherms (Thompson, 1983; Glasby, 1984,
1988; Baturin, 1988). In regard to the sites of
discharge of the hydrothermal Mn component,
the nodules and crusts are distal in contrast to
the metalliferous sediments which are usually
very proximal to their source areas: spreading
ridges (see later).
Numerous estimates of Mn tonnages stored
in oceanic nodules and crusts have been pub-
lished. The early estimate of 3.5-17X1011
tonnes of nodules in the world ocean by Mero
( 1965 ) representing some 0.7-3.4 X 1011 t Mn
is frequently quoted; this is considered exces-
P. LAZNICKA
sive in the more recent publications, at least
from the strictly economic view, but supported
as credible by Glasby ( 1988 ). Kirk ( 1985 ) put
the global nodule resource as 8 X 101° tonnes of
nodules (some 2X 101° tonnes Mn) out of
which the NW equatorial Pacific with its eco-
nomically most promising Clarion-Clipperton
zone, accounts for some 2.3 X 109 t of nodules
(5 X 108 t Mn). Mero (1977) believed 11 X 10 9
t of nodules to be in the same area. The whole
Pacific floor is credited with 8.1 X 1 0 9 t nod-
ules (Halbach and Fellerer, 1980) that trans-
lates into about 2 × 109 t Mn. Bezrukov et al.
(1970) assumed 7.1 × 101°t Mn in the Pacific
Ocean nodules, out of which 1.45X 101° t Mn
was in the Peruvian Basin.
The data for Mn crusts are more fragmen-
tary. The recent summary by McKelvey
(1986) gave 1.9X 108 t Mn, available in the
economically most promising Hawaii-John-
ston Island-Palmyra Islands zone of the Pa-
cific, and about 4 X 106 t of Mn crusts per 300
km 2 area in the mid-Pacific seamounts ridge.
Active geothermal systems
Geothermal anomalies related to volcanism,
intrusive activity, mantle upwelling and con-
current rifting, ocean spreading or other causes,
produce or heat hydrothermal fluids. These, in
turn, are capable of extracting, transporting and
chemically precipitating large quantities of
solids, including Mn. In the subaerial setting,
thermal springs are much in evidence and some
have anomalously high Mn contents, e.g., the
Mendeleev Volcano in the Kuriles, Russia
( 11.6 ppm Mn); and Matsao Springs, Taiwan
(43 ppm Mn). Even higher in Mn are largely
subsurficial hydrothermal systems intersected
by drilling such as the Salton Sea, California
( 1400 ppm Mn; White, 1981 ).
The dissolved Mn can precipitate in the sub-
surface in hydrothermal veins, impregnations
and replacements, or on the surface as manga-
niferous sinters (in travertine and geysirite) or
Mn-oxide crusts. Frequently, springs dis-
MANGANESE DEPOSITS IN THE GLOBAL LITHOGENETIC SYSTEM: QUANTITATIVE APPROACH
charge on lake floors and Mn precipitates along
with indigenous sediments.
Hydrothermal-plutonic manganiferous veins
as in Butte, Montana, are related to the Boul-
der Batholith, portion of which solidified
within 1.6 km of the surface (Hamilton and
Myers, 1967). The manganiferous mineral
scales recovered by drilling from depths of sev-
eral hundred metres under the Salton Sea and
the adjacent Cerro Prieto in Mexico (White,
1981 ) correspond to epithermal vein fillings.
Quaternary epithermal Mn veins interpreted as
situated on top of a porphyry copper-generat-
ing system and exposed in glacier-dissected
stratovolcano at El Queva, NW Argentina,
have been described by Sillitoe ( 1975 ).
Numerous Mn oxide accumulations precip-
itating at active and recently extinct hot springs
in the western United States, Mexico, Bolivia
and late Cainozoic epithermal Mn occurrences
have been recorded by Trask and Rodriguez
(1946), Hewett (1964), Ahlfeld and Schnei-
der-Scherbina (1964) and others. The Gol-
conda, Nevada, deposit of 5000 t Mn in oxides
with a high tungsten content hosted by traver-
tine (Kerr, 1940) has been the largest accu-
mulation of Mn recently produced by a hot
spring discharged into an ephemeral lake.
Contemporaneous terrestrial hot springs,
epithermal and related Mn accumulations
contain some 50,000 t of ore Mn globally.
Submarine hydrothermal systems came to
attention with the discovery of rift-related hy-
drothermal brines and metalliferous muds in
the Red Sea axial zone (Degens and Ross,
1969). Economic potential of these deposits
has been estimated in respect to Cu, Zn, Pb, Ag
and Au (Bischoffand Manheim, 1969) in the
central sulfide facies of the ore zone. Although
Mn forms a major medium-grade accumula-
tion in two facies (manganite and manganosi-
derite facies with up to 45% Mn, average about
20%), the extent and tonnages of these facies
have not been delineated. An estimate based
on facies diagrams in Backer and Richter
(1973) amounts to some 5X 106t of the "ore"
303
(i.e., 1 X 106 t Mn). To this could be added the
Mn content of the goethite facies (42 × 106 t at
2.0% Mn = 840,000 t Mn) and Fe silicate fa-
cies (22X 106tat 1.42%Mn = 312,400t Mn),
although the ironstone facies extends far be-
yond the sulfide zone to cover 53 km 2 of the
seafloor with an average thickness of 10 m
(James, 1969); this would correspond to about
2x109 t "ore" with 43.2% FeeO3 and 2.1% Mn,
i.e., 42 X 106 t Mn. The tonnage of "ore" and
"by-product" Mn in the Red Sea floor deposits
investigated so far can thus be placed at about
44 X 106 t Mn.
Metal geochemistry of rift-controlled East
African freshwater lakes has been studied by
Degens and Kulbicki ( 1973 ), but the 7.7 X l0 s
t Mn deposited in the lake sediments over the
last 5000 years from a water with 1.2 ppm Mn
has grades well under 1% Mn. Even lower Mn
grades have been recorded from largely ferru-
ginous exhalative-sedimentary precipitates in
contemporaneous volcanic island arc environ-
ments in the Aegean Sea (Thira caldera; Bu-
tuzova, 1968); Melanesian Arc (Rabaul and
Talasea; Ferguson and Lambert, 1972) and
elsewhere.
The greatest influx of "new" manganese into
the lithosphere is taking place along presently
active oceanic spreading ridges (Wolery and
Sleep, 1976; Lyle et al., 1986; Glasby, 1988).
Mn is carried from the sub-seafloor region by
hydrothermal systems and precipitated in the
form of Mn-oxide crusts coating solid rock or
as metalliferous sediments: a mixture of indig-
enous seafloor detrital, biochemical and chem-
ical clayeous sediments, argillized volcanics
and hydrothermal precipitates (Piper, 1973;
Dymond et al., 1973; Scott et al., 1974; Bon-
atti, 1975; Field et al., 1983, B~icker and Lange,
1987 ). Portion of the hydrothermal Mn is in-
corporated into Fe-Mn nodules (Chen and
Owen, 1989) and into "ordinary" oceanic
clays.
The tonnage of the introduced and precipi-
tated Mn is enormous and the Mn grade of me-
talliferous sediments and crusts ranges from the
304
average of 1.25% Mn to 58% Mn (Rona,
1988). Global estimates of the Mn content in
metalliferous sediments have been made, but
none is definitive. Field et al. (1983) esti-
mated the metalliferous potential of the Bauer
Deep sediments, which cover an area of 5 X 105
km 2, and have an average concentration of 5%
Mn. The sedimentary thickness is imperfectly
known; however, if the thickness is 10 m and
the grade persists to depth, the contained Mn
mass would be 5 X 10 ~1t Mn; if the thickness is
100 m, the Mn content would be 5 X 1012 t Mn.
J.L. Bischoff (quoted in McKelvey, 1968) es-
timated the presence of 14.4 X 1012 t Mn (grade
4% Mn) in the Bauer Deep, but this is greater
than the estimate of 5X 1012 t Mn in metalli-
ferous sediments and hydrothermal Mn crusts
in the world ocean provided by Bostrom and
Kunzendorf ( 1986 ). Deep-sea sediments with
an average content of 0.67% Mn (carbonate-
free basis) is estimated at about 6X 1014 t Mn
(Glasby, 1988 ).
Geotectonic and environmental setting of
ancient Mn accumulations on land
The Mn deposits setting is considered in
broad terms and is based on the following geo-
tectonic and environmental domains of the
lithosphere and hydrosphere: ( 1 ) ocean floor;
(2) pelagic; (3) continental margins, subma-
rine: ( a ) " P a c i f i c - t y p e " (volcanic-sedimen-
tary; "eugeoclinal" ), and (b) "Atlantic-type"
and epicontinental; (4) continental-subaerial:
(a) volcanic and volcanic-sedimentary (this
includes "Andean-type" continental margin
volcanism), (b) terrestrial weathering, ero-
sion, deposition terrains, and (c) intracrustal
magmatic and hydrothermal (Table 4).
Complex (multistage) Mn deposits have
been sequentially generated in several differ-
ent settings: for example, all land-based weath-
ering-enriched deposits have reached their me-
tallogenetic completion in the continental
setting, but the original ("primary") deposits
formed elsewhere. In the Appendix, the most
P. LAZNICKA
TABLE 4
Geotectonic and facies setting of ancient Mn deposits (tonnes
of Mn content)
( 1 ) ocean floor/ophiolites 749,000
(2) pelagic 9,694,000
( 3 ) continental margin, marine
(3a) volcanic-sedimentary 529,635,000
(3b) sedimentary 17,256,097,000
(4) continental-subaerial
(4a) volcanic and volcanic-
sedimentary 17,083,000
(4b) terrestrial, weathering, erosion 5,045,000
(4c) intracrustal 57,743,000
Total 17,874,046,000
Total without uneconomic giant 8,594,815,000
accumulations
recent setting is shown by code first, the origi-
nal setting next, subdivided by a slash. No spe-
cific setting is provided for sites (environ-
ments) of metamorphic modification of
metamorphosed deposits, because it follows
from the context.
The quantitative relationships considered
below exclude the effects of weathering and
settings of the original ("primary") deposits
are credited with the entire ore Mn tonnage
available.
( 1 ) The ocean floor domain includes areas
underlain by oceanic crust. These are very ex-
tensive in the contemporaneous global setting
and their Mn accumulations have been re-
viewed earlier. Deep-sea Fe-Mn nodules
formed since 12 ma ago contain about 10 ~ t
Mn, and deep-sea sediments accumulated dur-
ing the past 170 ma have about 6 × 10 ~4 t Mn
(Glasby, 1988 ). Since the bulk of the oceanic
lithosphere is believed to be ultimately re-
moved by subduction (Dewey and Bird,
1970), the Mn concentrations once formed on
the seafloor disappear. Only a fraction of the
ancient ocean floor deposits has been pre-
served within the continental lithosphere as
obducted slabs (Coleman, 1971 ), and as tec-
tonites along sutures. The following near-
MANGANESE DEPOSITS IN THE GLOBAL LITHOGENETIC SYSTEM: QUANTITATIVE APPROACH
equivalents of the present ocean floor accu-
mulations have been preserved in ancient
ophiolite associations and mantling sediments:
(a) Hydrothermally emplaced and wall-
rock-replacing seafloor and sub-seafloor de-
posits hosted by a variety of rocks but usually
associated with chert (i.e., seafloor chemical
sediment) and/or jasperoid (i.e., product of
silicification). These deposits are members of
the Franciscan and Olympic Peninsula types
recognized by Mosier and Page ( 1988 ),
(b) Hydrothermally derived but probably
hydrogenously precipitated Fe-Mn-oxide sed-
iments (umbers), closely corresponding to the
present Pacific "metalliferous sediments". In
the typology of Mosier and Page ( 1988 ), these
deposits are members of the Cyprus type.
Ancient oceanic deposits have eight (2.4%)
entries and 749,000 t Mn (0.004%) out of the
330 localities and 17.874× 109 t Mn assem-
bled in the Appendix. The global Mn share in
the ancient oceanic association is very small,
but so is the area underlain by ophiolites (less
that 10-3% of the present ocean floor). Mosier
and Page (1988) assigned 722 occurrences to
the three types mentioned above, but they are
very small so that the collective entry "Califor-
nia Coast Ranges" in the Appendix represents
about 461 occurrences. Although ophiolites
range in age from lower Proterozoic to Recent,
all the localities listed have a narrow age span
of about 150 ma (between lower Jurassic and
Eocene).
(2) Pelagic domain. Pelagic, "pertaining to
the open ocean" (Jenkyns, 1986), is here
understood as a deep to shallow water environ-
ment of accumulation of sediments produced
entirely from planktonic tests with some hy-
drogenous precipitates from seawater. It
merges with the oceanic and continental mar-
gin domains. Seafloor Fe-Mn nodules, portion
of the Fe-Mn crusts and some Mn-enriched
sediments are the most notable contempora-
neous Mn accumulations in the pelagic do-
main. Blake Plateau in the west-central Atlan-
tic (Pratt and Heezen, 1964) is frequently
305
quoted as an example of a relatively shallow
pelagic domain, floored by shelf sediments. Its
present sediments are pelagic oozes and clays
and they host Fe-Mn nodules, crusts and
pavements formed over at least 14,000 km 2 and
containing some 5 X 108 tonnes of metallifer-
ous materials (some 1-2X108 t Mn; Kirk,
1985). Glasby (1988b) emphasized the dom-
inance of the post-Eocene deep-sea environ-
ment in the global Mn budget. Ancient equiv-
alents of Fe-Mn nodules have been recorded
but none have ever been mined or considered
even marginally economic. The belt of "Mn
marls" in the Alpine Jurassic (Bavarian and
Lechtaler Alps) and its extension into the Pan-
nonian Basin (Urkfit) have frequently been
interpreted as pelagic facies (Bernoulli and
Jenkyns, 1974) and compared with Mn accu-
mulations covering the Blake Plateau. Six lo-
calities (1.82%) are listed in the Appendix, all
of them Jurassic. They comprise 7,694,000 t
Mn (0.043%).
(3a) Active, "Pacific-type" and rift-type
continental margins. Mn deposits hosted by
dominantly marine ("eugeoclinal") volcanic,
volcanic-sedimentary to sedimentary associa-
tions are universally interpreted to have origi-
nated along active, "Pacific-type" continental
margins (Burk and Drake, 1974). Contem-
poraneous margins in which sedimentation is
considerably influenced by simultaneous vol-
canism, lack recorded seafloor Mn occur-
rences except those directly related to hot
springs and exhalations. Most of the latter have
been reported only in the past three years from
the Mariana Arc (Schulz and Hein, 1990);
Bonin Arc (Usui, 1990); Tonga-Kermadec
Ridge, Ogasawa Arc and Bismarck Archipel-
ago, where large volumes of Mn are introduced
with the fluids released during dewatering of
subducting sediments (Glasby, 1988c). Hy-
drogenous Fe-Mn nodules are uncommon
there. A significant Mn flux out of andesitic
pyroclastics undergoing devitrification and
weathering-induced decomposition of pyrox-
enes and amphiboles is also apparent, espe-
306
cially along tropical shores. It is megascopi-
cally marked by Mn oxides filling fractures,
coat grains and sometimes cement detritus.
Andesite-dominated associations hosting
Mn deposits of the "Cuban type" (Mosier and
Page, 1988 ) formed in and near evolutionarily
mature volcanic island arcs, comparable with
much of the present Melanesian arc as in Van-
uatu (Mitchell, 1970). In the Appendix, this
association is represented by 23 localities
(6.97%) and 16,477,000 t Mn (0.9%).
The setting of basinal associations domi-
nated by sedimentary rocks where mafic or bi-
modal volcanics are in minority is more con-
troversial. The most frequently quoted basins
of deposition are marginal, back-arc and inter-
arc basins (Mitchell and Reading, 1986).
Many authors resort to "rifts" having in mind
the Red Sea as the most outstanding Recent
model, especially as far as active metallogene-
sis is concerned (Degens and Ross, 1969).
Rifting, although usually of lesser order of
magnitude, however, controls many basins in
the arc/back-arc systems and is a component
of the Wilson Cycle that initiates new conti-
nental margins, some of which ultimately
evolve into island arcs. Recently, much new
data have resulted from a study of the Lau and
North Fiji back-arc basins (Von Stackelberg et
al., 1990). There, black and white smokers ac-
tively accumulate Fe, Zn, Cu and Pb sulphides
with barite and high Au values (Charlou et al.,
1990; Fouquet et al., 1991 ). Mn oxides accu-
mulate as crusts at the top or next to the sul-
phide orebodies. It was not, however, consid-
ered practical to establish a category of rifts in
order to accomodate several ancient Mn accu-
mulations, some of them in high-grade meta-
morphics (e.g., Broken Hill, N.S.W.; Gams-
berg and Aggeneys, R.S.A. ) only because a rift
context has been suggested in the literature
(e.g., Sawkins, 1982 ). The original lithologies
have been much modified by several phases of
deformation, metamorphism and metasoma-
tism. The small Quaternary En Kafala deposit
in the Afar Rift (Bonatti et al., 1972) is one of
P.LAZNICKA
the few examples, the rift setting of which is
still in evidence.
Continental margins in which the volcanic
members are dominantly mafic are repre-
sented in the Appendix by 19 localities
(5.76%) and 49,878,000 t Mn (0.28%). The
bimodal association has 19 localities (5.76%)
and 115,974,000 t Mn (0.65%).
Moderately to high-grade metamorphosed
associations are particularly difficult to place
into a plausible depositional setting. Those
where gondites (i.e., spessartite metaquartz-
ires) are the dominant carrier of non-super-
gene Mn, probably correspond to metamor-
phosed siliceous ("cherty") exhalative or
hydrothermal-metasomatic (jasperoid) Mn
ores in sediments, associated with mafic or bi-
modal volcanics of the margins. The Appendix
lists 27 gondite localities (8.2%), with
108,305,000 t Mn (0.60%). 17 localities
(5.15%), representing 193,515,000 t Mn
(1.12%) in high-grade meta-sediments and
meta-volcanics, are marked by prominent
marbles and calc-silicate rocks. 21 localities
(6.36%) and 45,466,000 t Mn (0.25%) are in
or near metamorphosed volcanic-associated
banded iron formations. Altogether, setting 3a
is represented by 127 localities ( 3 8 . 5 % ) a n d
529,635,000 t Mn (2.96%).
( 3b ) Passive ("Atlantic-type") continental
margins and epicontinantal seas. This is the
principal repository of ore Mn in ancient de-
posits, most of which has been likely derived
from land. There is not enough information
available to subdivide the dominantly shal-
low-water Mn-bearing sediments by paleo-
geography. The Appendix lists estimated Mn
contents of several Mn-rich horizons that are
not yet economic deposits. Because they are
supergiant accumulations (Molango Horizon:
1 . 5 X 10 9 t Mn; Moanda Horizon, 6.5X 10 9 t
Mn; Rapid Creek Fe-Mn Horizon, 1.16 X 109
t Mn), they influence to a considerable degree
the statistical conclusions reached. To mini-
mize the possible side-effects, all conclusions
based on data sets that include these super-
MANGANESE DEPOSITS IN THE GLOBAL LITHOGENETIC SYSTEM: QUANTITATIVE APPROACH
giants are presented in two altematives:( 1 ) the
supergiants included, and (2) the supergiants
excluded.
Mn deposits hosted by mixed sedimentary
associations (usually slate or marl, impure
carbonate, arenite) are represented by 22 lo-
calities (6.7%) with 2,516,622,000 t Mn
(14.07%). Associations dominated by shales,
slates to low-grade schists have 13 localities
(3.9%) with 42,019,000 t Mn (0.23%). Ores
in distinctly carbonaceous ("black") pelites
have 12 localities (11 without the Moanda
Horizon), i.e., 3.6% (3.3%) and 6,789,110,000
(289,110,000) t Mn. This represents 37.93
( 3.36 )% of ore Mn. The carbonate-dominated
lithofacies hosts 34 localities (33 without Mo-
lango Horizon), i.e. 10.3(10.0)% and con-
tains 1,998,658,000 t Mn (498,658,000 t Mn),
i.e., 11.17(5.8)%.
Units closely affiliated to banded iron for-
mations account for 14 localities (4.2%) and
4,622,294,000 t Mn (25.8% or 53.8% without
the supergiant horizons), the greatest single Mn
accumulation being the Kalahari Field. Three
major Mn accumulations associated with Me-
sozoic and Cainozoic ironstones have
1,225,075,000 t Mn (6.84%). When the Rapid
Creek Horizon is excluded, the Mn tonnage will
drop to 62,575,000 t Mn (0.73%). Medium to
high-grade metamorphosed metasediments
have 14 entries (4.2%) and 62,319,000 t Mn
(0.35%).
The 3b environment represents 98 non- to
slightly metamorphosed localities (29.7%)
with 17,193,778,000 t Mn (96%) or, if the su-
pergiant horizons are excluded, this figure
would decrease to 8,031,278,000 t Mn
(93.44%). When the metasedimentary equiv-
alents are added (14 localities, 62,319,000 t
Mn), the enlarged 3b category will have 112
(109) localities with 17,256,097,000 t Mn
(96.4%), or 8,093,597,000 t Mn (94.17%). A
set of nine polygenetic localities in which shal-
low marine carbonates have been hydrother-
mally replaced by Mn minerals, contains
18,652,000 t Mn and is treated below.
307
(4a) Continental subaerial, volcanic and
volcanic-sedimentary setting. Manifestations
of widespread Mn migration are common in
areas of subaerial volcanism, but mineable Mn
accumulations are restricted to three or four
major styles and settings. In the volcanics
themselves, Mn deposits form bedded, pene-
concordant to discordant bodies usually ac-
companied by silicification. Seven localities
(2.12%) contain 6,653,000 t Mn (0.04%).
Subvolcanic veins are listed under 4c because
they are intracrustal, have 19 localities and
6,019,000 t Mn (0.035%). Mn gangue min-
erals are common at most epithermal deposits
but they are not recovered, so published ton-
nages are not available.
Outside volcanic piles, Mn accumulates in
volcanic sediments. The coarser sediments
(conglomerates, arenites) are largely in arid
alluvial fans. There, four recorded localities
contain 1,182,000 t Mn (0.007%). The fine
and diagenetically argillized volcaniclastics
sometimes hosting concordant to peneconcor-
dant types of Mn oxides usually accumulate in
playa lakes. Eight localities (2.42%) with
9,248,000 t Mn (0.052%) are recorded.
(4b) Continental subaerial nonvolcanic en-
vironments. The most efficient agent of suba-
erial Mn accumulation is weathering and the
most common setting of subaerial Mn deposits
are deep weathering crusts. Only two (0.6%)
localities of Mn concentrated out of a geo-
chemically presumably neutral background are
included in Appendix; they are credited with
60,000 t Mn (0.0003%). 143 localities
(43.3%) are weathering-modified to com-
pletely reconstituted earlier deposits the ma-
jority of which would not be economically vi-
able at present in their original ("primary")
state. Supergene, weathering-related deposits
and also Mn precipitates in bogs (four locali-
ties, 255,000 t Mn) have been discussed ear-
lier. Mn deposits in ancient continental coarse
clastics are infrequent and only three localities
( 1% ) with 4,730,000 t Mn (0.043%) are listed.
(4c) Intracrustal continental setting. Mn
308
ores emplaced in the continental subsurface
include rare magmatogene orebodies in the
form of manganiferous carbonatites (two lo-
calities, 410,000 t Mn; 0.0023%), the rest being
hydrothermal veins and replacements.
In addition to epithermal Mn veins in or near
subaerial volcanic piles discussed earlier, two
additional "vein facies" can be recognized: (a)
dominantly "mesothermal" Mn or Zn, Pb, Mn
veins coeval with or shortly postdating em-
placement ofgranitoids; (b) epithermal Mn or
Mn-bearing quartz, calcite, siderite, fluorite, or
barite veins unrelated in time to granitoids or
widespread continental volcanics and usually
attributed to tectonomagmatic activation of
cratons. The (a) veins have five major locali-
ties ( 1.51% ) and 19,030,000 t Mn ( 0.1% ). The
(b) veins have seven localities (2.12%) and
13,132,000 t Mn (0.07%). Hydrothermal Mn
replacements in carbonates at or near grani-
toid contacts have ten localities (3%) and
19,152,000 t Mn (0.11%).
Lithologic associations and host rocks
Lithologic associations and host rocks are
pillars of empirical metallogeny (Laznicka,
1985a), a trend in metallogeny that empha-
sizes objectively observable features. A lithol-
ogic association is a broader entity than a host
rock. The former includes a distinct, geologi-
cally repetitive set of rocks (e.g., serpentinite,
metabasalt, chert or jasper, shale/graywacke,
i.e., ophiolite association). Frequently, ores as
"rare rocks" are an integral part of a lithologic
association. Small, bedded to peneconcordant
Mn deposits are repetitively situated in an
ophiolite suite, although they can be actually
hosted by various member rocks. Some types
oforebodies (e.g., hydrothermal veins) are ge-
netically related to a distinct parental lithol-
ogic association (e.g., granodiorite-quartz
monzonite), but rarely hosted by it.
The term "host rock" is reserved for the rock
that actually contains the ore substance or bor-
ders the orebody. Some host rocks are con-
P. LAZNICKA
fined to distinct lithologic associations but
others are not; shale, for example, is very cos-
mopolitan and is a member of many contrast-
ing lithologic associations.
The existing classification of lithologic as-
sociations is quite subjective and has been most
thoroughly done in the former USSR (Kuznet-
sov, 1964; Kharkevich, ! 968). Industrial Mn
accumulations have, so far, been found in less
than 25% of established lithologic associations
and are quantified below. In this section, as be-
fore, supergene modified deposits are consid-
ered as post-depositional modifications and
their Mn content assigned to their "primary"
parental ore types. Table 5 lists and Fig. 13
shows the Mn-hosting lithologic associations
and their ore Mn endowment. Table 5 ex-
cludes the presently uneconomic supergiant
accumulations. Figure 14 shows the partition
of the world's manganese in ore into major
lithologic groups.
W: Weathering crusts association
Only two varieties/ore types have been
quantified: (a) metalliferous laterites inde-
pendent of Mn-ore progenitors, already dis-
cussed before; and (b) Mn-oxide infiltrations,
stockworks and replacements in fractured or
porous silicate rocks, flooring decomposed
manganiferous rocks (e.g., Cedar Valley, Vir-
ginia and other deposits in the Oriskany Sand-
stone; Monroe, 1942; four localities, 83,000 t
Mn). The rate of supergene modification of
original ores is listed in column "SUPE" in the
Appendix and quantified later.
C: Subaerially deposited, non-volcanic
associations
Although mineralogical quantities of Mn ox-
ides are much in evidence in ancient subaerial
and freshwater associations, only few signifi-
cant Mn accumulations have formed. In detri-
tal arid continental suites, Mn accumulations
(e.g., Dzhezda, Kazakhstan; Rundkvist, 1978 )
MANGANESEDEPOSITSIN THE GLOBALLITHOGENETICSYSTEM:QUANTITATIVEAPPROACH 309

TABLE 5

Global Mn content in lithologic groups, II; Mn deposits only

Category No. of Tonnes Mn %

localities

W weathering-related 6 143,000 0.0017

C subaerial, nonvolc., depos. 9 6,431,000 0.075
A subaerial volc.-sedimentary 14 10,820,000 0.126
St marine sedim.-terrigenous 39 2,593,820,000 30.16
Sc marine sedim.-carbonate 38 504,707,000 5.87
Sx marine sedim.-chemical 13 4,961,618,000 57.70
VS marine volc.-sedimentary 63 172,082,000 2.00
MS metamorphosed-sediment. 26 76,971,000 0.89
MVS metam, volc.-sedim. 62 207,037,000 2.41
I int racrustals 51 61,329,000 0.71

Total 321 8,594,815,000 100.00

are most common as infiltrations in basal con-
glomerates and coarse sandstones resting un-
conformably on regolithic volcanic or crystal-
line basement. At some occurrences, fracture-
filling Mn-oxide stockworks formed in base-
ment rocks unconformably underlying pene-
concordant layers of Mn-mineralized detrital
sediments ("unconformity Mn" type; e.g., low-
grade Mn oxides associated with Cu silicates
and sulphates in the Exotica deposit, Chuqui-
camata, Chile; Roethe, 1975 ).
In the "red beds" association, concretionary
to bedded Mn oxides tend to accumulate in
claystone/mudstone horizons (e.g., Bron-
khorstfontein-Baden in Transvaal; Hammer-
beck and Taljaardt, 1976), especially in the
reduced (green, gray) intervals. Mn accumu-
lations in contemporaneous bogs and lakes, al-
ready discussed, have few ancient counter-
parts. Pelosiderite nodules and lenses common
under coal seams tend to have only clarke to
slightly supraclarke contents.
A, AS, SA: Subaerial volcanic and volcanic-
sedimentary association
Mn in subaerial volcanics is released, trans-
ported and deposited by fumarolic activity
during cooling (Zies, 1929); by volcanic alia-
genesis (mostly devitrification); by weather-
ing; and by hydrothermal/hot spring activity.
Mn minerals accumulate in fractures, pores
and breccia zones in volcanics and pyroclastics
and in "lake beds". Peneconcordant sheets and
lenses of Mn oxides, often associated with sili-
cification, occur in felsic tufts (Lucifer, Mex-
ico; Trask and Rodriguez, 1946); in and at
contacts of conglomerate to coarse arenite ho-
rizons (Sos Aghedos, Sardinia; Guerin, 1979;
partly Tiouine, Morocco; Bouladon and Jour-
avsky, 1955); and in zeolitized and argillized
lake-floor volcaniclastics sometimes inter-
mixed and interlayered with chemical precipi-
tates from hot springs (Artillery Mountains
and Lake Mead, Arizona; Lasky and Webber,
1949; San Francisco-Autlan, Mexico; Zantop,
1978; Golconda, Nevada; Kerr, 1940 ). The as-
sociated volcanics mostly belong to the "An-
dean" calcalkaline series ranging from basalts
to rhyolites. Andesites are dominant in AS2,
rhyolites in AS3 sub-associations. Alkali ba-
salts, trachytes and volcanics with feldspa-
thoids are rarely mineralized (e.g., trachyte at
Sos Aghedos; Guerin, 1979 ).
S: Marine sedimentary, nonvolcanic
association
This association hosts the bulk of the terres-
trial ore Mn resources. It has been subdivided
310 P. LAZNICKA

W WEATHERING-RELATED
Wt tropical prof W k:kars t Wg:gossans Wi :infiltrations

IF*"t'~''/z~x F )¢ ~ XI

C SUBAERIAL DEPOSITS (NON-VOLCANIC)

C 1:basal beds C2:red beds C5:bo,qs C6:lakes

:':" " ":'": i: !":" ': ~"T': "'" ::~i :""

[ "~.
~ ... . .o Cg1~".~
I.o
px o - ~ = c ,

A,AS,SA SUBAERIAL VOLCANIC, VOLCANIC-SEDIMENTARY

Ibasalts 2:andesite,sequen. 3:felsic volcanics 4:spring sedim.

½7. r.*.~ . . . . . . *..%-~,gI

',';L MARINE SEDIMENTARY (NON-VOLCANIC), terrigenous, detrltal

quartz-arenite 2 flysch lltharenl-- 3:monotonous 4:fine black
detritals
. . . . . ,;.

(a), ""'":~"

Fig. 13. Graphic approximation of the Mn-hosting lithologic associations as listed in the Appendix and discussed in the
text. Lithologic codes are explained in legend to the Appendix.

by lithology into terrigenous (St), carbonate riphery from Varna in Bulgaria through Niko-
(Sc), and chemical (Sx) sub-associations. pol to the Dzhirula Massif in Georgia (Cau-
Most deposits, however, prefer mixed prove- casus). It is usually headlined as "glauconite
nance associations (e.g., terrigenous-carbon- sandstone-clay" association in the Russian lit-
ate; carbonate-terrigenous-chemical; etc. ) and erature (Strakhov et al., 1968; Varentsov and
Mn orebodies are often located along unit Rakhmanov, 1974). This nearshore transgres-
boundaries and facies changes. This is re- sive sequence rests unconformably on crystal-
flected in many transitional settings of Mn ores line (Nikopol, the Ukraine); metavolcanic
which makes every organization highly (Polunochnoe, Ural Mts.) or carbonate
subjective. (Chiatura, Georgia) basements and com-
St: Dominantly terrigenous detrital associa- prises minor to none basal conglomerate fol-
tion. St l hosts the important Oligocene Mn lowed by sandstone, claystone to mudstone and
province extending along the Black Sea pe- marl. Stratiform Mn-carbonate or -oxide lay-
MANGANESE DEPOSITS IN THE GLOBAL LITHOGENETIC SYSTEM: QUANTITATIVE APPROACH 311

Sc MARINE SEDIMENTARY (NON-VOLCANIC), carbonate

1:bedded 2:disconforrnlty, 3:carbonate-eva- 4:black carbonate ~
carbonates lithol.change porite (arid) shale
Ir~'. 5 5 ¢ 5 ; d,i~
I( / / / I / ( (I
~ kt I1---I 1 l i l '
Pl 1 I i ~ I I I I I/ li I I I I I I
i i ] i i i I ,I I I
I1-1-1-1-1-1- - ~m
--_72-_-2"7--'--, "

rl 1 ~ i I ] ltI-I
LII _l .l .I _1 _ % ' - i

Sx to SVx MARINE SEDIMENTARY>>VOLCANIC, chemTcal (mostly' ,F,'

1:dominant sili- 2:dominant shale- 3:particulate
ceous BIF carbonate BIF ~ronstone

I I ~ II ~ I'I'I'l']lill~

VS, SV MARINE VOLCANIC-SEDIMENTARY, SEDIMENTARY-VOLCANIC

1:full ophiolite VS2a:basalt-chert VS2b:basalt-shale SV2b:distal has--
(shale) (chert) alt-shale (chert)

4-+4-,4-.4--I-+-t-+-I- I

SV2c:basalt- 3 blrnodal 4 a n d e s ] r e , seq ~i f~Is~L

carbonate VS "Rio rlnto cll f f e r e n t i a t e ( i
SV ' A t a s u
~1" 1 ' L ' I " 1L" 'L" | " " ' " ' '
L~ , ' ~ ' I ihl:[ P3 ~7 .......
L~. ~ ~
/ rDy,_, -. ,., - - . , ,-. i

'.-- :~.':,'.-v" : : n-." "'tui

L~bL~~ Khi~_~ ~ 1~ ~

(b) ~ "and -

Fig. 1 3 ( b ) . for caption see p. 310.

ers are usually hosted by marl horizons and served) reflect the original depositional/dia-
there is an unsolved controversy as to whether genetic facies configuration (Frakes and
the coexisting carbonate and oxide intervals as Bolton, 1984), or whether the oxide ore is a
in Nikopol-Tokmak (the Ukraine), Urkut- product of superimposed supergene modifica-
Epleny (Hungary), Groote Eylandt (Aus- tion of the carbonate (compare Pracejus et al.,
tralia; here only carbonate relics are pre- 1988).
312 P. LAZNICKA

M S METAMORPHOSED sedimentary
tc,ct:mixed x:chemical (IF)
U.'/~/~a
• ~-X/////-/~

MVS, MSV METAMORPHOSED VOLCANIC-SEDIMENTARY

2:mafic (schist- 3:bimodal and 3cx:bimodal-marb-
amphibolite) polyvolcanic Ie-BI F LEGEND
ORE I'ln TONNES IN
EACHA__q~'~__IATION
1Q n

7
6
S
4
3
INTRACRUSTAL
m:magmatic h I:hydrotherrnal h2:hydrothermal h3:hydrotharmal
(carbonatitas) plutonic by activation subvolcanic
/g ~ x D~l)~xl
~a I , ~ ..........
y.~Ar~ ~ .. ... .. . .. ... .. . . . .

(c)
Fig. 13(c). For caption see p. 310.

The St2 association includes the infrequent
Mn deposits hosted by terrigenous turbidites
(Ki~ovce-Sv~ibovce, Slovakia; Ilavsk~, 1976)
and the St3 category comprises the monoto-
nous shale or siltstone-dominated epiconti-
nental and shelf suite locally containing minor
sandstone and/or carbonate interbeds (e.g., the
Proterozoic shale-hosted deposits in Bange-
mall Basin, Western Australia; Blockley, 1975;
Cretaceous Pierre Shale at Chamberlain, South
Dakota; Crittenden, 1956) and others.
The St3 group deposits are in dominant black
shale or slate units with minor arenites or im-
pure carbonates, developed most extensively
on the Yangtze and Sino-Korean Platforms of
China (e.g., Taojiang, Tangganshan, Zunyi in
Hunan and Guangxi, Wafangzi in Liaoning; Ye
Lianjun et al., 1988; Fan Delian et al., 1988).
Mn deposits hosted by black shale/slate which
in turn is a member of a higher order glacial-
marine association with diamictites, have been
placed in the St4 class. This includes the
Xiangtan deposit in Hunan, China (Ye Lian-
jun et al., 1988 ) and also the important depos-
its (Urucum, Brazil; Haralyi and Walde, 1986 )
and occurrences (e.g., Snake River, Yukon)
where Mn is a local member of a dominant sil-
iceous iron formation. The latter have been
placed into the class Sx 1.
Sc: Dominantly carbonate associations. Dis-
persed (e.g., in manganoan calcite or dolom-
ite) to scattered (e.g., in discontinuous trains
of nodules) low-grade Mn mineralization is
quite common in carbonate sequences, but it
becomes economic only at sites of substantial
supergene enrichment (Crimora and other
MANGANESE DEPOSITS IN THE GLOBAL LITHOGENETIC SYSTEM: QUANTITATIVE APPROACH
Sc
~thers
2.o~--...
~X ......
la)
Sc
11.4~
)thers
4.4g
Sx ~
69.9~
(b)
Fig. 14. Partition of the global Mn-ore content into lithologic associations (discussed in the text and applied in the Ap-
pendix). (a) Mn deposits; (b) Mn deposits and presently uneconomic large manganiferous horizons.
mines, U.S. Appalachians; Harder and John-
ston, 1910; deposits in the Postmasburg Dis-
trict, South Africa; Grobbelaar and Beukes,
1986). Bedding-conformable massive Mn-ore
horizons are rare (e.g., at Gonzen, Switzer-
land; here the Fe accumulation surpasses Mn;
Epprecht, 1946). The categories Sc2 and Sct2
(with a significant detritral component) in-
clude bedded and peneconcordant Mn ores
most common along intraformational discon-
formities; surfaces of emergence; and carbon-
ate/detrital facies change (Urkfit-Epldny,
Hungary; Cseh-Nemeth et al., 1980), some of
which have been substantially supergene-en-
riched in a paleo- or neokarst (the "Lindener
Mark"-type of Germany; Bottke, 1969 ).
The categories Sc4 + and Sct4 + are "black"
(carbonaceous) counterparts of the former
class and they include the large Molango de-
posit in Mexico (Cannon and Force, 1983 ) and
several deposits in Jurassic pelagic carbonates
313
I 39.4g
1.8Z
MS 49.4%
A 7.0g
C 4.2g
~'S 39.7g
"'-. MS 9 . 8 g
"'"-.. VS 2 1 . 5 g
W,C,A 2.5g
in the Austrian and Bavarian Alps (Lechner
and P16chinger, 1956). Sc3 and Sct3 comprise
Mn deposits in carbonates that are members of
the evaporite-carbonate or carbonate-red beds
facies (Ulutelyak, western Fore-Urals, Russia;
Gribov, 1972; Imini-Tasdremt, Morocco;
Force et al., 1986).
Sx: Dominantly chemical sedimentary asso-
ciation. The world's largest economic Mn-ore
accumulation in the Kalahari (Kuruman)
Field of South Africa is closely associated with
a well-oxygenated lower Proterozoic siliceous
banded iron formation, and so are numerous
additional localities. The Mn carbonate pro-
tore at Moanda, Gabon (Leclerc and Weber,
1980) is, on the other hand, affiliated to sid-
erite-chlorite-pyrite iron formation which is a
member of a carbonaceous terrigenous detrital
association that has received some distal (air-
borne?) input from contemporaneous volca-
nism. The Mn-enriched Dunn Creek Slate, a
314
member of the Riverton Iron Formation in
Michigan (James et al., 1968), is closely
comparable.
No major economic Mn deposits are associ-
ated with Phanerozoic or Proterozoic particu-
late ironstones, but some of them have ele-
vated minor Mn contents (e.g., Kerch
Peninsula ironstones, Russia, 3% Mn; Sokolov
and Grigor'yev, 1974; compare also Kimber-
ley, 1989). Given the large tonnage of iron-
stones in some deposits, substantial resources
of by-product Mn are available. The remote
Cretaceous Rapid Creek Ironstone in northern
Yukon (Young and Robertson, 1984) con-
tains over 1.162xl 09 t Mn in an ore having a
grade of 33% FezO3, 14% P205 and 5% MnO.
V, VS, SV; Marine volcanic-sedimentary as-
sociation. This is what used to be called an
"eugeosynclinal" association: a shallow to deep
marine mixture of subaqueously to subaerially
ejected or extruded, but mostly seafloor-de-
posited lavas, pyroclastics and volcaniclastics.
These are interbedded with and transitional
into terrigenous or reworked earlier volcanic,
carbonate and chemical sediments. The vol-
canics:sediments ratio varies widely from vol-
canics-dominated (V) through volcanic-sedi-
mentary ( V S ) t o sedimentary-volcanic (SV),
and so does the provenance and composition
of volcanics.
If one allows for overlaps and transitions,
several characteristic associations can usually
(but not always!) be distinguished: VS/SV1,
complete ophiolite association; VS/SW2, ba-
salt-dominated association (including incom-
plete supracrustal sections of ophiolites); VS/
SV3, bimodal (mafic-felsic) association; VS/
SV4, andesite-dominated and basalt, andesite,
dacite, rhyolite sequentially differentiated as-
sociation; VS/SV5, felsics-dominated associa-
tion. All the associations contain Mn deposits,
the bulk of which is bedding-conformable in
volcanic sediments, rather than in lavas or vol-
cano-proximal pyroclastics and usually
interpreted as hydrothermal-sedimentary
(exhalational).
P, LAZNICKA
VS/SV1,2: Mafic volcanic-sedimentary
(sub)association. This probably comprises
over 10,000 individual orebodies worldwide,
but all are small to very small (most reserve
figures exceeding about 100,000 t Mn are areal
aggregate tonnages). Stratabound Mn-carbon-
ate, Mn-oxide (braunite, hausmannite) and
Mn-silicate lenses are often strongly tecton-
ized. Only few orebodies are directly in meta-
basalts or in entirely mineralized interflow
sediments (e.g., some of the orebodies in the
Gambatesa Field, Italy; Burckhardt and Fal-
ini, 1956). More Mn bodies are in varicol-
oured cherts or bright orange "jaspers" several
metres to tens of metres stratigraphically above
the basalts (Gambatesa; Tokoro, Japan; Su-
zuki and Ohmachi, 1956). Most of the chert/
jasper-hosted orebodies are in rather monoto-
nous shales tens to thousands of metres above
the volcanics so the volcanic affiliation is often
lost, particularly in tectonically dismembered
sequences (California Coast Ranges, Trask et
al., 1943; Nicoya Peninsula, Costa Rica, Rob-
erts, 1944).
Fe-rich Mn deposits in the sub-association
VS2b are comparable with umbers of the "Cy-
prus type" (Mosier and Page, 1988) and are
in shales or on basalt tops, free of extensive sil-
icification. Several Mn deposits are in pelagic
(Olympic Peninsula, Washington; Sorem and
Gunn, 1967) or reef (En Kafala, Ethiopia;
Bonatti et al., 1972) limestones overlying ba-
salts (sub-association SV2c). Evolutionarily
primitive (Fe,Cu+Zn,Co) "Cyprus-type"
massive sulphide deposits are common in the
same association.
VS/SV3: Bimodal volcanic-sedimentary
(sub)association. There is a close parallelism
in style and affiliation between Mn deposits in
the present and previous (mafic) associations.
An added feature is the frequent coexistence of
chert/jasper-hosted Mn orebodies and evolved
(Fe, Cu, Zn, Pb) massive sulphide deposits in
time and space (Rio Tinto, Spain; Pastor et al.,
1956; Magnitogorsk region, Russia, Varentsov
and Rakhmanov, 1974). A variegated suite of
MANGANESE DEPOSITS IN THE GLOBAL LITHOGENETIC SYSTEM: QUANTITATIVE APPROACH
carbonaceous sediments (black slate, siliceous
limestone, chert, bedded barite and Zn-Pb-
sulphides-bearing rhythmites, banded iron
formation ) interpreted as a distal facies of the
submarine spilite-keratophyre association, host
several bedded braunite-hausmannite deposits
in the Atasu District of Kazakhstan (Boru-
kayev and Shcherba, 1968 ). Manganoan iron-
stones (siderite and hematite) at VareL Bos-
nia (Cissarz, 1957) and Erzberg, Austria (Hrll
and Maucher, 1976) are in carbonates strati-
graphically above bimodal volcanics.
VS/SV4: Andesite and sequentially differ-
entiated basalt-andesite-dacite-rhyolite vol-
canic-sedimentary association. This is a stan-
dard association of volcanic island arcs (see
above). Out of the 24 recorded localities largely
corresponding to the Cuban type of Mosier and
Page (1988) and representing 15,836,000 t
Mn, 21 localities are younger than Cretaceous.
The majority of Mn deposits is dominated by
braunite forming lenses and discontinuous
bedding-conformable sheets in andesite tuff
and tuff breccia (El Cristo, Cuba; Simons and
Straczek, 1958 ); in volcanic arenite (Talcuna,
Romero, Corral Quemado, Arrayan and other
deposits, Coquimbo District, Chile; Ruiz et al.,
1965); in limestone interbeds (Charco Re-
dondo, Cuba; Simons and Straczek, 1958 ); in
argillized volcaniclastics above conglomerate
horizons (Santa Rosalia, Mexico; Wilson and
Rocha, 1956a) and along various lithologic
contacts.
VS/SV5: Felsic-dominated volcanic-sedi-
mentary association. The Durnovsk Mn de-
posit in the Salair Range, Siberia (Varentsov
and Rakhmanov, 1974) is the only well-de-
scribed low-grade metamorphosed representa-
tive of this category. There, peneconcordant
braunite lenses enveloped by jasper are hosted
by Cambrian limestone and rhyolite.
M: Metamorphosed deposits
It is generally assumed that metamorphism
is not an ore-forming process creating new Mn
315
accumulation out of a "normal" Mn back-
ground (Roy, 1981 ), and that bedding/schis-
tosity conformable Mn orebodies with
metamorphic mineral assemblages are meta-
morphosed supracrustal equivalents of the
types described above. The metamorphosed
rock associations, however, have a much lesser
degree of petrogenetic resolution because of the
compositional and textural convergence of
previously very different lithologies into uni-
form metamorphic equivalents (e.g., basalts,
andesites as flows, tuffs and volcaniclastics;
diabases and gabbros; some Fe-rich marls, all
become amphibolites). This makes discrimi-
nation difficult and although both metasedi-
mentary (MS) and metavolcanic-metasedi-
mentary (MVS) categories have been
distinguished here, the accuracy of locality as-
signments is rather low. Metamorphosed de-
posits comprise 88 localities (27.4%) with
284,008,000 t Mn (3.30%).
MS" Metasedimentary association. This as-
sociation includes the metamorphosed coun-
terparts of all sub-associations included in the
S category. The monotonous terrigenous shale-
sandstone (or chert) assemblage now consists
of quartz-feldspar-mica schist and quartzite
(MSt). Most example localities are in the Sau-
sar Group of central India (Roy, 1981 ). MtSt
includes five localities (863,000 t Mn ) of ther-
mally metamorphosed Mn ores at granitoid
contacts. MSc and MSct includes marble, calc-
silicate and marble-schist (gneiss) host assem-
blages and MSx, Mstx has Mn ores associated
with metamorphosed banded iron formations
of the "Superior type" (Quadril~itero Ferri-
fero, Brazil, e.g., Miguel Burnier; Barcelos and
Buchi, 1986; Otjosondu, Namibia; Roper,
1956).
MVS: Metamorphosed volcanic-sedimen-
tary association. The presence ofamphibolites
interpreted as mafic to intermediate metavol-
canics has been considered as the most impor-
tant piece of evidence for membership in this
category. The schistosity-conformable orebod-
ies composed of spessartite quartzite (gondite;
316
a Mn-metachert?), Mn silicates (rhodonite,
Mn-amphiboles, piedmontite) and/or Mn
carbonate/Mn-silicate marble (queluzite) or
braunite, hausmannite, jacobsite, etc., are,
however, hosted by schists to gneisses and
quartzites (MVS2, e.g., Ti6re, Burkina Faso;
Servant, 1956); by graphitic schists/gneisses
(MVS2+, e.g., Cons. Lafaiete, Brazil; Dorr et
al., 1956; Nsuta, Ghana; Perseil and Grandin,
1978) or by "Algoma-type" iron formations
(North Kanara, India; Roy, 1981 ).
Felsic volcanics in high-grade metamorphic
terranes (MVS3, MVS3tx, MVS3Cx) are
much more difficult to discriminate from meta-
arkoses, meta-granites and equivalent alumi-
nous rocks but the Swedish "leptites" have
been so interpreted for almost a century. In the
Bergslagen Province of central Sweden (Grip,
1978), leptites, amphibolites, graphitic and
mica schist, quartzites and marbles host nu-
merous manganiferous horizons transitional
into iron formations (e.g., L~mgban) or into
Zn, Pb, Cu sulphides (Stollberg; Grip, 1978).
The great Broken Hill, N.S.W., orebody
(Hawkins, 1968) and the Aggeneys and
Gamsberg Fields of South Africa (Hammer-
beck and Taljaardt, 1976) also represent ma-
jor Mn accumulations in probably bimodal
volcanic-sedimentary associations. The Mn is,
however, not recovered and accurate resource
figures are not available.
I: Intrusive magmatic rocks and
hydrothermalites
With the exception of two Mn accumula-
tions in magmatic carbonatites, the remaining
50 localities representing 61,329,000 t Mn are
hydrothermal veins, stockworks and replace-
ments subdivided into three sub-associations.
Ihl includes plutonic hydrothermal orebodies
affiliated to postmagmatic activity of grani-
toids. In virtually all the deposits, Mn is asso-
ciated with Pb, Zn, Ag ores (Coeur d'Alene,
Idaho; Fryklund, 1964; Pfibram, Czechoslo-
vakia; Kutina, 1963) and has not been re-
P.LAZNICKA
covered, so the tonnage statistics are incom-
plete. Elsewhere, significant Mn has been
produced from veins (Butte, Montana; Meyer
et al., 1968) or replacements (Philipsburg,
Montana; Goddard, 1940; Pioche, Nevada;
Bodenlos and Thayer, 1973), most often from
gossan oxides.
Mn-bearing veins attributed to tectonomag-
matic activation, most often in the vicinity of
grabens and rifts (Ih2), are hosted by a variety
of rocks of the stable basement (Roman6che,
France; Lougnon, 1956; veins in southern
Sweden, e.g., Spexeryd; Grip, 1978; partly the
Siegerland-Wied District, Germany; Walther,
1986). By far the greatest number of hydro-
thermal veins are members of the subvolcanic-
epithermal category (Ih3v) hosted by terres-
trial felsic to intermediate volcanic piles or
older basements. In some veins, Mn has been
a by-product of Ag-Au, Pb-Zn or Cu mining
or an unrecovered gangue (Farellon Negro,
Argentina; Tezon and De la Iglesia, 1956).
Elsewhere, Mn has been the only commodity
produced (several veins in Southern Hok-
kaido, e.g., Inakuraishi; Kaneko, 1956; Luis
Lopez, New Mexico; Jicha, 1956).
Host rocks
Table 6 ranks by frequency the rocks ac-
tually and immediately hosting Mn orebodies.
It should be realized that Mn ores can be hosted
by more than one rock type at a single locality
and that the petrographic terms listed in the
literature are often subjective and thus inac-
curate. Not included are products of supergene
modification (laterite, rubble, residual clays);
tectonized rocks (e.g., fault breccias); hydro-
thermal vein fillings and alteration products;
and the Mn orebodies themselves. In some
cases (e.g., chert/jasper), it is impossible to
determine whether "primary", chemical or
volcanichemical rocks are involved or whether
the material is a product of alteration
(silicification).
The frequency of hosting does not necessar-
MANGANESE DEPOSITS IN THE GLOBAL LITHOGENETIC SYSTEM:QUANTITATIVEAPPROACH 317

TABLE 6 culations are based on slightly modified rock

Ranked frequency of Mn deposits hosted by the various rocks
and terrestrial unit volumes quoted in Ronov
(based on localities listed in appendix) (Note: One locality ( 1983 ), and Ronov and Yaroshevsky ( 1969);
can have more than one host; host rocks resulting from super- on mean trace Mn contents derived from Fig.
gene and tectonic modification are not included )
9; and on data on the global population of Mn
chert-jasper 79 skarn 8 deposits assembled in the Appendix.
limestone 50 granite, qtz. monz. 7 In the context of the whole Earth credited
arenite, volcaren. 45 queluzite 6 with 5,983x 1015 t of manganese, the bulk of
shale, mudstone 37 gneiss 5
banded iron form. 35 claystone 5 Mn (4,016X 1015 t Mn or 67.13%) is in the
gondite 33 arkose 5 mantle. The Earth's core, despite its large mass
marble 27 siltstone 5 and high concentration of heavy metals, is be-
schist 23 ironstone 5
rhyolite tuff 21 contact hornfels 4 lieved to contain only sub-clarke concentra-
dolomite 21 phyllite 4 tion of Mn ( 16 ppm Mn? ) in its metallic phase,
tuff 19 graphitic schist, gn. 4 although higher trace Mn contents are be-
conglomerate 17 amphibolite 3
slate 16 carbonatite 2
lieved to be present in the silicate phase. These
marl 16 trachyte 2 estimates are based on information derived
quartzite 15 dacite 2 from iron meteorites (Mason, 1979). In Fig.
andesite tuff, aggl. 14 calc-silicate rock 2 14, the core is shown to contain 1,936X 1015 t
black shale 14 porphyry 2
black slate 12 syenite 1 Mn, or 32.36% of the entire Earth.
andesite 11 keratophyre tuff 1 The Earth's crust, credited with the content
basalt 10 diabase 1 of 30.34X 1015 t Mn, stores just 0.51% of the
black limestone 8
terrestrial manganese, although it hosts all the
presently known (and all the currently antici-
ily reflect on an economic potential of a cer- pated) Mn ore deposits. The crust contains
tain single rock type because some rock types 0.76% of the manganese mass in the mantle. If
that host numerous small insignificant depos- the crust was indeed generated entirely from
its could be unrepresented at giant deposits that the mantle, representing 0.47% of its mass
have the greatest economic impact on the (Taylor and McLennan, 1985), then there is
global Mn economy. In spite of limitations, clearly a Mn excess in the crust. The cause is
however, the ranking once more confirms the unknown; possibly an inaccuracy of the exist-
leading role of the marine-sedimentary associ- ing geochemical data, or cumulative addition
ation as a host to Mn ores and the importance of cosmic Mn.
of Mn precipitation from aqueous solutions; Figures 15 and 16 show the distribution of
this is reflected in the abundance of chemo- Mn in the crustal divisions, as outlined by
gene products such as chert, banded iron for- Ronov and Yaroshevsky ( 1969 ). The greatest
mation and gondite. Some of the rocks listed reservoir of trace Mn (1.33X10 L6 t Mn;
(granitoids, porphyry, diabase) are accidental 43.7%) is in the metamorphosed mafics of the
hosts, merely intersected by genetically unre- lower continental crust (or "basaltic crust"),
lated hydrothermal veins. followed by the oceanic crust (seismic layer 3;
8.45X 1015 t Mn, 27.83%) and the upper con-
Mass distribution of manganese tinental ("granitic") crust (5.94× 1015 t Mn;
19.57%). The "sedimentary-volcanic shell",
The mass distribution of trace Mn in the collectively, contains 2.7X 1015 t of trace Mn
whole Earth, in divisions of the Earth's crust (8.9%) and it carries the bulk of Mn ore de-
and in various rocks and lithologic associa- posits. The Mn content of the hydrosphere is
tions has been calculated (Table 7). The cal- negligible in the overall balance.
318 P. LAZNICKA

TABLE 7

Trace Mn stored in terrestrial rock and material associations

Mass Average Mn Contained Mn

(tonnes × l0 ts ) Content (tonnes X l0 ts )
(%)

Earth's crust 28.46 0.1087 30.34134

Sedimentary (volcanic) shell ~ 2.79 0.096 2.66924
Oceans (layers 1 + 2 ) 0.5 0.22 1.0996
Layer 12 0.19 0.2622 0.4982
terrigenous seds. 0.023 0.256 0.0589
calcareous seds. 0.073 0.147 0.1073
siliceous seds. 0.031 0.108 0.0335
red clay 0.057 0.49 0.2793
basalt 0.006 0.132 0.0192
Layer 2 ("basement") 3 0.310 0.194 0.6014
Shelves, slopes, contin, platf. 0.94 0.04582 0.4307
clays, shales 0.45 0.04 0.180
sand, sandstone 0.21 0.046 0.097
carbonates 0.19 0.046 0.087
evaporites 0.02 0.008 0.0016
silicites 0.001 0.01 ? 0.0001
continental seds. 0.03 0.03 0.009
volcanics 0.04 0.140 0.056
"Geosynclinical" association 1.35 0.0844 1.13894
(meta) sediments 1.060 0.0675 0.71514
sandstone (graywacke) 0.252 0.085 0.2142
shale 0.538 0.06 0.3228
carbonate 0.252 0.07 0.1764
evaporite 0.003 0.008 0.00024
silicites 0.015 0.01 ? 0.0015
(meta)volcanics 4 0.290 0.146 0.4238
basalts 0.145 0.16 0.2320
andesite 0.131 0.14 0.1834
rhyolite 0.014 0.06 0.0084
"Granitic Layer "'5 8.200 0.0724 5.9391
granites 1.484 0.04 0.3858
granodiorite, diorite 1.632 0.08 1.3056
syenite, alkalines 0.025 0.12 0.0300
gabbro 0.303 0.16 0.4212
dunite, peridotite 0.008 0.16 0.0084
gneiss 3.083 0.08 1.8498
crystalline schists 0.738 0.08 0.5904
marble 0.123 0.05 0.0615
amphibolite 0.804 0.16 1.2864
Oceanic Crust (Layer 3-basalt) 6.500 0.13 8.4500
"Sub-continental basaltic layer ''6 11.000 0.15 13.2830
acid magm. and metam. 5.300 0.085 4.5050
basic magm. and metam. 5.700 0.154 8.7780
Hydrosphere 1.4712 1.27 ppb 1.862296 × 109
freshwater 0.0412 7.0 ppb 3.296 × 106
seawater 1.43 1.3 ppb 1.859 X 10 9
Mantle 4016.00 0.115 4,979.840
Core 1936.00 16 ppm? 309.760
Whole Earth 5983.00 0.0889 5,319.94134
Calculated from modified data in Ronov ( 1983 ) and modernized data in Ronov and Yaroshevsky ( 1969 ).
~Unmetamorphosed Q-Pt3 supracrustals.
2Unconsolidated sediments.
3Mostly basalts with some amphibolite, gabbro, diabase, minor ultramafics.
4Proportions of (meta)volcanics in "geosynclinal" belts are after Beus ( 1976 ).
5Upper continental crust; includes all intracrustals, highly metamorphosed Q-Pt3 supraerustals and all Ar-Pt3 supraerustals.
6Lower continental crust.
MANGANESE DEPOSITS IN THE GLOBAL LITHOGENETIC SYSTEM: QUANTITATIVEAPPROACH
TONNES CONTAINED Mn:
Whole Earth 5,982xi015
mantle 4,016xi015
core 1,936xi015
crust 30xlO 15
hydrosphere 1.8628xi09
Fig. 15. Trace manganese stored in "terrestrial shells" as recognized by the Russian school (Ronov and Yaroshevsky,
1969; Ronov, 1983).
Figure 17 shows trace Mn in the crust orga-
nized by dominant host rocks (top) or com-
positional groups (bottom). Among the rocks,
the dominant Mn carrier is amphibolite
(I.006X1016 t Mn, 33.16%) followed by
(meta)basalt (9.36× 1015 t Mn, 30.85%) and
gneiss (6.355 × 1015 t Mn, 20.95%). Among the
compositional groups, mafics (basalts, gab-
bros, amphibolites) are the dominant Mn res-
ervoirs ( 1.984× 1016 t Mn, 65.4%) followed by
(meta)sediments (2.866X 1015 t Mn, 9.45%).
Table 8 and Fig. 18 show tonnage/concen-
tration (grade) relationships of manganese re-
siding in crustal ores, rocks and waters. The
bars representing Mn tonnages have been
erected on the basis of a large published data
population and they can be interpreted in two
different ways.
( 1 ) Provided that the published data are at
least broadly representative of the actual dis-
tribution of Mn concentrations in the crust, the
resulting distribution is distinctly tri-modal.
Distribution peaks for Mn in waters, common
rocks and ores are separated by troughs (min-
ima) representing Mn concentration intervals
rare to nonexistent in the nature. Bimodal
grade/tonnage distribution has been recog-
nized by Skinner (1976) as characteristic for
"geochemically scarce metals"; manganese ap-
pears to be transitional between the geochem-
319
crust 0.51%
ically abundant (Fe, A1, Ti) and geochemi-
cally scarce metals. Skinner interpreted the
"ores" mode as representative of metal accu-
mulations in which the scarce elements are
present in compounds of their own (that is, in
our case, as manganese minerals such as
braunite, rhodochrosite, pyrolusite, etc.) in
contrast to the "rock" mode in which the ele-
ments are present as atomic substitutes in sili-
cate minerals. The gap between both modes is
called "mineralogical barrier".
This interpretation seems to be well appli-
cable to Mn. In igneous and metamorphic rocks
at least, the bulk of Mn is in Fe-Mg silicates,
in magnetite and in ilmenite, diadochically
substituting for Fe and Mg in crystal lattices.
The "mineralogical barrier" of Mn is more
gradational than is the case with Cu, Zn, Pb
and most remaining base, rare and precious
metals. This can be attributed to the ability of
Mn to form extensive series of isomorphic
mixing in carbonates. Carbonates, in turn, are
ubiquitous in sedimentary and hydrother-
mally altered rocks in quantities ranging from
accessories through minor constituents (e.g.,
cements) to major constituents.
(2) If the literature data used for construc-
tion of Fig. 18 are biased by a non-uniform
sample selection (e.g., "ore data" generated by
economic geologists; "rock data" produced by
320 P. LAZNICKA

1017- 1.33
5.94 8.45
1016- 1.14
5.01
i0i5 4.98 4.31

I01F

o
z 1012-::

i0 IT
2
= 101

106 1 2 3 4÷5 6 7 8 9 10

fresh water
1 ~ n t a l platform

[ ' ~ i : )f :i•.'.:-..:i:,:::-..
-. :.:.:..>:
' i - .,....-v
' /i:.,..
l,o,p
-.<,:..
e.i.:;-,-.
:..seawa
? ;ter
:":"~ . ] '2
: :'.".'~
" ' " " ' " " ' """ '"

8 ":'"~":"-:.:~' Ocean floor sediments

~_~ ("GRANITIC") ~ o~eani c/~,basement,,- - ]

~ / OCEANICCRUST 10

Fig. 16. Trace manganese stored in subdivisions of the Earth's crust and the hydrosphere.

petrochemists concentrating on "most nor- Influence of the undiscovered Mn ores

mal" rocks), than the gaps between the three
modes could be apparent, rather than real.
They could simply represent grade intervals
situated in the "gray zone" between disci-
plines, that just have not been sampled and re-
ported (i.e., "gaps of ignorance"). If so, the
distribution shown is incomplete and can be
interpreted in many ways, perhaps as a log-
normal pattern, as advocated for several other
metals. My personal preference is for alterna-
tive ( 1 ).
All the presently known Mn ore fields and
districts have been discovered in surficial ex-
posures, although the subsequent exploration
followed the outcrop to depth and, in rare in-
stances, discovered completely blind orebod-
ies. Out of the 330 localities listed in the Ap-
pendix, about 41% have been (or would
probably be, if mined) dominantly open pit
operations and about 59% have been mostly
underground operations. Even so, more than
90% of the deposits occur in depths of less than
 K
>
z
o>
z
D~

GROUPING #i
oceanic sediments r,2///Y/////////////////////Y///////////z",4 4.9 7 -4
-r
shale/clay (terrigenous, mature) K///////////////////////////////////////~ 5.028 t-o
sandstone (terrigenous, quartz-rich) K/////////////////////////////,I i.o6 to"
l i t h a r e n i t e (graywacke) V/////////////////////////////////J 2.142 ©
carbonates V/////////////////////////////////A 2. 634 >
evaporites 1.84 t-*
s i l i c i t e s (chert) ~ 1.6
basalt ,-r,
andesite ~-//////.//////'///////7///,/'///'/////7////,////_~/J~._/d_/'/~,//z/J'/',.~ 9.36 ©
rhyolite V///// /////////////////// / / / / / /,,41.834 0
r / . / , < / / / / / / / / / A 8.4 m
granite ~ / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / I 3.858 z
m
granodiorite, d i o r i t e [/////////////////////////////~/~/~ "~/~/////////~ 1.3056
syenite, a l k a l i n e igneous x////////////////////t 3, oo
gabbro V//////////////////////////////////A 4.212
ultramafics V / 4 / / / / / / / / / M 8.4
gneiss K
c r y s t a l l i n e schists
['//////z//////z//////////'///////////////////////////////~ 6.355
marble l//////////////////////////////////////,~ 5. 904
~//////////////////////~ 6. i 5
amphibolite z
[/ / / / / / / ' / / / / / / / / / ' / / / / / / ' / / ' / / / ' / / / ' / / / ' / / 7 / / / / / / 7 / / / / / / ' / / / / ' / ' . / ~ 1.006
GROUPING #2
,--t
shale, clays, 30% schist, 30% gneiss Ir///////////////////////////////////////////A 2.866 ,.-t
arenite, 20% schist, 20% gneiss V///////////'///////////////,//'//////'/////'//I 1.768
carbonates, marble
evaporites ~//////'/////'/////'//////////////'/////J 3.7 07
V / / , I 1.84
silicites . ~ . . / / . / . / . / _ / _ / _ / / / / ~ / / / / / / / / ~ 3.51
r h y o l i t e , granite, 20% gneiss, 20% schist K////////'/////////~/,//'/,//////,//'///////~/,/////J 1.7 83 ©
syenite, a l k a l i n e igneous >
V/////////////////A 3.0
andesite, d i o r i t e , 30% schist, 30% gneiss K////////////////////////////////////////////d 3. $ 7
basalt, gabbro, amphibolite
ultramafics H/////////////////,/////////~//'//'///////'/////J__~i///'//z//////J 1.984
~'///////////~ 8.4

1012 1013 1014 1015 1016

Fig. 17. Trace M n s t o r e d in crustal r o c k s ( t o n n e s ) .

322 P. LAZNICKA

TABLE 8 nary. Calculations based on physiography in

Distribution of Mn mass residing in the lithosphere and the five greatest Mn producing regions (Kala-
hydrosphere hari, South Africa; Moanda, Gabon; Nikopol,
the Ukraine; Urucum, Brazil; Molango, Mex-
Interval Tonnage
(tonnes) ico) indicate that between 150 and 350% of the
present resources could have been eroded away.
l-l.8 ppb 1.859x IO9
1.8-5.7 ppb
If an average figure of 250% is accepted, the
no data
5.7-10 ppb 0.0033 x 109 total Mn ore content in the near past could have
IO ppb-75 ppm no data been of the order of 42~10~ t Mn. This, incor-
57-100 ppm 0.00184x 10”
100- 180 ppm 0.0016x 10”
porated into Fig. 18, would modify the general
180-310 ppm 0.7588x 10” appearance of the “ore peak” only slightly.
310-570 ppm 3.0093x lOI
570-1000 ppm 6.103x lOI
0.1-O. 18% 11.1362~10’~
0.18-0.31% 0.0589x lOI
Discussion: Mn deposits as part of terrestrial
0.31-0.57% 0.2985x 10” lithogenesis
0.57-l% IO’?
l-1.8% 10.7x lo6
1.8-3.1% 80.477x lo6
3.1-5.7% 1392.843x IO6 Mn accumulation in time
5.7-10% 1599.707x 106
lo-18% 66 19.922 x lo6
18-31% 7051.138x lo6
Several authors (Varentsov, 1964; Roy,
31-57% 1147.806x lo6
57- 100% 76.0x IO3 1989) approximately quantified, graphed and
discussed the distribution of times of Mn de-
posits formation in geological history. The ex-
300 m under the surface and more than 98% of isting exercises are based on incomplete data
the total ore Mn tonnage came from, or is bases and cover all types of Mn deposits as a
known to occur in, less than 300 m depth. This group. Table 9 and Fig. 19 upgrade the earlier
indicates a substantial discovery potential of conclusions and discriminate among deposi-
additional Mn resources, particularly in rocks tional timings of several Mn-ore categories. It
of the “sedimentary (volcanic) shell” of Ronov
is quite clear that the age distribution is
( 1983) which now hosts over 97.24% of the
strongly biased by two giant regional ore Mn
known Mn ores.
anomalies: the lower Proterozoic Kalahari
If the “sedimentary (volcanic) shell” is on
Field of South Africa and the Oligocene South
the average 2,200 m thick, one can expect the
Ukrainian Mn basin, which together account
undiscovered Mn potential to be equal to, or
up to seven times greater than the present for 77% of the global ore Mn.
quantity of Mn in ores, that is 17.4 12x 1O9t Mn. The distribution histogram of all Mn ores
Since the supergene Mn enrichment rapidly (Fig. 20) and of Mn ores subdivided by host
decreases with depth, the Mn grade would be associations (Fig. 2 1) show the dominance of
lower, adding mostly to the three grade popu- the lower Proterozoic age influenced by the
lations between 5.7 and 3 1%. Kalahari. This partly invalidates the earlier lit-
Further speculation about the dimension of erature statements that tended to downplay the
the Mn ore accumulation in the crust would Precambrian Mn metallogenesis in favour of
consider the amounts of ores erosion removed the late Phanerozoic one. The two principal
from existing Mn deposits in the recent past, reasons for this were ( 1) underrepresentation
mostly during the late Tertiary and Quater- of the Kalahari Mn resources, much of which
MANGANESEDEPOSITSIN THE GLOBALLITHOGENET1CSYSTEM:QUANTITATIVEAPPROACH 323

1015~
1014
1013~
.

1012-
m
== I01i

J
1016 •"WATERS
£:3

Z
I09!
108
107-
J
I
106 I
!
I05 !
/I
I
104
103
102
E
13. ~Z. Q . CL. £~. E E ~3. 1:3. ,--4 r-...
o-.~ r~- ,~3- ~ z . i~.. Q - ict_o o o o t3_,-~ r~. ID_ r-., [3- ~.. o-c3 o o o ~--4 . .~--~ ~ P.-. ~

',-'41"~ I I I I 0 O ~ o o ~ r " . - - / I I I C 7 3 0 0 0 , , ~ ¢ 0 ~r-... I

J • • .ooo~r'--.ooo,--~r--. ~ • • • oO.,-..~r'--c:~oo~i'--. . . . . . c:~oo.--~i'--.

Mn CONCENTRATION(GRADE)
Fig. 18. Concentration-tonnagedistributionof manganese in hydrosphericwaters, and rocks and ores of the lithosphere,
based on data in Table 9. The three modes of Mn resident in ores, rocks and waters are clearly visible. (See interpretation
in text.)

have been outlined and publicized in the past assic, Oligocene and Pliocene-Quaternary out
10-15 years only; and (2) treatment of super- of which the Oligocene peak is greater than the
gene modified ores in terms of the age of en- rest by 1.5 orders of magnitude. The ore Mn
richment (usually assumed late Tertiary to age maxima alone are insufficient to deter-
Quaternary) rather than the original ("pri- mine whether we are looking at periods of
mary") Mn accumulation. heightened Mn deposition on the Earth, or
If, however, the tonnage of the ore Mn per whether this is entirely a matter of chance,
one million year of geologic history is calcu- largely influenced by the preservation poten-
lated (Table 10; Fig. 22), the prominence of tial. What is, however, certain, is the tremen-
the late Phanerozoic and especially Oligocene dous local influence that virtually overwhelms
as periods of increased Mn accumulation is the statistics. If the two local giant Mn-miner-
clearly revealed. Four ore Mn maxima of de- alized areas are removed, the Mn accumula-
position are apparent: lower Proterozoic, Jur-
 t~

TABLE 9

Distribution of terrestrial ore manganese in geologic time (based on 305 localities in the Appendix (Giant, presently uneconomic accumulations are
excluded; weathering-modified and metamorphosed deposits are entered by the ages of original (primary) deposition )

Age of deposition All deposits Continental, subaerial Marine Intracrustals

Sedimentary Volcanic-sedimentary

(tonnes×103) (%) (tonnesx103) (%) (tonnesxl03) (%) (tonnesxl03) (%) (tonnesx103) (%)

Archaean 72,994 0.96 9530 0.125 63,464 0.833

LowerProterozoic 4,505,850 59.1 4,439,597 58.18 66,253 0.69
Middle Proterozoic 345,230 4.53 311,159 4.08 34,043 0.45
UpperProterozoic 252,976 3.32 243,027 3.19 9,615 0.126 334 0.004
Cambrian 76,632 1.005 11,367 0.149 65265 0.86
Ordovician 1845 0.024 1620 0.02 225 0.0029
Silurian, Devonian 160,692 2.11 290 0.004 7274 0.095 139,960 1.83 13,168 0.173
Carboniferous 9962 0.131 180 0.0024 1262 0.016 8520 0.112
Permian 3415 0.045 2900 0.038 405 0.0053 110 0.0014
Triassic 24,625 0.323 768 0.01 8326 0.192 15,531 0.2
Jurassic 473,781 6.214 473,253 6.20 356 0.0047 172 0.023
Cretaceous 251,876 3.30 242,480 3.18 8846 0.116 550 0.0072
Palaeocene, Eocene 55,629 0.73 40,400 0.53 3519 0.046 11,710 0.153
Oligocene 1,316,656 17.27 1,311,660 17.21 3844 0.05 1152 0.015
Miocene 5344 0.07 37 0.0005 50 0.0007 977 0.013 4280 0.056
Pliocene, Quaternary 67,301 0.883 667 0.0075 57,000 0.75 9466 0.124 168 0.0022

e-
S
MANGANESE DEPOSITS IN THE GLOBALLITHOGENETIC SYSTEM: QUANTITATIVEAPPROACH 325

, t l l t ~ l ~ l i , t l ; + + ; x t ~ + + l l X tlt++txt+t
I00

90

80

c~
w

U u "~
L~
30 U
N 0 >
0 0 N ~ 0
b
=~ =+ ++

: ~- -a o = . ~ E ~ ~ o o
10
..... ii + +

0 i I III i t 1 1 i ~ I,, , , I , l , I,, , I , , , , IPRESENT

1000 Ha I 0 0 Ma 10 Ma I Ma

LOG GEOLOGICAL TIME

Fig. 19. C u m u l a t i v e d i s t r i b u t i o n of m a n g a n e s e ore in geological time; all M n deposits. (Based on data in Table 10. )

tion per one million year would decrease from the product. The melting under oceanic ridges
five to three orders of magnitude. that produces oceanic lithosphere is better
Giant ore deposits can be eroded away documented in contrast to the hypothetical
quickly. Denudation of 100 m thick slice of melting of a variety of materials along and
presently outcropping rocks, a modest accom- above subduction zones that, somehow, is re-
plishment, could eliminate over 70% of the sponsible for the generation of tholeiitic and
present resources and irreversibly modify the calc-alkaline magmas within the transitional
statistical anomalies. This touches on the and continental crusts (Hughes, 1982).
problem of the credibility of global statistical In the course of the lengthy and polygenetic
exercises in geosciences, a problem recognized history of the crust, a portion of the recent im-
by many writers (e.g., Laznicka, 1973; Veizer mature (that is, compositionally still close to
et al., 1989 ), but never satisfactorily resolved. the parent material, i.e., the mantle ) additions
undergo repeated reworking, recycling and
Evolution of Mn supplies and deposition maturation that convert them into a variety of
rocks that together constitute the continental
In conformity with the prevalent contem- lithosphere. Hence, in any given time in the
porary geotectonic models (Bird, 1980; Pal- geological history following the Proterozoic in-
mason, 1982; Hashimoto and Uyeda, 1983; version (between about 1.5 to 2.0 Ga; Veizer
Reading, 1986), new lithosphere is produced et al., 1989 ), the continental crust consisted of
by partial melting of the mantle, followed by ( 1 ) crustal segments generated in the past div-
separation and near-surface accumulation of isible into ( l a ) "immature" components
326
I00
C)
~c2
u_
I---
Uo
0.
0.C
O.O0
• uuu lira
Fig. 20. Histogram showing distribution of the "primary" depositional ages of all Mn-ore deposits.
(equivalents of oceanic and transitional crusts
remaining compositionally in the state in which
they accreted), and ( l b ) "mature" compo-
nents of converted rocks including intracrustal
gneisses, granitoids and various members of the
"sedimentary shell" (Ronov, 1983). To this
have been periodically added (2) new incre-
ments of "immature" lithosphere, composi-
tionally equivalent to 1a.
In the recent literature on regional geologi-
cal assembly prepared in the spirit of terrane
accretion (e.g., Hoffman, 1989), distinction is
usually made between the "normal" continen-
tal crust modified by multiple reworking epi-
sodes and "juvenile" crust, formed rapidly for
the first time from the mantle, later accreted to
a continent and preserved as such without ma-
jor changes. The global distribution of man-
ganese in ancient deposits is to a considerable
degree governed by the evolution and config-
uration of these crustal megadomains. Most
Mn deposits in marine sediments have formed
during the process of repeated recycling of the
continental crust, as advocated by Veizer et al.
P. LAZNICKA
ALL Mn DEPOSITS n=305
~uu iJu IU i'lO
(1989) and their continuous uninterrupted
production was dependent on attainment of the
steady state; that is development of a mature,
cratonized continental crust. This happened in
several cratonic nuclei close to the Archaean-
Proterozoic transition (2.6-2.4 Ga; e.g., in the
Kaapvaal Craton) and is marked by the earli-
est generation of Mn ores related to cratonic or
embryonal-cratonic associations. Tonnages of
ore Mn deposited per one million year of geo-
logical time (Fig. 22 ) show a relatively steady
state to slight increase in sediment-associated
Mn depositional ages since approximately 2.4
Ga, with some ups and downs that almost cer-
tainly reflect naturally caused statistical gaps
(non-preservation of certain intervals and re-
gions due to drift, denudation, etc. ) rather than
identifiable secular trends. The principal posi-
tive Mn deposition anomalies apparent on Fig.
22 caused by the Kalahari and Southern
Ukraine giants could have special causes dis-
cussed below.
The distribution pattern of Mn deposits af-
filiated to volcanic-sedimentary associations,
 o o
N O~ 0 I

o_ Z
1 0 0 ~ ~-LIBnAEp~AL I MARINESEIDIMENTARY Z
n=108
- -
~J
m

r"
©
>
t"
r-

Z
m
,.-4

m
N
IO0 I i,"AR] NE VOLCAN;C-SED]PENTARY ]NT'RACRUSTAL
l- ,o
n=142 n=41
10 z
w

i I
©

' I
///////,1
//F/,,.~A,A.~A:~//',/././A ' i

/~, : ..// ~,,~"//~

"/,K // " }'///"/A
:. ,:: E ~;Y'2~]
i I i1~ i i i i i ,
}9 ' ]000
LOG GEOLOGICALTIME

Fig. 21. Histogram showing distribution of depositional ages of Mn ores in the major lithologic associations.
328 P. LAZNICKA

TABLE 10

Tonnages of ore Mn per one million year of geological history

Era/Period Ore Mn Duration Ore Mn Per 1 Ma (tonnesX 103)

(tonnes X 103 ) (ma)
All Mn Mn in sediments Mn in volcanics-
sediments

Archaean 72,994 1000 73 9.53 63

Lower Proterozoic 4,505,850 700 6437 6342 95
Middle Proterozoic 354,230 800 443 389 43
Upper Proterozoic 252,976 430 588 565 22
Cambrian 76,632 70 1095 162 932
Ordovician 1845 70 26 23 3.2
Silurian and Devonian 160,692 85 1890 86 1647
Carboniferous 9962 65 153 2.8 19
Permian 3415 55 62 53 7.4
Triassic 24,625 35 704 22 238
Jurassic 473,781 54 8774 8764 6.6
Cretaceous 251,876 71 3548 3415 125
Palaeocene, Eocene 55,629 27 2060 1496 130
Oligocene 1,316,656 12 109,721 109,305 320
Miocene 5344 19 281 2.6 51
Pliocene, Quaternary 67, 301 7 9614 8143 1352

which are here approximately equated with the
segment of "juvenile" to "quasi-juvenile"
crusts also follows from Fig. 22 and from two
cumulative graphs (Fig. 23) that contrast Mn
ores in the marine sedimentary association
(presumed dominated by the "recycled" Mn)
and the volcanic-sedimentary ("geosyn-
clinal") association presumed dominated by
the newly added Mn. It is likely that the ore
Mn was separated from its parent rocks for the
first time since they have left the subcrustal
source area, and set to migrate and accumulate
under very proximal conditions. Mn deposits
that are members of this category include the
oldest Mn accumulations known (exceeding 3
Ga in age). Their presence is steady through-
out the geological history, even slighly increas-
ing with decreasing age (e.g., Pliocene to Qua-
ternary members of this category in Vanuatu:
Forari and Erromango; in Ethiopia, En Kafala,
have been of some economic importance). Al-
though the addition of new juvenile crust to the
lithosphere may have slowed down signifi-
cantly since the "Proterozoic inversion"
(Veizer et al., 198~)), Mn ore deposition in the
newly accreted tracts continues with undimin-
ished intensity, compensating for the Mn ac-
cumulations presumably lost from the ancient
equivalents by continuing erosion.
The "basalt" connection
Basalts and their intrusive and metamor-
phic equivalents have the highest trace Mn
contents (0.13% Mn average ) out of the wide-
spread rocks, and they store the greatest share
of the crustal manganese (1.984x1016 t Mn).
They are also the starting materials for crustal
lithogenesis and, consequently, the amount of
trace Mn in all the basalts added to the crust in
the past should equate the Mn present in the
( l ) remaining preserved mafics; (2) all other
crustal rocks; (3) sea and fresh water; and (4)
Mn ore deposits. Our calculations indicate that
there is some Mn deficiency in the Earth's lith-
osphere and biosphere, despite the continuous
but minor flux of cosmogenic manganese (Ba-
turin, 1988), The missing Mn could be in un-
discovered Mn deposits (unlikely!) or on the
bottom of subduction zones.
MANGANESE DEPOSITS IN THE GLOBAL LITHOGENET1C SYSTEM: QUANTITATIVE APPROACH 329

i i
lO9 1 ALL DEPOSIT TYPES

10 8

10 7

10 6

10 5

I0 4

10 3

LOG GEOLOGICAL AGE

Fig. 22. Tonnages of ore Mn per one m.y. of geological history. Top: all Mn deposits. Bottom: ores in marine sedimentary
and volcanic-sedimentaryassociations.

In oceans, the Mn/basalt connection is tative source ~ product balances are not yet
strikingly demonstrated and extensively dis- available. The deep-sea sediments (0.67% Mn )
cussed in the literature (Toth, 1980; Crerar et are the major oceanic Mn sink, and hydrother-
al., 1980; Rona et al., 1983), although quanti- mal sub-seafloor discharge its dominant sup-
330 P. LAZNICKA

80

70

6C

5C

4C

3C

20

lr
D.I

W
Z

(..9
Z
icj
0
MARINE SEDIMENTARY
ASSOCIATION
DJ
m.- J i I
O
I00

90
Z
(_)
8(

6(
50

40 ,/
f l,-
3O ,4

10 / "
o/ VOLCANIC-SEDIMENTARY
ASSOCIATION
i i i
c~_ ~ ~ J
tm

LOG GEOLOGICAL AGE

Fig. 23. Cumulative graph showing growth of the presently known Mn ore accumulations in geological time.

plier (Lisitsin et al., 1985; Glasby, 1988a). likely proximal and realistic Mn source are the
Sources of the hydrothermal Mn are in the sub- seafloor basalts that have lost Mn to hydro-
seafloor area and difficult to trace. The most thermal leaching by convectively circulating
MANGANESE DEPOSITS IN THE GLOBALLITHOGENETIC SYSTEM:QUANTITATIVEAPPROACH 331

$6 2 ,7 tOL,'~. L.." 97 9899,.,( . . . .154 155 t65°166 246 249 253"254,~

4:..56 2 3.2~3, ,00,0, ~o ,,8.'" 24, 322.2~o
11 12 14 ,15 •8°927 156 157 "o169 170 " , 2 4 ' ,251 2,55
• /.;3 28 ~o3~ ~ :." :: TT*~.=, ~ ~28.',, .2s2
,9.3,
i8 .2o 2,
•
28 2, 3, ,o, : :" , ,~,84
22,222 223 22,2 ,2 2 82"
.228 275
• 106" 162 "~276
39"40 175 21 -229 79 /
188 189 ' 73 177 178 230.23 235 236 237 ,262 263
.49 181
~50 51 52 53 190 191 192 193 186 18(~
23Z 234 241 " " 281
54 , 283
203 "197 2
°198
284
sg-~.a_.
61 62 63 6 4 \
199a
,9. k:2o 5 206 / k528
~ 2 0 7 209210 211 212 c~.~d °
6"o ,5 !66 / ". " 2151217^ 287 ~ . ~ 2 ~ % o
208
\ 77 " ,6168
89-",2,3
/
X
3.
213~ ~ "~/)

..313
m81)22°/
1,8
/ INSET EUROPE
,2, ,28
03
12~96• ( 290~
0289
c

83-
319320
~<
317 318
314

3,s3,, .2~8,a~ j
111
,09,,0
117 124 132

I~
"3~06 307

3 ~
292 293 294

108 138
116 139
120 140 141 142
121 143 144
1 lg 122 123 146

149 150 151

Fig. 24. M a p showing a p p r o x i m a t e location of M n ore locations listed in the Appendix.

heated seawater (Bischoffand Dickson, 1975 ) lacking any direct, visually apparent associa-
or to exhalative loss (Stanton and Ramsay, tion with the source basalt•
1980). Direct supply of Mn in a volatile phase Two significant departures from the oceanic
released from the mantle (Bonatti, 1975) or Mn source-influenced Mn depositional model
produced by Earth degassing (Bostrom, 1973 ) are of possible importance for interpretation of
are theoretical possibilities so far lacking terrestrial Mn accumulations including the
evidence. giant deposits and should be explored. They
Much of the oceanic geochemistry is "con- are: ( 1 ) minor basalt occurrences in lithologic
temporaneous" or at least part of a single, al- associations and complexes of which basalt is
though often prolonged, depositional cycle and not normally a member, so it is rarely invoked
despite anomalous Mn concentrations no ac- and credited with a metallogenetic role; and
tual Mn deposits are forming directly in the (2) basalt or equivalent occurrences that are
basalts. This is in good agreement with the ear- older than, and genetically unrelated to, a lith-
lier presented data showing that only 10% of ogenetic/metallogenetic environment, system
terrestrial Mn deposits are actually hosted by or process ("metallotect") under considera-
basalts and most of these deposits are insignif- tion, to which they could nevertheless be tied
icant. Apparently, basalts act largely as Mn by a source relationship•
source rocks, whereas the Mn flux out of ha- ( 1 ) The first case is exemplified by the giant
salts triggered by a variety of processes accu- Kalahari Field, South Africa (De Villiers,
mulates in adjacent and next-in-line reservoir 1970), hosted by the Hotazel Formation.
rocks or in still another relatively distant hosts, There, thick stratiform Mn oxide/minor car-
332
bonate beds are interbedded with jaspers grad-
ing to banded iron formations. These rocks are
undisputably chemical sediments deposited on
a "distal shelf" (Tankard et al., 1982) or pos-
sibly in a "closed, fresh-water basin" (Jen-
nings, 1986). The Hotazel Formation is class-
ified as a chemical sedimentary unit in a stable
platform setting, yet it is immediately under-
lain by the Ongeluk Lava unit which is a thick,
largely subaqueously emplaced sequence of
basalt-andesite lavas and hyaloclastites. If there
is a genetic relationship between the volcanics
and the overlying chemical sediments and the
Fe, Mn ores as advocated by Beukes (1973),
the Hotazel Formation would then classify for
membership in the volcanic-sedimentary cat-
egory with the implication that our conclu-
sions on global Mn metallogeny would have to
be drastically revised. Beukes (1973) attrib-
uted the source of Mn and Fe to late-stage vol-
canic exhalations, but both metals could have
been released, concentrated and accumulated
by a variety of alternative mechanisms. The
basalt/Fe, Mn spatial coincidence appears to
be a more immediate relationship to explore in
order to explain the Kalahari Mn metallogenic
anomaly than the facies relationship of the lo-
cal sediments considered alone. The upper
Proterozoic-lower Cambrian cherty Fe-Mn
association of the Malyi Khingan, S.E. Siberia
(Yegorov and Timofeeva, 1970) is similar in
many respects.
(2) The second situation is illustrated by the
bedded deposits of nearshore marine Mn ox-
ides grading into offshore Mn carbonates in the
Oligocene South Ukrainian Basin. There, the
Mn ores are in the "right" sedimentological
setting but equivalent setting is widespread
worldwide, lacking even a trace of Mn. So some
"special condition" additional to the sedimen-
tary environment was needed. Varentsov and
Rakhmanov (1980) and before them Strak-
hov et al. ( 1968 ) and other investigators dem-
onstrated that the Ukrainian Mn ores are de-
veloped in basins fed by detrital and chemical
runoff from Mn-anomalous (0.99% Mn) Ar-
p. LAZNICKA
chaean greenstones, amphibolites and sheared
talc schists, but are absent where the prove-
nance of Oligocene sediments was in basement
granites or granite gneisses containing only
0.03% Mn.
Direct to indirect, proven to hypothetical
spatial coincidence of "basalts"/Mn ores
"works" for at least 169 localities out of 330
(i.e., 51.2%) listed in the Appendix. In partic-
ular, a local coincidence of a favourable depo-
sitional regime such as transgressions marked
by anoxic events and stagnations followed by
precipitation in oxygenated shallows (Cannon
and Force, 1983; Frakes and Bolton, 1984)
with anomalous Mn supplies from "basalts",
seems to be of particular practical importance
for ore predictions.
Acknowledgments
This contribution benefited from critical
reading and review by Professor W. Pohl in
Braunschweig, Germany and by Dr. G.P.
Glasby in Wellington, New Zealand. Dr. K.H.
Wolf in Canberra, Australia, also critically read
the manuscript and suggested many helpful
improvements. It is a pleasant duty to say thank
you for this professional assistance.
Appendix A Data base for major M n localities of the world:
Explanations
NO Locality number as it appears in the world lo-
cation map (Fig. 24). Two or more adjacent
or overlapping localities can share the same
plot and number.
COUN Country
AF Afghanistan
AG Algeria
AN Angola
AR Argentina
AS Austria
AU Australia
AU-NS New South Wales
AU-NT Northern Territories
MANGANESEDEPOSITSIN THE GLOBALLITHOGENETICSYSTEM:QUANTITATIVEAPPROACH 333

AU-QL Queensland KO Korea

AU-SA South Australia MA Madagascar
AU-WA Western Australia MI Mali
BG Belgium MR Morocco
BL Bulgaria MY Malaysia
BO Bolivia MX Mexico
BW Botswana NC New Caledonia
CH China NH Vanuatu
CH-GU Guizhou NM Namibia
CH-GD Guangdong NP Japan
CH-HN Hunan NY New Guinea
CH-LI Liaoning PE Peru
CH-YU Yunnan PH Philippines
CL Chile PK Pakistan
CN Canada PL Poland
CN-BC British Columbia RU Romania
CN-MB Manitoba SA South Africa
CN-NB New Brunswick SB Saudi Arabia
CN-NF Newfoundland SD Soudan
CN-ON Ontario SL Sierra Leone
CN-QB Quebec SN Suriname
CS Czechoslovakia SP Spain
CB Cuba SU U.S,S.R. (former)
CY Cyprus SU-AR Armenia
DB West Germany SU-GR Georgia
DD East Germany SU-KZ Kazakhstan
DK Denmark SU-RS Russia (Eur.)
EG Egypt SU-SB Siberia
ET Ethiopia SU-UK Ukraine
FJ Fiji SU-UZ Uzbekistan
FN Finland SW Sweden
FR France TH Thailand
GB Great Britain TK Turkey
GH Ghana TU Tunisia
GN Guinea US United States
GO Gabon US-AK Arkansas
GR Greece US-AZ Arizona
GY Guyana US-CA California
HA Haiti US-CO Colorado
HL Switzerland US-GA Georgia
HU Hungary US-ID Idaho
IA India US-MC Michigan
IA-AP Andhra Pradesh US-ME Maine
IA-GU Gujarat US-MI Minnesota
IA-KA Karnataka US-MT Montana
IA-MH Maharashtra US-NV Nevada
IA-MP Madhya Pradesh U S-NJ New Jersey
IA-OR Orissa + Bihar US-SD South Dakota
IA-RA Rajasthan US-UT Utah
ID Indonesia US-WA Washington
IN Iran UV Burkina Faso
IS Israel YU Yugoslavia
IT Italy ZA Zambia
IV Ivory Coast ZB Zimbabwe
JO Jordan ZI Zaire
334 P. LAZNICKA

STATU Locality status AGE Geological age of Mn ore generation/modifi-

cation. In composite weathering-modified
oreb single orebody (deposit) in a continuous ore (enriched) deposits, age of modification is
horizon shown first, age of "primary" deposition sec-
depl single orebody (deposit) within a Mn dis- ond, e.g., Q/Pe. Ages of weathering modifi-
trict, belt cation of presently exposed deposits are usu-
horiz continuous ore or protore horizon (several ally listed as Q (Quaternary) or T
km) (Tertiary), although the actual period of
dep2 single independent deposit weathering could have been earlier and long
set2 set of two deposits lasting.
set3 set of three deposits 1 = lower, 2 = middle, 3 = upper.
zone metallogenic zone, tens of kilometres
field ore field
Q Quaternary
distr ore district T Tertiary
belt ore belt PI Pliocene
area metallogenic (mineralized) area Mi Miocene
strat manganiferous stratigraphic unit Ol Oligocene
Eo Eocene
Pc Paleocene
STYLE Refers to geotectonic setting and deposi- MZ Mesozoic
tional environment Cr Cretaceous
.J Jurassic
1 ocean floor Tr Triassic
2 pelagic domain PZ Palaeozoic
3a submarine volcanic-sedimentary environ- Pe Permian
ments of active ("Pacific" and rift) conti- Cb Carboniferous
nental margins D Devonian
3b marine sedimentary environments of passive S Silurian
( "Atlantic" ) continental margins and epi- Or Ordovician
continental seas Cm Cambrian
4a continental, subaerial volcanic and volcanic- PCm Precambrian
sedimentary environments Pt Proterozoic
4b continental, subaerial, nonvolcanic Pt3 Upper Proterozoic ( 570-970 Ma)
environments Pt2 Middle Proterozoic (970-1600 Ma)
4c sub-continental, intracrustal environments Ptl Lower Proterozoic ( 1600-2500 Ma)
(m) subsequently metamorphosed Ar Archaean (2500-3900 Ma )

ASSOC Lithologic associations (discussed in detail HOST Included are rocks that actually host the Mn
in text and listed on Table 5 and shown on ROCKS ore; in composite deposits that include "sec-
Fig. 13). ondary" weathering-enriched ores hosts of
the latter are separated from actual or inter-
W weathering-related associations preted "primary" host rocks by a slash, thus:
C subaerial sediments, nonvolcanic cly,rbl/shl,bas. When space permits, associ-
A,AS,SA subaerial volcanic, volcanic-sedimentary and ated rocks are also listed, separated by dou-
sedimentary-volcanic associations ble slash, thus: shl//bas.
S marine sedimentary, nonvolcanic association
St ditto, dominantly detrital (terrigenous) agl glauconitic sandstone
Sc ditto, dominantly carbonate agw litharenite (graywacke)
Sx ditto, dominantly chemical sediments amf amhibolite
V,VS,SV marine volcanic, volcanic-sedimentary, sedi- and andesite
mentary volcanic associations anh anhydrite
1,2 ditto, ophiolitic and mafic ark arkose
3 ditto, bimodal arn arenite
4 ditto, andesite to sequentially-differentiated arq quartz arenite
5 ditto, felsic ave volcanic arenite
M metamorphosed has (meta) basalt
MS metamorphosed-sedimentary bif banded iron formation
MVS metamorphosed volcanic-sedimentary brx breccias
I intracrustal associations cbn carbonates
IM intracrustal-magmatic (Mn-carbonatite) che chert
Ih intracrustal-hydrothermal; ( 1 ) = plutonic; cly clay (stone)
( 2 ) = activation related; ( 3 ) = subvolcanic cnc concretionary gravel
( epithermal ). coa coal
MANGANESEDEPOSITSIN THE GLOBALLITHOGENETICSYSTEM:QUANTITATIVEAPPROACH 335

csg calc-silicate gneiss grnt granitization (migmatitization)

ctt carbonatite hd hydrothermal alteration, metasomatism
dac dacite n-m non-metamorphosed
dia diabase s-c semi-consolidated
dio diorite s-gr sub-greenschist
dol dolomite u-c unconsolidated
fir fault rocks
gbr gabbro MINERALS Principal ore mineral groups
gns gneisses
gnt granite alab alabandite
gon gondite anke ankerite
grd granodiorite asbo asbolite
grn granitoids bari barite
gyp gypsum bixb bixbyite
hdv hydrothermal vein fill brau braunite
hnf contact hornfels Fecl Fe chlorites
ist ironstone fluo fluorite
jsp jasperoid frkl franklinite
lim limestone goet goethite
ltr laterite haus hausmannite
mbl marble hema hematite
mnc Mn carbonate (bedded) jacb jacobsite
mnf "Mn-formation" (oxide) magn magnetite
mrl marl mang manganite
rash Mn silicate hornfels Mncl Mn chlorites
och ocher Mnox Mn oxides
opl opal Mnsi Mn silicates
pea peat nont nontronite
phy phyllite piem piedmontite
pph porphyry pyrh pyrrhotite
prd peridotite pyri pyrite
qfp quartz-feldspar porphyry rhdn rhodonite
qzd quartz diorite sgel siderogel
qzm quartz monzonite side siderite
qzt quartzite spes spessartite
rbl rubble
reg regolith materials SUPE Supergene (weathering) modification, ex-
rhy rhyolite pressed in percentages ( 100% = entirely su-
sct schist pergene assemblage) or colloquially.
sdr siderite (bedded)
set serpentinite MTL Fe,Pb,Zn,Ag,Au,Cu: principal ore metals at
shl shale deposits where Mn is a by-product or an un-
sil siltstone recovered (e.g., gangue) constituent;
skr skarn (Fe,Pb,Zn, etc. ): minor or by-product metal
slf sulfide (massive, bedded) at Mn deposits.
sit slate
spr saprolite TONNAGE Shown is the calculated or estimated Mn
srh soda rhyolite metal content in ores (not quantities of ore)
sye syenite in tonnes.
tra trachyte
trv travertine E nature of some data not directly quoted from
tuf tuff the literature
vcm volcanic mudstone
E pure estimate (guesstimate)
METAM Metamorphic grade, enduration, M minimum assured metal content
consolidation R reconstructed (calculated) data from infor-
mation fragments
amf amphibolite semi-estimate
cont contact, thermal metamorphism
gr greenschist GRAD Grade of Mn ores in percent
grnl granulite
Appendix B

File of the manganese deposits and occurrences of the world

I RapidCreckFm, Yukon CN-YU horiz 3b Sxt3 Crl isl, shl//am n-m side, 8oe1 Fe 1,162, 500, 000 3.9 Youngand Robenson I
(1084)
2 KasloCreck CN-BC dep2 4b C5 Q ig, pea, mud u-c Mnox, sgel,gott 0, 0(JO,000, 200 R 20 Johnston and McCa.,lney 2
( 1965)
3 Olympic Peninsula US- WA area l W/SV2c Eo jsp,shl,bas s-gr brau, haus, Mnox some 0,000, 013, 000 35 Sorem- Gunn (1967) 3
(Washington)
4 Cocur d'Alene ( Ke0ngg) US-ID dmr 3b/4c Wg/Ihlv P12/TI hdv/qzl, sil,slt s-gr,hd slde,Mnox some PbZnA8 0,007,000,000 S 3.8 Fr/klund(1964) 4
5 Ph0ip~urg(Montana) US-MT field 4b/4c Wg/lhlr T/PZ reg/hdv, mnc//lira, n- m/hd Mnox/ most AgPbZn 0, 000, 490, 0 ~ 43 Goddard (1940) 5
grn
6ButtcMnvcim(Montana) US-MT field 4c Wg/lhlv TI qzm hd Mncb some ZnAsCu 0,003,890,000 14 Meyeretal.(1968) 6
8 CuyunaltonRange US-M[ field 3b Sxl PII bif//che, shl s- gr some Fe 0,025,000,000 10.5 Hewettetal.(1956) 8
9 Dunn Creek State, lron US-MC horiz 3b Sxt2+ Ptl sdr, bif//fit- c s- g~ side, Mnox some Fe 0,005,000,000 S 8.72 Jameseta],(1968) 9
River
10 Knob Lake-Scheffervi0e CN-QB field 4b/3b(m) W/MSx Pt/Pll rbl,reg.biU / dol n- m/amf Mnox, goct,hema 90% Fe 0,004,077,160 7.64 Johnston and McCarlney 10
(Labr> (1965)
II Golconda(Nevada) US-NV dep2 4a SA2So T3-Q och,ely,ira s-cons $o¢t,Mnox (Fe,W) 0,000,015,000 50 Kerr (1940) II
12 Pioche-gossans(Ulah) US-UT field 4b/4c Wg/lhlr T/Cm/TI rng, hdv, dol, jsp, shl hd Mnox, Mncb, sidc 100% ZnFoA8 0,000,330,000 l0 BodenlosandThaycr 12
(1973)
13 Silverton(S.JuanMts.) US-CO depl 4b/4c Wg/lh3v Q/Mi and, dac,rhy n-m/hd rhdn,Mncb, Mnox some PbZnAg 0,000,050,000 R 15 Burbank and Luedke 13
(1969)
14 LcadvOle-gossans US-CO field 4b/4c Wg OI/T3-Q lim,dol,qfp hd.alt Mncb, rhdn/Mnox 100% PbZnAg 0,000,550,000 15 Tweto(1968) 14
( Colorado )
15 C~berlain US-SD zone 3b St3 Crl shl,shl-tuf n-met Mncb, Mnox some 0,010,70~,0~) I Cfittenden(1956) 15
16 BlackDiablo Mine US-NV d©pl 3a SV2b Ps che,shl-c//bas s-gr brau> Mnox some 0, 0~3,018, 240 32 Hewett etal.(1956) 16
(C.Nevada)
17 CaliforniaCoast Ranges US-CA area 4b/I Wt/SV2b J3-Cr rbi/jsp,che,shl// s-gr Mncb, brau much 0,000,053,000 40 Trask etal.(1943) t7
has
18 LakeMead(ThrecKids) US-NV dist 4s AS21k Mi mnf, ave, tuf//has, n-m Mnox some 0, 000, 580, 0 ~ 20 McKetv¢~
et ~l. (1949) lg
rhy
19 ArldleryMts. US-AZ field 4a AS21k PI cgl,ely,tuf s-cons Mnox (BaPb) 0,006,125,00¢ 4 Lasky and Webber 19
(1949)
20 LuisLopez (Socorro) US- NM field 4c lh3v O1- Mi rhy,brx n-m Mnox some 0,0{)0,015,000 R 9 Jicha (1956) 20
21 Batesville AK fidd 3b Set2 Or lim,shl n-met Much+haul,,b~t, some 0,000,085,000 29 Mi~" ( |94| ) 2$
Mnox
22 Canenvi0¢ (Georgia) US-GA dep2 4b/3b Wtk/SCl T/Cm Itr,spr/cbn s-cons/hd goegMnox I00% Fe 0,000,200,0~) R 40 Kesler(1950) 22
23 Flat Top (S.Vir$inm) US- VA field 4b/3b Wi/S¢ T/D dy, arn s-c,n-m Mnox 100% 0,0~), 019, 000 40 l~dd and Stead ( 1944 ) 23
24 Ced~Valley(NWVi~nia) US-VA fidd 4b/3b Wi/SCI T/D ely,am, lira s-c,n- m Mnox 100% 0,000, 020, 000 40 Monroe (1942 ) 24
25 C~ora M. (Val.of US-VA depl 4b/3b Wk/S¢I T/Cm rb[,cly/~l, fire s-c/u- ra M,aox IO~/~ O,000, 075, O~ 41 Hard~ and ~ohnston 25
virzinia) (1910)
26 J~0~ R.- Roanoke R. US- VA distr 4b/h(m) Wk/MSct T/P13- PZ ely, rbl/mbl//qzL s- c/amf Mnox> Mn- calc 100% 0,000, 029, 468 43.3 Espcnshade ( 1954) 26
~s
27 Franklin (Furnace) US-NJ depl 3a(m) MtVS3cx Pt3 mbl, cng//amf, gns amf,g~z fdd, thdn none Zn, Fe 0,002,000,000 8.7 FmndelandBaum
(1974)
28 S t e d i n $ O ~ u r g US-NJ depl 3a(m) MtVS3cx P13 mbl, c-~//amf,~s amf,gnz fAl,rhdn none Zn, Fe 0,0~),80~,0GO S 8.7 FrondelandBaum 28
(1974)
29 Arc~tookcounty US-ME zone 3b SVxct S bif, che- lim, sit green hema, brau, Mncb, none Fe 0,025,090,000 9 Pavlides ( 1962) 29
spes
~ Wood~ck ( N ~ CN-N~ fiekl 3b SVx~t S bif, shl s-g~ hema. brau, Mncb none Fe 0, 019, 260, 0~) 9 Gro~s (1967) 30
Brunswick)
31 I)awsonSettlemem CN-NB dep2 4b C5 Q ist.pea,mud u-c Mnox, sgel,goet Fe 0,000,000,400 R 20 Johnstonand McCarmey 31
(1965)
32 M a l ~ I ~ ( S t . CN-QB field 3b Scl Ms/Ps tim//trn, trl n-m Mnox 10~ 0,0~, 180,0~ 45 JolmstonandMeCtrmey 32
>
La~> (~965)
z
33ConceptionBay(Manuel$) CN-NF horiz 3b St3 Cm2 rod,shl n- m Mnch, Mnox some 0, 001,000, 000 10 Johnstonand McCartney 33
>
(1965)
z
34 Lucifer(~tjaCalifornia) MX dcp2 4a AS3 p12 rhy-tuf,jsp,brx/and n-met Mnox some 0, ~0,141, 000 47 Trek and Rodrisoez 34
(1946) fr7
34 Guad~up¢ 2 Dep. ( N. Baja M X dep2 3at(m) W/MtVS3 Tr/J3 brx,qzl,mbl,amf gr,toni rhdn,Mnox some 0, 000, 014, 940 16.6 l ~ Vazqu¢~(1956) 34
,.¢
C.)
35 S~mtaRm~Ja ~Boko),B.C MX field 3a VS4 Pl q$1,ave,tuf//and, n- m Mnox some Cu 0, 001, 500, (~0 R 3 WilsonandRocha 35
(1956a)
36 Mulq~(e&GavilanM.), MX field 3a W/Vl Mi s-gr Mnox, rhdn,Mnch some 0, 0oo, 108, 000 49 Goez~e* ( 1956) 36
B,C ,q
37 ~m¢SO~ 5ieml de (Ch/h.) MX field 4¢ lh3v T rhy//dac,and. tuf M Maox, calc much 0,01)0,015,730 22.5 Wilson{ 1956) 37
38 Ternmate* (Chih.) MX field 4¢ lh3v T rhy hd Mnox, Cak, ban some 0, 000, I05,200 30 Jimene2(1956) 38
39 Zacate and Chino Mines MX set2 4¢ lh3v T hdv, rhy, brx hd Mnox some 0, 000, 024, 000 22 Tmsk and Rodlisqlez 39 t"
©
(Chih.) (1946)
40 Talamames (Chih) MX dep2 4c W/Ih3v T •y n- m Mnox, bail some 0, ~ 0 , 0S2, 0~0 25 W0son ~ Roctu 40 t-'
(1948 )
41 M ~ t a Mine MX field 44: lh3v T rhyo- tel, jsp hd brae, Mnox 20% 0, 000, 024, 000 40 T r ~ and Rodfiso~z 41
(Luate~m) (1946) 0
42 N¢SO~Mine, Fmmillo MX d~2 4¢ lh3v T jsp, rhy hd brae,Mnox some 0, 0GO,023, 412 33 Traltkand R o d r ~ 42 0
m
(1946) z
43 Villade Cos (Zac.) MX set2 3b w/St3? J? che,shl Mnox much o, 000, 025, s30 41 wibon and Rocha 43 m

(1956b)
44 SantoDomtNlo (Montana MX dep2 3b/4c MiSt ? jsp//shl hd brae,Mnox some 0,000, 026, 500 41 Wihon and Rocha 44
deMn> (1956a)
45 M o ~ Ore Zone MX honz 3b Set4+ J mnc//shl- c n- m Mncb, Mnox some I,500,000,0OO 10 Cannon and FOR~ 45 m
(Hid~o) (1983) g
45 Molan~ Mine (Hidalgo) MX horiz 3b Set4+ J mnc//shl- c n- m Mnch, Mnox some 0, 465,000,000 27.7 Cannon and Force 45 ,o
c
0983) >
46 San Franosco- Autlan MX dep2 4a AS21k Ec- OI vcm/jsp,rhL and n-met beau,heine,Mnox some (F¢) 0,001,600,000 40 Zantop (1978) 46 z
,.--t
(Jd~zo)
47 Nicoya Peninsula CR distr 4b/ I WI/SV2b TI shl,che s-grs brau/Mnox much 0, 000, 017,000 50 Roberts (1944) 47
48 QuemadodeGuines (C. CU field 4b/3a Wt/SV2b Q/J- Cr rbl,che s-cons Mnox 100% 0, 000, 052,000 8.95 Simom and Straczch 48
Cu~) (1958) m
49 Gramale~ Lu Acostas CU field 2? >
Wk/Set Cr tim,sfd n- met Mnch some 0, 0~/, 025, ~ 0 Simons and Strac2ch 49
(1958)
50 Buycito (E. Cuba Mn CU depl 4b/3a wt/VS4 fio and - tuf, agl, lira, jsp s-srs Mnox, brau much 0, 000, 0~9, 0GO 27 Simons and S ~ k 50 ©
>
Province) 0958)
,-e
51 E]Cristo-Ponupo(S.Cuba CU distr 3a VS4 fio and- tuf, agl, lira, jsp s-grs Mnox, mang much 0, 0~1,050, 000 45 Siirom and Straezch 5l
Mn> (1958)
52 S~mtaRita (E. Cuba Mn CU distr 3,1 w/VS4 Eo and-tuf,agl,lira,jsp s-I¢'s Mnox, mang much fi, 000,180, 000 45 Simons and Stmcze~ 52
B¢lt) 0958)
53 E.Cub~Mn Prov.others CU area 4b/3a Wt/VS4 Eo and- tuf, agl, lira,jsp s-grs Mnox, mang much 0, 001, 561, 000 30 Simons and Straczek 53
(1958)
54 Mome MaC~ltte(Haiti) HA dep2 4b/3a Wt/VS4 Q/T reg/jsp,lira,and hd, s-gr Mnox some 0, 000, 010, 000 30 Goddard ¢t al. (1947) 54
55 Pipi~mi(NW Guya~a) GY fidd 4b/3a(m) WI] MVS Q] Ar rbl,dy/goe,mnf, s-c/amf Mnox, brau,spes 90% 0, 000, 450, 000 25 Putzer (1976) 55
qzt
56 Matthew'sRidso(Guyana) GY field 4b/3a(m) Wt/MVS2 + Q/Ar rbl, ely/gon, mnf, P c/amf Mnox,brae, spcs 90~ 0,010,000,000 40 Putzcr (1976) 56
mnc
57 Mari~ (Suriname) SN fieM 4b/3a(m) Wt/ MVS Q/Pt ¢Iy,rbl/gon,mnf/ / s-clamf Mno~, Mnch, bran, 100% 0, 002, 250, 0 ~ 22 Choubert ( 1972) 57
hif spcs
58 Bonidom (French Guyana) GF field 4b/3a(m) Wt/MVS2 Q/Ar rbl, cly/gon, mnf, s- c/atnf Mnox, brau, spcs 100% 0,000,100,000 E 40 Choubert(1972) 58
qzl
59 SerradoNavio (Amapa) BR-AM field 4b/3a(m) wt/MVS2+ Q/Pt cly,rbl/qlz//soe, n-met/afar Mnox/spes l/~0% 0,025,000,000 47 Dottel ai (1949) 59
anaf
60MadeinRiver(Amazonas) BR-AZ area 4b/3b wt/Stl Q/Cr? rbl,dy/am, sM u-cons Mnox 100% 0,000,070,000 35 Pouchain(1956) 60 .--..I
61 Azu](Ca~jas) BR-PA dep2 4b/ Wt/St3 + Q/I'll c|y, ~b~/qLz,sll- c green Mnox, Mncb ? 5% 0,023, 665.000 38 Codho and Rodngues 61
(1986) OO
62 Burittran~Sern6t BR-PA field 4h/3a(m) wt/MVS3c Q/Ar cly,rbl/ql,,rash, u-cons/amf Mnox/btau, sill 80% 0,008,556,000 46 De Andrade et al. 62
mbl (1986)
63 Rioltacaiunas(Para) BR-PA area 4b/3a(m) Wt/MVS3c Q/Pt cly,rbl/qlz,msh// s-cons/arnf Mnox/brau, rhdn I00~ 0, 004, 000, 000 40 Putzer (1976) 63
set
64 Sere~oIX'p. (Carajas) BR-BA depl 4b/3b Wt/MVS Q/Ptl dy, rbl/qlz,sh-c gr Mnox, Mncb 100~ 0,001,050,000 35 WaJde (1986) 64
65 LiciniodeAlmeida BR-BA distr 4b/3b(m) Wt/MStx Q/PII cly,rbl/mnf//qzt, u-cons/amf Mnox, bixb,haus, 80% O,000, 900, 0O0 30 Basilioand Btondi 65
bif mang 0986)
66 Marau(SEBahia) BR-BA f i e l d 4b/3a(m) wt/MVS2 Q/Ar rbl,dy/mbl, mnc// gml Mnox, man8, spes I00~ 0, 002, 660, 000 38 Abteu ( 1973) 66
gns
67 Unmdi(Bahia) BR-BA distr 4b/3b(m) Wt/MStx P13 dy, rbl/mnf//phy, ~-c/gr MBOX/jecb, brau 80% 0,000,460, 000 30 Pu~.eT ~1976) 67
bff
68 S.AntoniodeJesus BR-BA f i e l d 4b/3a(m) wt/MVS2 + Q/Ar rbl,cly/mbl, mnc// grnl Mnox, mang. spes I00~ 0,(~)2, 800, 000 35 Abreu (1973) 68
~s
69 Ouacui (EspifitoSanto) BR- ES field 4b/3a Wt/MVS2 Q/At? rbl, ely/gon s- c/grnl Mnox,spcs 100% O, 002, 2(}0,000 40 Walde ( 1986) 69
70 Chapada Diamantina BR-MG distr 4b/3b wt/St3 Q/Pt rbl, ely/shl, sh, scl s-c/gr Mnox I00~ O,000, 096, {300 48 Abrcu ( 1973) 70
7[ AlptaLimptM.(R/o BR-MG dtpl 4b/3b Wt/MSc Q/l~l rbl,dy/mnf, bif s-c,amf Mnox, hema, mag~ I00~ Fe 0,002, 345,000 33.5 Reeves(1966) 71
Pincicabo)
72 Conta Histona M. (Qd. BR- MG depl 4b/3b Wt/MStx Q/I)12 fit//bif,dol u- m/amf Mnox I00~ Fe 0,000, 214, 376 30 Barcelosand Buchi 72
Feral> (1986)
73 MiguelBurnier, Cogonhas BR-MG depl 4b/3b Wt/MStx Q/P12 flt//bif, dol u-m/gzeen Mnox 100~ Fe 0,0OI,992,000 24 Barcelc~and Buchi 73
(1986)
74DomSilveiro-SaoDomin- BR-MG belt 4b/3a(m) wt/MVS2 Q/Ar rbl, ely/gon, sit,jsp s-c/gr Mnox, spes 100% 0,000,476,000 34 Abreu (1973) 74
gosda>
75 Cons. Lafaieue(Minade BR-MG distr 4b/3a(m) Wt/MVS2 + Q/Ar rbl/qiz,rash//set- s-c/amf Mnox/Mncb, Mnsi 70% 0,006,200,000 38 Do'a et aL (1956) 75
Morro) b
76 SaoJoaodaAl/anca BR-GO distr 4b/3a(m) Wt/MVS2 Q/Pt cly,rbl/gon//msh u- cons/tmf Mnox 100e/* 0, (~0, 420, 0(X) 48% PuLzer(1976) 76
(Gore)
77 SaoJoaodelREi BR-MG distr 4b/3a(m) Wt/MVS Q/Ar dy, rbl/msh, gon// s- c/amf Mnox, spes.rhdn 100% O, {~O,430, 000 42,5 Dott et al. (1956) 77
set
78 I~(Goi~) BR-GO distt eo/3a(m) wt/MVS2 Q/Kr dy, rbl/gon//msh u-cons/amf Mnox/spes 100% O, 000,106, 000 42 Putzer (1976) 78
79 Mutun, Seraniade BO field 3b Sxl I)13 bif.che,jsp//am, s-grs hema, Mnox much FE 0,045. 000,(~0 45 Putzer ( 1976) 79
(E.Bolivia)
80 UnK'om (Morro do) BR-MS field 4b/3b SxI Pt3 bif,che,jsp/ / aPa, s-grs hema, Mnox much FE O, 120.765,000 48.5 Haralyi andWalde 80
nl (1986)
81 Huachi~to (Mica, N. CL distr 4a AS21k PI3- Q rhy-tuf/and,cgl,ave n- m Mnox/opal, ehal some 0,000, 240, 000 24 Cruzat (1970} 81
Chile)
82 Uncia hot sprlngs BO dep2 4a SA2sp Q opl u- m Mnox, bafite (W) 0,000,000,400 40 Ahlfeld and Schneider-
Scherbi>
83 Montezuma Mine (Antofa- CL dep2 4c Wg/lh3v T Mncb, rhdn, Mnox some A8, Au 0, 001,350, 000 18 Ruiz (1965) 83
fastaP>
84 Ptma ~ Prov. (Ochaqm) AR ~ 4,1 AS2cg Pl- Q e.r~,c~,~f, trv a-m Mnox O,000,137,000 15 Hande and WEber 84
(1975)
85 FareUonNegro AR dep2 4b/4c Wg/lh3v Q/PI and, dac,rhy n- m/hd Mnox/Mncb 80% Ag. Au 0,000,168. 000 12 Tezon and De h 1#esia 85
(Catama~) (1956)
86 Coquimbo Prov. Mn belt CL belt 3a VS4 Crl rnnf,tim,ave,and- s-$r brau,Mnox, rnang, some 0, 007, 100,000 39 Biese (1956) 86
tuf haus
g7 $~rra ~ None (Sierras AR distr 4b/4¢ W/lhlv T/1"? reg/hdv, grd, pph hd Mnox, mang 100% 0, 001,0~), 0~) 22 Haude and WEber 87
Pare> (1975)
88 SierraPinUtda (Mendoza) AR dLstr 4b/4¢ W/lhlv T/Tr reg/hdv, brx, grd hd Mnox, fluo 100% 0,000, 050, 000 30 Haude and WEber 88
(1975)
89 Ultevis ( Norbotten ) SW feld 4a MtVS3 Pt2 mnf, qzt, mbl, bif amf, grin brau, bixb, picm, spas 0,005, 000. 000 E 20 Grip (1978) 89
90 I ~ (Berl~ ) SW field 3ac MtVS3 ctx PH mnf, bif, mbl//set, amf brau,haus~Mns/, Fe 0,(X~,077,300 25 Crrip (1978) 90
amf rhdn
91 SlallbergBch(Berlptlagen) SW field 3a(m)/4c MtVS3cx I)11 skr, bif, mbl//gas, amf,cont Mnsi, rhdn FE 0, 000, 240, 000 4 Grip (1978)
amf
 92 S1oObe~ fiell(fieqlMagea) SW field 3a(m)/4c MtVS3cx Ptl ~Lr,bif, mbl//gns, amf. cont Mnsi, rhdn 0, 000, 040, 0(]O 5 Grip (1978) 92
>
amt"
Z
93 Tunt- Hagbe~l fielt SW field 3a(m)/4c MtVS3ctx PH skr, bif, mbl//gin, amf,cont Mnsi, rhdn Fe O, 0~), 190,000 3.8 Grip (1975) 93
{fieq~> amf Z
94 ~ , o t h m 5W am~ M(m) MiVS3ctx P11 skr, bif,mbl//gng amf, cont Mnsi,rhcln Fe 0, 012, 000,000 R 4 Crtip ( 1978) 94 m
amf
94 BmhamM. ( L j u ~ ) SW depl 3a(m) MtVS3ctx ~1 s£r, bi~,mb///gns, ~ oont Mnsi, rhdn Fe O,Of~, 120,~ 0 4 Gr/p O978) 94
anaf
95 ~ (fiery) SW field 3ac(m) MtVS3ctx 1~1 sla,bif,mbl//gin, amf Mnsi, rhdn Fe 0, 000, 375, 0(~ 3 Grip (1978) 95
amf
96 lmlmiarea (Centr. FN area 4b C5, 6 Q is~ pea, mud u-c Me.ox,sllel,goet Fe 0,000,252,000 l 2 M a ~ {1952) %
Finland)
,-e
97 Bo~ve~N.ofK~lsborg ~ dcp2 4c lh2v P~3? grit,gns hd Mnox, mang, talc, some 0, 000, 015, 000 30 C~p (1978) 97
t.~
hari ©
98 KesebolMine (Dldgand) SW d~2 4c lh2v P13 ? liar gns, brx hd haus, man& rhdn, some 0, ~]0, 015,000 20 Grip (1978) 98 (-
0
Mncb
>
99 Cemrel/yland (luthnd) DK a~ut 4b CS Q is~ pea, mud u-c Mnox, sl~,l~e~ Fe D,0¢O, ~O2,DO0 15 Sonm~ ~ al. {1978) 99 I"
99 Spexe~d Vein (SEof SW dep2 4c lh2v P~3 ? ~t, gin,bnc hd brau,mang Mnox, some 0, 000, 055,000 40.7 orip (1978) 99 t-
Jo~> calc -t
I00 Ardudwy (Harlech Dome) GB field 3b MiSt Cm 1 mf//sfi gr Mncb, spes some 0,000,013,640 31 Woodland (1956) 100 0
101 Rhiw (Weles) GB field 3a SV3 Or srh- tuf, phy//has $" Mnd, Mncb, Mnsi, some 0,000,065,000 27 Woodland (1956 ) 101
m
z
102 N.De~e~-W.Sometsex(SW GB are* 4b/3b/4¢ W/lhlr T/D/Co reg/hdv//gt,qm s-~,cont Mnox, goct,side, some Fe 0,001,343,750 10.75 SlatcrandHillhley 102 -t
End> Mncb (1977) N
103 Milton Abbot (Cornwall) GB field 4b/3a W/MISt Q/D- Cb re$/cbe,sfi//dia corn,hd Mnox/rhdn 80~ 0,O00,023,000 R 40 Wooed (1956 ) I03
104 Sierra de Dobms (Oviedo) SP field 4b/3h Wk/Scl Cbl lira, dol n-m Mnox much 0,000,070,000 R I1 Pagor ex al. (1956) 104
Io5 Alma~o (Oudad Real) SP field 4a Wi/~ Mi dy, ave s-c Mnox 0, 000, 037, 360 40 Proofer aL (1956) 105 r~
106 Ce~ de Ak~t¢jo PT digr 4b/3ac Wg/lhlv D- Cbl rt:g/hdv//phy, arn, hd,~. Mnox, goct,sid¢, much Fe 0,000,520,000 8 D¢Cm'~alho(1977) 106 g
tuf bema
107 Rio Tinto Beh Mn (S. SP belt 3a w/sv3 Cbl cbe, jsp, shl/rhy s-gr Mncb, Mnox some 0,000,939,000 34 Pastor et aL (1956) 107
Spain) z
108 ~ (N.~) FR dim 4b/3b Wk/~ D3- Cb] dy, rbl] lira- shl n-m Mnox] Mncb much 0, 000, 030, 0~) R 30 Lougnon(1956) 108
I08 SMigny (M. ForezMassif) FR dep2 3h/4c W/lhlv Cm, D mbl, qzt,set cont Mnox. Feox,qrtz, 100'/* O,000,Ol I,777 44 Lougnon (1956) 108
fluo
109 Chaillac-Dunet FR dcp2 3b Stl J ara, shl n-m Mnox 0,000,004,000 g 34 Lou~on ( 1956) 109 r~
109 Hau~ Py~nees FR area 4b/3b >
w/MiSt Q/Col reg/sit, qzt//lira cont Muox/Mn$i, rhdn, 80*/* 0,000,036,000 R 40 Lougnon(1956) 109
spes
II0 LesCabesses FR field 3b Wk/Sc2 D31 Cbl ~//dol, cgl,sh gr Mnox, haus some 0,000,082, 290 16.6 Lougnon(1956) 110
II0 Romanecbe ( C. Fnmce ) FR de~2 4b/4¢ W/lh2v Q/J? ark,l~ n-m/hd Mnox/beau 80*/* 0,000,172,000 40 Louanon(1956) It0
111 Bierleux,Meuvi~e (LJnne BG set2 3b SVxct Or bi~,qzt: / phI ~r hema, MncO, $id¢ some Fc 0, (~0,128, OGO 12 :.ncioa ct ~. ( 19~ ) 1ll
Val>
112 I ~ lbcde DB field 3b Sxt3 Cr3 ist,eel,phs//am, n-m goel some Fe 0,005,575,500 3.15 Watther (1986) 112
(Ni~k~uu:a~n ) shl
113 Lindco~ Mm'k DB dep2 4b/3b Wkl Set2 F.c-O11 D2 ely,rbL cnc/dol s-c/a-m $o¢1,Mnox, mang 100% (Fe) 0,001,400,000 17.5 Bottke (1969) 113
114 Siqgrland. Wicd Digr. DB di$tr 4¢ W/IMv D sit, trn hd side, Mnox some O,011,825, 000 5.5 Wel~g'¢(1986) 114
115 WMdalg~ (Bmgen) DB dc~2 4b/3b Wk/So> CM- ks/ Eo- O11 D2 d~, ¢bl,cac/do[ s-c/~- m goeL,Mnox, maag I00~ fie) 0,001,400, 000 19 Bo'~t (|%9) 115

116 Gon~en (Sarlpms;S1. HL dcp2 4b/3b W/S¢I T/J2 reelbif,mnf, lira s- gr hema, maghaus, some Fe 0,000,040,000 R 20 Epp~cht(1946) 116
Ganen) Mnox
117 Bieb~- (Yoerros,~gh DB di~r 4b/Jb Wk/ SC12 T~ D rbl,ely/lira,anl m m Mnox much O,~ , 300, ~ 0 20 fieyschhtBel M. (1916) 117
(S.Taunus)
t 18 [Ifeld(ll~z) DR (~kl 4c WI lh3"~ MZI Pe hdv, and, ara,has hd Mnox, mang, brau, some 0, U00,050,000 S 30 fieyscldagetal.(1916) 118
haus
119 llmcmm-Gchrcn DR field 4c W/lh3v MZ/Pe hdv, am, rhy-tuf n-m Mnox, mang some 0,000,060,000 S 30 Ik3'schlagetal.(1916) 119

120 Lombardian Prtalps IT area 4a W/Stl Pc/Tr arn,cO, lira,dol s-gr side,Mnox, goet much Fe 0,000, 768,000 4.8 Zitnnann,ed. (1977) 120
121 SosAghedm(W.Sardinia) IT de~2 4a AS2cg T3 mg ¢gl//tuf,has hd Mnox 0,000,033,500 30 Guerin (1979) 121
121 Capo-Be~o(W. Sardinia) IT dep2 4¢ lh3v Mi mnf, cly,och,jsp,rhy hd Mnox 0,(g30,135,000 30 Guerin (1979) 121
4~
122 Gam~te~a IT field 4b/I V$2a J jsp,bn, bus,shl s-gr brau > Mncb, rhdn some 0,000,131, ~30 19 Burckhardt and Falini 122
(1956)
123 Monte Algent~fio IT d~2 3b/4c W/[bAr P~/T~ hm, b~t s-~ goel,hema, mang some (Fe) 0,000, 231,000 15 Burckhardtand Falini 123
(Tulc~y) (1956)
124 F ' r i ~ (Ccmr. Bohemia) CS field 4c Wg/[hlv Co dia,slt,cgl,ark,a~ hd Mncb, side, Mnox some AgPbZn 0,008,000,000 S 4.5 Kulina(1963) 124
125 Hod~s,anz/Lofer ( E. Li- AS depl 2 Set4+ J3 shl- c//lira, dol n- m Mncb some 0,005,000,~0 22 W~ther(1986) 125
mest. A>
126 J e a n e r / K o ~ (N. DB depl 2 Set4+ J3 sld-c//lira,dol n- m Mncb some 0,000, 025,000 25 W~ther(1986) 126
Limeston>
127 L¢chlalerA]l~n (Strength) AS horiz 2 sCT4+ J] mrl//lira,dol,shl n-m Mncb 0,000,405,0GO 13.5 Lechnerand Flochinger 127
(1956)
128 Golling(l~tmmereck,etc.), AS dep2 2 Sc14 J3 mrl//Jim, dol,shl n- m Mncb, Mnox some 0,000,487,000 13 . LechnerandFIochldlgr 128
Sal> (1956)
129 Chvaletice (Central CS field 3a SV3+ I'13 mnc, sh- c//srh, bus gT Mncb, pyri some 0,005,000,000 15 Pouba(1956) 129
Bohema)
130 F . ~ Emenerz(Slyria) AS dep2 3a W/SV3xc S- D sde, lira, srh, sh- c s-gr side, anke Fe 0,013,750,000 2.5 HoUandMaucher 130
(1976)
131 Huetlenberg( Carinthia) AS field 4b/3a(m) W/lhlr T/PZ rbl/stir, mbl//set, s- c/amf side, go¢t, Mnox part Fe 0,001,500,000 S 3.5 ClarandMeLvmer 131
am/" (1953)
133 Kisovce-Svabovce CS set2 3b W/St2 Eo- Ol am- shl//coa n- m Mncb, pyri, Mnox some 0,000,900,000 18 lhvsky(1976) 133
(Slovalfia)
1M Burshtya (Fort- SU-UK dislr 3b Sc3 Mi tort, d y / / l u f n- m Mncb, Mnox some 0,000,050,000 e 15 VarentsovandRakhma- 134
Carpat~i*ns) nov (1974)
135 Cucma (Roz~va) CS dep2 3ac SV2b Cm- S phi- ¢, che, bus gr, conl Mncb, rhdn, Mini some ~000.010,000 S 32 Kantor(1954) 135
136 Vatnt Dofnei (lacobeni, RU distr 4b/3a(m) Wt/MVS3<'x T/Pt3- Cm rbl/¢tz- c//set, srh gr Mnox/Mncb, rhdn much 0,001,925,0fi0 26 Ianovici(t956) 136
etc.)
137 Razoare(M. Transylvania) RU field 3a(m) MVS3 PT3? mnc, gon, msh, qzl-c amf Mncb/rhdn, Mnsi some 0, 000,100, 0~) E 19.14 lanovici(1956) 137
138 SebesMo1~unas gIJ field 3a(m) MVS PT3 mnc, gon, msh, qzt-c amf spes, rhdn, Mnsi some 0,000,200,0(}0 E 20.7 lanovid(1956) 138
139 DeBoesti.SemenicMts. RU field 3a (m) W/MVS3 Cml go~msh//qzl, sct, amf, cont fadn, spes,Mnsi some 0,000,100,000 M 20 Iano¢ici(1956) 139
amf
140 Chiprovtsi-Martinovo BL field 3b/4c lhls Tr/Cr sdr hd Mnox, side some FePbZn 0,000,495,000 6.53 lovchev(1961) 140
t4l Kl'etlliko~t$i(~Igl~Ofi ) BL dep2 3'O llar Tr2 dol//stir, ist s- gr sider, hcma, ban some Fe, Pb 0, 015, 300, 0~0 6.2 lovchev ( 1961) 141
142 Pozharevo ( C. Bulgaria) BL field 3a VS4 Cr3 tuf-mrl,and- brx, s-gr Mnox some (Cu) 0,000,018,000 31.I lovcfiev(1961) 142
ave
143 Drama (E.Macedonia) GR field 4b/3a (m) W/lhlv T/P13 reg/hdv, mbl, set n- m/amf Mnox, Mncb, Mnsi, much 0,000, 272,000 M 27.2 Mminos (1982) 143
rhdn
144 Kavala ( N. Cneece) GR distr 4b/3a/4c W/lh3vr Q/PZ/T reg/hdv/mbl//sct n-m/hal Mnox>Mncfi, goet much ZnPbAs 0,000,133,000 19 Anastopoulosetal. 144
(1977)
145 EBer-Demjen (S. Bukk HU distr 3b Stl O1 mcb, mrl, cly//agl, n-m Mncb>Mno~ some 0,004,000,000 S 18 Morvai(1982) 145
MU.) rest
146 Laurium (Attika) GR depl 4b/3a/4¢ W/lhlr Q/PZ/T reg/mbl//sct, grd n-m/hd Mncb, anke,Mnox much FePbAg 0,000,115,000 11.5 Anastopoulosetal. 146
(1977)
147 Cevljanovici( B O ~ ) YU field 3a SV3 ctx Tr2 jsp, che//lira, sfi, s-gr Mnox, brau,haus some 0, 000, Ill,000 37 Ramovic and Kulcnovic 147
bus (1964)
148 Varts (Bo~mia) YU field 3a SV3xc Tr2 ist//chc, dol, sh- c s-gr side,anke,hem& bail some Fe 0,008,200,000 3.5 Cissarz (1957) 148
149 UA'ul (Bakony Mrs.) HU field 2 W/So2 I1 mnc, mrl, mnf//lira n-m Mncb> Mnox some 0, 001,252, 0(Xt 22 Cseh- Nemeth et al. 149
(1980)
150 EplenyS.E. (BokonyMts.) HU depl 4b/3b Wk/Stl EOI dy,rbL ¢1a¢//arl~, ~,-m Mnox, mang some 0, 000,100, 0 ~ R 25 Cselv Nemeth et al. 150
(1980)
151 EplenyWest (BtkonyMts.) HU depl 3b W/Sc2 Jl o~af,c|y/ / mrL,lira u-m Mnox > Mncb some 0,000,300,000 R 22 Cseh- Nemeth et al. 151
(1980)
152 Varna (Dobrog~) BL area 3b Stl OI mrl, rest//am n-m M¢c~, Maox some 0,005,050,000 18 lovchev (1961) 152
153 Khoethchevat( Bus River) SU-UK field 4b/3a (m) w/MSc T/Ar rbl,dy/mbl n- m/amf Mnox/Mncb 100% 0,000,030,000 E 30 VarentsovandRakhma- 153
nov (1974)
154 Ingldets(KrivoiRos) SU-UK depl 3a W/MVS2 Ptl reg/M- bus,set gr Mnox, mangmagn some Fe 0,000,300,000 R 30 Buros(1977) 154
155 Mezhdurechye(S. Ukrain- SU-UK field 3b Stl OI mrl, msl, cly n- m Mnox, man~ Much some O, egO,000,000 20 Buros (1977) 155
Jan Ba>
156Nikopol(S. UkrainianMn SU-UK horiz 4b/3b Stl OI mfi, ms(, dy n- m Mnox, mang, M n ~ some 0, 940,000,000 20 Varcntsovand Rakbma- 156
>
Basi > nov (1974)
157 BolshoiTokmak SU-UK honz 3b Stl OI rod, ms( n- m Mncb 0,490,000,000 24.5 VarenBOv and Rakhma- 157
>
(S.Ukrainian B > nov (1974) Z
158 DemyanovskiDep, (Azov SU-UK dep2 3a(m) MY $2 A," rash, Ion / / gns, amf amf rhdn, spes some 0,000,500,000 E 21 Sidorenko, cd. ( 1975) 158
Sea) rrl
159 KcrchPcnins. SU-UK distr 3b Sxt3 PI ist/mst, lim n- m side, goet, Fed some Fe 0, 057,000, 000 3 Sokolovand Grigor'ev 159 rrl
(1974)
160 LabaRiver(N.Caucasus) SU-RS distr 3b Stl O13- Mil rod, ms( n- m Mnch, Mnox some 0,003,000,000 10 Vm'cnBovand Rakhma- 160
nov (1974)
161 Shkmenkoe(D'zhinda SU-GR dep2 3b Stl OI1 mnf, mnc, arq, ark, s- c Mnox, Mncb some 0, 026,000, 000 20 Buros (1977) 161
T~
Massif) dy -]
162 Chiatum(DzhimlaMassif) SU-GR field 3b Stl OI1 mnf, mnc, arq,arL s-c Mnox, Mncb some 0, 600,000,000 20 Varentsov and Rakhma- 162
m
ely nov ( 1974)
163 Sevkar-Sari~ukh SU-AR set2 3a SV4c J3 - Cr3 che,fire,ave,and s-gr Mnox, nmng haus some 0, 000, fi80, 000 S 20 yashvili (1980) 163
(A~em)
>
164M~Peains.(Ca~ SU-KZ hor/z 3b Scl OII lim, do1 n- m MBeb some 0,002,640,000 8 Dvomv and Sokolova 164 r"
pian> (1986) r"
165 N. UrahPaleoc. Bs. SU-RS area 3b SH Pc agl, arq, rest n- m Mncb, Mnox some 0,031,800, 000 21.2 Yarentson and Rakhraa- 165
n-
nov (1974) o
166 KJevakino (C. Urals) SU- R5 dep2 3a VS4 D2 che,shl//and, has Mncb, rhdn,spes, some 0,000,100, 0~0 E 26 Varentsov and gakhma- 166 o
Mnox nov (1980) z
m
167 TagibKushvinsk, UralMts. SU-RS distr 3a w/SV3c Q/DI lim//has, ira s- gr Mncb, Mnox some 0,000,440,000 29 Buros (1977) 167
168 Ulutelyak (Fore- Ural) SU- RS field 3b Sc3 I~1 lim,m d / ~ n- m Mncb, Mnox some O, 000, 900, 000 10 Gribov (1972) 168
169 Bildmlov,.kMnhoriz., SU-RS belt 3a VS?.a S jsp, che, fit//has, gr rhdn, brau, Mnox some 0,000,600,000 30 Popov (1979) 169
S.Urals mf
170 Magaitogorsk Mn area SU- RS area 3a w/SV3 D3 jsp, che//and, dac, s- gr, cont brau, rhdn, Mnox some 0,000,600,000 20 Varentsov and Rakhnm- 170 m
tuf nov (1974)
g
171 Buyuk Eynmr ( Balikesir TK dep2 4b/3a W/VS4 Q/T2 rbl, brx/che, ave, hd Mnox, heraa much F¢ 0, 001, 000, ~ 5 Ozkocak et al. (1977) 171
Prov. ) and >
172 Kanlku~ (CentralAnatolia) TK field 4a AS21k T2 ave,rhy-mr//[ira n- m Mnox, goet,hema some Fe O,{~0, 420, 000 ]0 Oziocak atd. 0977) 172 Z
.4
173 Yukari Sarikaya TK field 3b (m) w/MSct PZ mbl, qzl / / set am( bixb, hema, magn some Fc 0, 000, 555,105 5.35 Ozkocak et al. (1977) 173 -t
(C.Anatolia)
-t
174 Asihmb¢l (C.Anatolia) TK dep2 4b/3a(m) W/MS Ct T/PZ re:g/mb], sc'1 n- m / gr Mnox, 8oc1,hema 100% Fe 0 , ~ 0 , 1 8 L 000 12.5 Ozkocak el al. (1977) 174
175 Deveci ( Malatya Prov. ) TK dep2 4b/3a W/SV4c Q/Cr/Eo reg/lira//am, shl, hd Mnox, goet, side, 60~ Fe 0,000,350,000 4.1 Ozkocak ¢t aL (1977) 175 m
and anke
176 TroodosMB. (W.Cyprus) CY distr 1 VS 2b Cr och, shl//bas s- gr Mnox, 8oel some Fe 0, 000, 298, 00~ 8 GuiUemot and Nestcroff 176
(1980) ©
>
] 77 Timna ( Akaba Rift) IS field 3b WISe3 Cm2-3 dob am, shl n-m Mnox I0~ 0, 002,956,000 29 Bar- Mat(hews (1987) 177
178 Wad/Amba (Ataba Rift ) JO field 3b W/Sc3 Cm2-3 dob llrn, sift-c n-m Maox some tCu) 0,0fi0,266, 000 33.2 Bigot (1981) 178
179 Um Bogma (SW Sinai) EG field 3b w/Sc3 Cbl dol, l i r a / / s h l , raft, n- m Mnox, mang, haus much 0,00 I,750,000 35 Man and Sa~ (1972) 179
sil
180 Wadi Mialik (S.E. Desert) EG field 4b/3b (m) CI Mi/PCm clll, am/dio n- m / amf Mnox, hema, 8oet some 0,000,001,272 57.8 Atria (1956) 180
181 Bahafiya Oasis, W.Desert EG distr 4b/3b W/Sxc3 QI Eo2 reg, is(. lim n- m hema, goc',,Mnox much Fe 0, 007, 600, 0~) 3,04 Zitzmann (1977) 181
182 Slata TU dep2 3b/4c wg/lhr Q/Eo2 hdv, lira, dol n- m side, goct, Mnox some Fe 0, 000, 055, 420 3.4 Massin (1977) 182
183 Kahal de Brezina AG field 4b $II Cr3 am//fire, md, gyp n- m Mncb, Mnox some 0,000,055,100 17 Lucas (1956) 183
184 Jeb¢l Guetarca AG field 4a AS3 Pt3 tuff, arL ave / / rhy gr brau, Mnox, piem, some 0,000,690,000 45.7 Lucas (1956) 184
Mnox
185 Olib-ea-Nim (Oujda MR dep2 3a VS4 Cbl )sp,scl,tuf//dac, ~ brau > Mnox, Mncb, some 0,000,012,000 37.5 Vincienne (1956) 185
r~on ) rhy haus
186 Bou Affa MR horiz 3b Wk/Sc4 J1 dol,lim,rbl//ark, n-m haus.Mnox much 0,000,120,000 40 Vincienne (1956) 186
mrl
187 AyattadTiaratine, AyalD. MR set2 3b SC4 Jl mnf, lira- c / / d o l n- m haus, jacb, Mnox some 0,000,120,000 40 Hewer( (1966) 187
188 Imini ( S. dope Haut Atlas ) MR field 3b Set3 Cr3 mfl- dol, b r x / / a r n n- m Mnox some 0,003,440,~ 0 50 ForocetaL(/986) 188
189 Tasdrcmt ( S. Haut Afias) MR field 3b Set3 Cr3 raft-dol/arn n- m Mnox some 0,000,615,000 44 Vincienne (1956) 189
190 Tiounine, OuanazateDistr. MR field 4a AS31k Pt3 shl, c~l, tuf//rhy, s- gr brau, Mnox some 0,000,225,~0 45 Bouladon and 3ouravsky 190
and (1955) i
191 E1fio~ veto (Ouartazate MR depl 4c W$/lh3v Pt3 rhL tuf,ave,c~. M Maox > hrau,bail much 0,000,007,500 15 Bouladonand Jounvsky 191 .Ix
Dist> (]955)
192 Jcb¢l Sarhlo, Oualzazat¢ MR aria ¢¢ W/lh3v Pt3 rhy,tuf,arc,cgl hd Mnox > brau,ban much 0, 0~. filfi, 000 15 Bouladonand Jouravsky 192
Distr (1955)
194 ldikel (Afem/Pass) MR dep2 4a AS 31k ['12 dol//qil, shl,rhy, s-gr haus,brau,rhdn, some 0, 0~0,043, 000 43 Bouladonand Jouravsk~ 194
arc Mnox (1956)
194 Om'zazateM. veins (Anti- MR area 4¢ Wg/lh3v Pt3 rh'~,tuf,ave,cgl hd Mnox > brau,bail much 0, DO0,200, 000 50 Bouladonand Jouravsky 194
Afia> (]955)
195 Ansongo M[ fidd 4b/3a (M) "~t/M'¢fi2 Q/Ptl cnc,rbl,ely//gon, s-c / ~'af Mnox > Slg'S,Mnsi 100% 0, 004, 0~0, 000 40 Servant (1956) 195
set
196 Tit.re ( fiurkira Faso) UV field 4b/3a (m) Wt/MVS2 Q/F~I dy, d~/gon / / scL s-c / amf Mnox/spes I00% 0,001,200,000 30 Servant (1956) 196
qzl
197 Tambao (SWBurkina Faso) UV field 4b/3a(m) Wlt/MVS2 Q/PH cnc,rbl,cly/mnc, s-c / amf Maox > M~cb, sl~s, 100% 0, 00g, 662, 000 52 Perseil and Grand.in 197
gon beau (1978)
198 Bondottkou IV fieki 4b/3a (mJ wd/MY S2 Q/Ptl Itr,rbl/gon,mnf s-c / amf Mnox > haus,mang 100% 0, 000, 250, 0~O 40 Servant (1956) 198
199 Nsuta (oxide ore) GH field 4b/3a (m) Wlt/MVS2 + Q/FII cnc,rbl,dy/nmc, s-c / amf Muox> M~cb, ~ 100% O,fil8,000, DO0 48 Perseil and Grandin 199
gon brau (1978)
199 Nsuta. carbonate ore GH field 3a(mJ MVS2 + PII mnc, gon/scl-c amf Mncb, brau,spes 0, 005, 610, 000 25.5 Perseiland Caandin 199
(1978)
200 Grand Lahou (Mokta) IV field 4b/3a (m) Wtl/MVS2 Q/Ptl fir,rbl/gon s-c/amf Mnox 100% 0, 001,100, (~0 44 Rolx'r (1956) 200
201 Blafo-Gueto IV fie~id 4b/3a (m) wt/MYS3 Q/Ptl rbl,dy / sctl/ r~y s-c/~ Mnox 100% fi, 000,400,0(~0 E 40 CnzadinzmdPcr~i] 201
0983)
202 M'Bou¢~ou IV dep2 4b/3a (m) wt/Mrs2 Q/Ptl cly,rbl/ gon / / scL s-c/amf Mnox/spes 100% 0,060,200,000 S 27.5 Serv~t (1956) 202
qz~
203 Lagnokaha(Korho$o IV dep2 4b/3a (m) Wd/MY $2 Q/Ptl ltr, rbl / gon s-c/amf Mnox > sa~s 100% 0,000,371,250 30 Servant (1956) 203
Distr.)
204 l ~ b l e M. (Korhogo IV dq~2 4b/3a wt/MVS2 Q/P11 ely, rbl/son//set, grnl,gmt Mnox/spes 100% O,~, 690, 000 23 Set.ant (1956) 204
D.) qz't
205 MmndJLoxideot~ GB field 4b/3b 9¢1/Sxt2+ Q/PI2 cnc, rbl, dy/mnc, sit s-c / s-gr Mnox / Mncb 100% 0,275,000,000 R 35 Bouladonetal.(1965) 205
206 Mmmda-OkoumaPl.,Mn GB hofiz 3h fixl 2 + P12 mnc- c, sit- c//cbn, s-gr Mncb, pyri 6,500,000,000 R 13.5 Leclercand Weber 206
pmtort arn (1980)
21)7 Quimt~ Ccmra/An$ola AN field 4b/4¢ Wt/Ihlr Q/PCm rbl/hdv, fir, sye,gns s-c/amf Mnox. mang. rhdn, much 0, 0~0, 040, 000 R 51.1 Kaoch¢ (1982) 207
brau
208 Quicuiahe, Central Angola AN field 4b/3b Wt/CI Q/1:13 rbl/am, cgl s- c / ? Mnox, mang rhdn much 0,00|, 390, 000 55.8 Kaoche (1952) 208
209 Kise~l~ (W.Shal~): Mn ZI depl 3a(m) MVS P12 gon/qzt, sot- c amf spes 0, 002, 000, 000 E 20 Doyen (1973) 209
pmto~
2 l0 KJ~al~- Kamata: oxideo~ 7_1 field 4b/3a (m) wt/MVS Q/P~2 rbl, reg/gon, mnc vc/amf Mnox t~ fi, fliT, 000, 000 35 Schufiingand Orose- 210
mans (1956)
211 Kamatl (W.Shaba): Mn ZI depl 3a(m~ MVS2+ I~2 mac- b, set- b amf Mncb > brau, spes 0, 010, 000, O~O S 40 Doyen (1973) 211
protore
213 Fort gosebery ZA field 4c Wt/Ihlv Q/Pt rbl, rcg/ppb, Ip'n s-c/M nox 100% O,flO0,fiSO,000 e 50 Foc~ ~md Austen 213
(1956)
214 ChowaM., Kabwearea ZA dep2 4b/3b (m) wt/Ih2 Q/Pt Itr, rbl, cly//set, grit s-c / amf Mnox > mang 100% fi. 000, fi22, gO0 33 Fockema and Austen 214
0956)
215 Chiwefwe ( Zambia ) ZA d~2 4b/3b(m) wtt/[h2 Q/P~2 |tr, tb|,cly, egl,brx n-m/and Mnox, mang 100% 0, 000, 028, 000 47 Fockema~ d Auslen 215
(1956)
216 Kampum~ (Zambia) ZA field 4b/3a (m) Wt/Mrs Q/PCm rbl, teg/mnc, mnf// s-c/amf Mnox/Mncb, haus, 80% Fe 0,000,050,000 S 55 FockemaandAusten 216
gas brae 0956)
217 Chilwa Island MW field 4c [ml ctt- sdr n-m side, Mnox some Fe 0,000,260,000 g.6 Ganoa (|956) 217
2if, En Kafala (N. &far) El" dep2 3a SV2c Q bavlim / / tuf s-c Mnox, nont, man.g, some 0, 000, 08fi,~ E 40 Bonatti et al. (1972) 218
bari
219 Mrima Hill ( Mombasa KY dep2 4b/4¢ Wlk/IMI Q/ rbl, dy/ctt s-c Mnox > side.bafi 100% 0 , ~ , 15fi,000 27.5 Pulfrey(19~) 219
rni~) t-
>
220 Gn~phiteSyst.,S. blA area 4b/3a (m) Wt/MVS2+ Q/P~I reg/gon, msh//sct, s-c/amf Mnox,$pes,rhdn 100% 0, 001, 500, 0~O E 40 Boulanger(1956) 220 N
Madagascar am/" Z
221K'afi(AlasaDiszr.) fiO.KZ depl 3a SV3 ctx + D3- Cbl mnf, bff, che, lim-c s-gr, hd brau, jaeb.haus, some Fe 0, 002, 95fi, t~O 20 Bond~yevandShcherba 221
Mncb ( 1968 )
222 Ushkatyn (Atasu Distr.) SU- KZ fidd 3a SV3etx+ D3- Cbl mnf, bif, che, lira- c s- gr, hd brau,jacb,haus, some FeZnPb 0,002,000,0~0 10 Ikmdtayev and Shchetha 222 K
>
Mncb (1968)
Z
223 WvaKantzhal (Atasu SU-KZ depl 3a SV3ctx+ D3- Cbl rrmf, blf, che, lim- c s- ~, hd brau,jacb,haus, some FeZnPb 0,013,200,0(X} 27.2 Borukayev and Shcherba 223
>
Distr.) Mncb (1%8) Z
224 Z~airem (Atasu Distr. ) SU-KZ field 3a SV3 ctx + D3- Cbl mnf, bif, che, lim- c s- gr, hd hrau,jacb,haus, some FeZnPb 0,000,900,000 S 8 BorukayevandShcherba 224
Mncb (t%8) rrl
12 Bonff.ayev and Shchcrba 225 U7
225 AtasuDistfiet, others SU-KZ distr 3a SV3 ctx+ D3- Col mnf, bif, che, lira- c s- gt, hd brau, jacb, haus, some FeZnPb 0,060,950,000 t'~
Mncb (1968)
226 Dzhezda ( Kantkhstan ) SU-KZ dep2 4b CI D3 c~l,ark n-m brau some 0, 000, 050, (300 E 18 RundkvisL cd. ( 1978) 226
227 Zhaksy-Kotr ( K a ~ SU-KZ d ~ 2 4a AS2cg D3 cgl,arn / / tuf-brx n-m Mnox, brau some 0,1300,240,000 S 20 La2ur (1980) 227
Rise)
228 Takhta- Karacha Pas* SU-UZ field 3a W/VS2b $3 mnc, che,lim / / has, gr,cont Mncb> spes,Mnox some 0,000,080,000 S 15 Varentsov and P.akhma- 228
(Zeravsha> dt nov (1974) m
m
229 Ghorband Valley AF dim 4b/3a W/SV2c S-D che,lim,has gr Mnox much 0,000, 032,000 S 32 Tv~chrdidzc (1972) 229 c~

230 Bela ( I ~ l a S t a t e ) PK distr 4b/I Wt/VS2b Q/TI rbl,cly/shl,bas,che gr Mnox 100% 0, 000, 210, 000 42 Master (1956) 230
S
>
231 Khuzdar (Pakistan) PK distr 4b/3a W/v-~ Q/Cr-TI rbl,cly/tit,and,che s-c / gr Mnox 100% 0,000, 387,000 43 Master (1956) 231 t"'
232 PanchMalmls, Baroda IA-GU distr 4b/3b (m) Wh/Mst Q/lhl Itr,rbl,dy/rnnf,8on s-c / gr Mnox,brau, SlgS 90% 0, 000, 725, 000 47 Roy (1981) 232 r"
233 Jhabea (W. Madhya IA- MP distr 4b/3b ( m ) Wt/MISt Q/PII rbl,cly/mnf,gon s-c/gr Mnox, brau, bixb, 90% 0, 000, 700, 000 35 Lahiti (1971) 233
Pndesh) spcs o
234 Adilabad ( N. Andhra IA- AP distr 4b/3b wt/Sc3 Pt3 rbl,cly/mnc, lira-sI'ds-c / s-gr Mnox 90% 0, 000, 500, 000 E 40 Roy (1981) 234
rH
Pradesh ) z
Mnox/brau some 0.005,750,1300 50 Roy (1981) 235 m
235 B ~ t Mine (Sausar IA- MP dep2 4b/ Wt/MSt Q/P13 thl/mar,jsp,set s-e/amf
Group)
236 DOnl~Buz'urg (Sau~r IA-MH field 4b/3b (m) WI/MSI Q/lh3 reg,mnf, set s-c/amf Mnox, mang, jacb, part 0, 004, 600,000 R 53 Roy (1959) 236
Group ) brau
237 Sausar Or. Mn others (C. IA area 4b/3b (m) Wt/MSt Q/P13 thl/mnf,jsp,set s-c/amf Mnox/brau some 0, 046, 000,000 47 Roy ( 1981 ) 237 m
lndi >
K
Q/I~I reg,rbl,dy/mnf, gon s-c/amf Mnox, brau, bixb, 80% 0, 000, 500, 000 S 30 Roy (1981) 238 ,o
238 Gan~ur(N. Orissa) IA-OR distr 4b/3b (m) Wt/MSt TX
lmus
239 Joda (Bonai- Keonjhar- IA- OR field 4b/3b Wh/MSx Q/Ar rbl,ely/bif,mnf s-el s-gr Mnox, man8 100% 0, 001,300, 000 40 TATA Corp. (1988) 239
Singhbum ) -t
240 Bonai- Keonjhar- Singhbum, IA area 4b/3b Wt/SX Q/Ar rbl, ely/bif, mnf s-c/s- gr Mnox, mang 100% 0, 008, 200, (300 32 Roy (1981) 240
othe >
241 Kalahandi, Khoraput, Patna [A-OR area 4b/3a (m) Wh/MVS Q/Ar ltr, rbl, reg cly/8on s- c/grnl Mnox> brau 100% 0, 001,260, G00 30 Roy (1981) 241 m
>
242 Srikakulam IA- AP belt 4b/3h ( m ) Wt/MSt Q/PCm rbl, cly/mnf, gon, grnl, grnt Mnox, brau, hdn, 90% 0,001,700,000 42 Rao (1964) 242
( Vtzappatnam ) mth Mnsi
243 NoMh Kanara-Goa IA distr 4b/3a Wh/MVSx Q/Ptl lit, rbl,dy/bif, jsp s-el gr Mnox, brau 10(~ 0, 002,100, 000 35 Roy ( 1981 ) 243 ©
>
244 Shimoga- Chitaldra8 IA- KA distr 4b/3a Wt/MVSx Q/Ptl rbl, ely/qzt, s h / / b i f s- c/gr Mnox 106% 0,000, 600,000 40 Karunakaran (1956) 244
245 Tayezhno¢ (¥enisei Range) SU- SB field 3b St3+ Pt2-3 rune,che,sh-c,am gr Mncb, Mnox some 0,000, 500,000 E I0 Gurvich(1981) 245
245 Sander-B¢lla~ IA- KA distr 4b/3a Wt/MVS2 Q/Ptl rbl, cly/jsp, sit, bas s-c/gr Mnox 100% 0, 005, 548,000 40 Kamnakaran (1956) 245
247 Dumovsk(SalairRange) SU-SB field 3a VS 5c Cml - 2 jsp,the/rhy, lira gr brau, Mnox some 0, 000,120, 000 20 Varentsov and Rakhma- 247
nov ( 1974 )
248 U ~ (Usinskoe), Kuznetsk SU- SB field 3a MV $3c + Cml rune,Jim,dol-c// gr Mncb > Mnox 12.5% 0,020,120, 000 22 Varenttov and Raldama- 248
Alat> phl-c nov ( 1974 )
249 Oldakit (Angara Range) SU- SB field 3b Stl Cml mnc, am, s0,shl n-m Mncb 0,002,000,000 10 Varentsov and Rakhma- 249
nov (1974)
250 Ikal- Gargins (Tmns- SU- SB field 3b/4c MtSt Pt3/PZI jsp, cbn, Mn- shl, hnf cont Mncb, rhdn some 0, 000,100,000 E 22.3 VarentsovandRakhma- 250
Baikal) nov ( 1980 )
251 S~m-Zaba(LBaikal) SU-SB dep2 3a(m) MVS3c Ar3 Mn-mbl//qzt, gns, amf Mn- talc, Mnsi, some 0,000,060,000 6 Varentsov and Rakhma- 251
amf Mnox nov (1980)
252 West Khubsugul L area MO area 3a Scl Pt3- Cm jsp,che//lira,dol, gr brau, haus, Mnox some 0, 003, 000, 000 E 30 Borzakovr,kii wt ld. 252
phs (1971)
253 Leglier Ser. (Taezhnoe, SU- SB distr 3Ac (mm) lhh Ar Mg- skr, mbl//gns, amf magn, Mnsi F¢ 0,150, 000, 000 R 5 Vomna et al. (1972) 253
etc.; > amf
254 Uda R.- Shantar lsl., Okh- SU- SB area 3a VS2a Cml jsp, che, ill//has, gr brau, rhdn, Mnox some 0, 043,000,000 43 Varentsov and Rakhma- 254
olsk > 0m nov (1974)
255 M~d,jiK.hinltaa SU-SB ~str h MSx PI3- Cm mnf, bif//che, sh, $r brau,Mnch, ham some Fe 0,002,1{30,000 21 Yc~rov and Tiraofeeva 255
dol (1972)
256 Wafanl~ (ChJoyangan~a) CH-LI field 3b St3+ P12-3 mnf, mnc, sit//lim, s-g mang brau, Mnch, some 0, O01,500, O00 25 Muraoka ( 1956) 256
do1 Mnox
257 LingyanMine CH- LI field 3b Set Pt3 mnc, dt//lim, dol s-gi Mnch> Mnox some 0,000,070,000 I0 Muraoka (1956) 257
(W.Lmoning)
258 Chinl~ien (W. Liaoning) CH- L1 field 3b/4¢ lhls ~3 skr, lim//sit, gin cont, hd rhdn, Mnox some PbZn 0, ~0, 032, O00 30 Muraoka (1956) 258
259 TaojmagMine(Hunan) CH-LI dep2 3b St3t Or2 shl-c,lim n-m Mncb> Mnox some 0, O01,400, O00 20 Fan Delinnetal.(1988) 259
260 TanmmmhanMine CH-HN dep2 3b St3t Pt3 slal-c.rune,lira s-g, cont Mnch> dab, Mnox some 0, 001,400, 000 20 Fan Delian el al. ( 1988) 260
(Huaaa)
261 X'.mngtan(Hsiangtan) CH-HN field 4b/3b Wt/$t3+ Q/Pt3 rbl,cly/shl-c.mnc n- m/s-gr Mnox/Mnch much 0,004,500,000 45 Ye Lianjun et a1.(1988) 261
262 MthleMme(Hunan) CH-HN field 3b St3+ Fi3 thl-c.mne s-gr Mncb > Mnox some 0, O00, 800, O00 E 30 YeLianjunctal.(1988) 262
263 C'heeg~u-Wltn~tan CH-HN ~ist~ 3b 513+ Pt3 ~-c//phs s-gr Mnch > Mnox some O,O01,O00,000 E 25 YeLianjunelal.(1988) 263
264 Gexue Mine ( Guizhou ) CH-GU field 3b SV2c PC Mn- ~m, brx, jsp// n-m Mnox > Mncb most O,000, 200, ~ 0 E 40 YeLinnjunetal.(i988) 264
b~
265 ZunyiDi.slriet CH-GU dim 3b St3+ Pc3 mne, shl- c//tim, n-m Mnch. pyri.Mnox some 0, O02,000, O00 E 25 YeLinnjuaetld.(1988) 265
coa
266 XialeiMinc CH-YU field 3h Sct4+ D3 mnc, che, lira, shl- c gr Mnch > Mnsi some 0,004,000,000 E 25 Wang Jinhang (1987) 266
267 HuaiMuang Mine TH s~t 4b/3b, redid Wtl St2 Q/Cbl ci¥,rbl/qzt,phi s-clg~en Mnchl Mnox 90~ 0, O00,020, O00 60 Jacobson( 1969) 267
(Thailand)
268 Gtml Pedok M (Malaya) MY Sel 4b/3b WI/$13 T- Q/PZ Itr,reg//shl s-c/s-grs Mnox I 0,000,070,3O0 40 Saval~e(1956) 268
269 Mach~Sauthun (Malaya) M Y set 4b/3b Wt/S~3 PZ/T-Q sh~ s-gn Mnox 100% 0.O00.148,O00 40 Savage (1956) 269
270 Tokom Mine (N.E. NP field 3a W / V S 2a J jsp//has- tuf, shl, s-gr rhdn,piem.Mnox some Fe 0,000,120.000 S 12 Suzuki and Ohmachi 270
HokJ~do) has (1956)
271 laakemishi Mine NP de¢i 4c lh3v Mi and,rhy,tuf hd Mncb > alab some 0, O02,O00,0O0 27 Kaneko (1956) 271
(S.Holdmido)
272 Jokoku Mine (S.Hokl~odo) NP depl 4c lh3v Mi and, rhy hd Mnch> alab some O,000, 9~0, O00 S 25 Kancho (1956) 272
273 South HoldmidoMn veins NP distr 4¢ l~3v Mi and, :ay,tuf-brx hd Mnch > alab some 0, O00, 8O0,000 S 25 Kancho (1956) 273
(othe>
274 Noda- TmnagswaMine NP field 3a/4c MtVS2 Pe/Cr che,hnf//slt,ave. cont Mncb, baus.Mini, some O, O00,180, O00 36 Watanabc el al. (1970) 274
(Honshu) has :ado
275 Kam Mine (Central NP field 3a/4c W/Mt Pc/Cr che,haf//at, arc, cont Mnch. ham, jach, some 0, O00,025, 000 25 Watanabcct M. (1970) 275
Honshu ) has alab
276 Hama¥okokawaM. (Na- NP do~2 3a SV2b+ Cb-Pe che/gt-c gr Mnch>ham, brau, some 0,000,123,000 30 Nishiwaki ¢t al. (1970) 276
gano Pref.) Maox
277 Ashio Mountain Land NP di$tr 3a VS2a Cb-Pe che//bas-mr, arc, s-gr Mnch> Mnox some 0, 000,1O0, O00 E 25 Watanabeetal. (1970) 277
chn
278 Anami tnd Iplm Mines NP set2 3a VS2a Cb-Pe che,j ~ / / sh, bas ~r Mnch. rhdo.Mnsi, some 0, 000, 050, 000 25 Saito (1960) 278
(~aikoku) Mnox
279 Jaalltm Mine (S. Korea) KO field 3b/4¢ W/Set Cm rune, dot, brx cont Mnch. brau,Mnox some 0, 000, 2O0,O00 $ 30 Kim (19g0) 279
280 Siee,N.W. Luzon PH distr 4b/3;I Wt/VS4 Q/T rb[, ely/jsp, arc, tuf s-~" Mnox, brau much O,OO0,018, O00 36 wolff (1978) 280
281 Sierra Madre, Luzon PH dish" 4b/3a Wt/SV3 Q/OI rbl, ely/j~, has, sh s-~" Mnox, Mnch, rhdn much (lee) 0,0O0,249,0 ~ 40 Wolff (1978) 281
282 Santa Cntz, Marindtulue PH field 4b/3a Wt/VS4 Q/T rbl, ely/i~, itvc,tuf s-~ Mnox, bran much 0,0O0,~.2,0O0 42 Wolff (1978) 282
283 Muhate 1 ~ PH area 4b/3a Wt/VS4 Q/T rbl, dy/jsh, ave, tuf s-gr Mnox~brau much 0, O00,190, O00 48 Wolff (1978) 283
284 ~ Sil~ijor PH field 4b/3a Wt/VS4 Q/T rbl, ely/jsp, ave, tel s-gr Mnox, brau much 0, O00,033, 6O0 28 Wolff(1978) 284
285 BoholIsland PH field 4b/3a wt/VS4 QIT tb~,c[~lj~, tvc.tuf s-~ Mnox.~'au much O, O00,291,000 15 Wolff (1978), ~.IL Bou- 285
laager ( 1956)
286 T~udkmalaya(C. Jtwa) ID distr 4b/4a Wt/VS4 Mi rbl,cly/avc.j~,tuf s-c/s-gr brau~Mnox, ham some 0,000,150,000 28 Lazaicha, vis/t ( 1980) 286
287 Yol~ak~ta (Jl~va) ID distr 4b/4a Wt/VS4 Q/Mi2 rb~,d~/avc, j~, ttff s-c/s-gr bra'~t,M~x, haus some 0,000,039,006 40 Schmidt (1976) 287
288 HanesawoIsland (Solomon, SI dep2 4b/3a Wt/VS4 T ely, che, tnf n-m Mnox some 0,000,004,600 46 Thomlxon and Fisher 288
lsl.) (1967)
289 Form ( BfateIsland; NH dop2 4b/3a Wt/VS4 PI-Q cl,/,and-tttf, tim// n-m Mnox solr~ 0, O00,°A~,000 20 Warden [ 1970) 289
Vtnualu) has
290 Erroman$oIsland NH field 4b/3a Wt/VS4 PI-Q ely.and-tuf.lim// n-m Mnox some 0, O00,480, 0O0 30 Warden(1970) 290
( Vlmuatu)
291 Viti Levu Idand (Fiji) FJ distr 4b/3a Wt/VS4 Mi- PI cly, ~d- tuf, lim n- m Mnox some 0, O00,1O0,O00 48 CoUey and Greenbaum 291
(1950)
292 Bourad,J07 Depos0 NC dep2 4b/I Wt/SV2b Eo reg/jsp, $hl//has, s-gr Mnox 100e/s 0, 0O~,004, 700 47 Amould and RoutMer 292 K
tuf (1956) >
:z
293 Raymond Mine, Poya Basin NC dep2 4b/1 Wt/SV2b Q/TI rbl, reg/shL jsp// s-gr Mnox 100% 0,000,012,220 47 Arnould and Routhier 293
bes (1956) >
zrlq
294 New Calulonia asbolitcs NC area 4b/1 Wl Eo/T,Q ltr/prd,scr uncon$ Mnox lO0~ Co 0,000,040,0 ~ R 20 Paris ( 1951) 294
295 Groot¢ Eyland! AU- NT field 4b/3b w0/Stl T/Crl cnc, rbl, mnf, md, s-c/n-m Mnox> Mncb pan 0, 222, 000, 000 45 Mclatosb et al. ( 1975) 295
arq
rrl
296 Mud~tty H.S. (N. of AU- NT dep2 41)/3b wi/St T/P13 ara, sil//lira, shl n-m Mnox 100% 0, 000, 006, 800 46 Crohn (1973) 296
Tennant )
297 GladstoneMn district Au-QI distr 4b/3a Wt/SV2b Q/0¢-S reg/che, sit//has gr, cont Mnox > brau, rhdn 90% 0, 0fi0, 02 I, 800 48 Murray (1975) 297
298 AntHdl(E. PilbaraMn AU-WA field 4b/ wt/s13 T/P12 rbl,ely/shl s-c/s- gr Mnox 100% Fc 0,002,483,000 19.1 Blockley(1975) 298
distr) ,.q
299 Gre$oryRange-Woodie AU-WA distr 4b/3b WI/Set T/P~2 rbl, ely//lim s-el s-gr Mnox 100% 0, 0 ~ , 638,000 49. I Blocklcy( 1975) 299 re
Woodie
300 ML Nicholas (E. Pilbara Mn AU- WA field 4b/3b wt/St3 T/P12 rbl, cly/$hl s- c/s- gr Mnox 100% Fe 0,007, 2(}0,000 5 Blocklcy ( 1975) 300
d) E
301 MountRove(E. PilbaraMn AU-WA field 4b/3b Wt/S13 T/Pt2 rbl, ely/shl s-c/s-f: Mnox 100% Fe 0,011,520,000 6.9 Blocldey(1975) 301 >
r"
dis) r"
302 RiponHills(E. PdberaMn AU-WA field 4B/3B Wt/St3 T/Pt2 rbl, ely/shl s- c/s- gr Mnox 100% Fe 0, 010, 200, 0 ~ 19.4 Blocklcy(1975) 302
di)
0
303 PeakHill AU-WA distr 4b/3a(m) WI/MSVx T/Ar Itr, reg cnc, rbl/bif s-c/amf Mnox I00% 0,000,276,000 40 Casey (1956) 303 0
rn
304 Mourn Lucky,Lavenon AU- W A dep2 4b/3a(m ) Wt/MVS T/Ar ely, rbl//bif, qzt s-c/gr Mnox 100% 0,000,029,600 37 Cascy (1956) 304
Z
305 Ravensthorpe(W. AU-WA distr 4b/3a(m) Wit/MVSx T/Ar Itr, rbL ely//bif, set s- c/amf Mnox, man8 100% 0,000,120,000 35 Casey (1956) 305 rn
Australia)
306 Siberia-Ora Banda AU set 4b/3a W] At3 Itr/ser s-cons Mnox 100% Ni 0,000,020,000 s 20 Lof~us-Hill ( 1975) 306
307 Pernatty Lagoon AU- SA field 4b/3b Wk/Scl Q/Or ely, rbl/dol s-c/n-m Mnox 100% 0,000,135,000 40 Casey (1956) 307
308 IronMonarchM. (Middle- AU-SA depl 4fi/3a(m) Wt/MSx T/PO reg, spr, rbl//bif, sct s-c/amf Mnox>brau, mang 95% Fe 0,000,640,000 8 Casey (1956) 308 t'~
back R ) g
309 BrokenHifi (NS.W.) AU-NS field 3a(m) Wg/MVS3tx I~I slf,msh/gns, bif, amf rhdn,Mnsi,Mnox some PbZnAg 0,008,000,000 R 5 Hawhns (1968) 309 ,0
amf >
310Barraba-Tanworth-Walcha AU-QL bcfi 4b/3a Wl/VS2a Q/S-D ~g. jsp,che,shl// s-gr Mnox, rhdn 80% 0, 000, (KIT,700 35 Casey (1956) 310 Z
bas -]
311 Otjosondu (C. Namibia) NM field 3b(m) W/MSx 1~3 mnf, bif,qzt//set amf,gmt brau,jacb,Baus, some Fe 0, 002,030, 000 45 Roper (1956) 311
Mnox
312 Lobats¢-Kgwakgw¢(S. BW field 3b W/St3 Ptl mnf, che//shl,sil, n-m Mnox some 0, 0~0, 095, 0~0 48 Baldocket al. ( 1976) 312 r~
Botswana) arn
312 Kasckelesa(Shaba) ZI dep2 4b/3b Wt/CI? Pl3 Itr,rbl,cgl n- m Mnox 100% 0, 000,110, 0 ~ 51 Schuilingand Gros¢- 312
mans( 1956) ©
313 Gopane SA/BW honz 3b Ptl lira//shl, qzl n- m Mnox, goct 100% O, 000, 418, 800 52 Steyn et al. (1986) 313 >
Set2
314 Bronkhofstfontein- Baden SA area 4b C2 P0 am n- m brau, Mnox some 0, 004, 625, 000 37 Hammcrbeck and Tal- 314 =
(Tran) jaardt ( 197)
315 KalahanMnField-Mama- SA horiz 3b Sx Ptl mnf- mnc//bif, jsp n-m brau, Mncb some Fe 4,193, 000, 000 31 Grobbelaar and Beukes 315
twan (Ty) (1986)
316 KaiahariMnFicld-Wessels SA field 3b Sx Pfi mnf- rune//bif, jsp flt/hd brau, haus, bixb some O, 175,000, 000 42 Grobbelaar and Beukes 316
Type (1986)
317 Postmasbu~ BasteraMn SA zone 3b Wk/Scl T/Pfl chc-brx//dol n- m brau, hans, Mnox some 0, 000,190, 000 R 38 Hammerbeck and Tal- 317
belt jaardt(197)
318 PostmasburgWesternMn SA zone 4b/3b Wk/Scl PII dol-shL che-brx// n-m bixb > jacb, brau, 100% 0. 005, 850, 000 39 Grobbelaarand Beukes 318
l~lt dol 8aus (1986)
319 Ai~eneys (Bushmanland, N1 SA field 3a(m) MVS3tx Ptl gon,rash,flu / bif, amf spes, Mnsi,jacb, bixb some PbZnAg 0,002,000,000 E 20 Hammerbeck and Tal- 319
Cape) gzt jaardt (197)
320 Gamsberg C1+2 Bed SA field 3a(m) MVS3tx Ptl gon,msh, flu / bif, amf spes, Mnsi,jacb, bixb some PbZnAg 0,005,000,000 E 20 Hammerbeck and Tal- 320
(Busbma~a) qzt jaardl ( 197)
321 ~eleznlk-Rtkog (E. CS set2 4b/3b WS/lhr T/Col g'g/stir, brx, lira- c gr Mnox, goet, side 50% Fe 0, 000, 560, 000 8 Papp (1919) 321
Slovakia)
321 Marikan (Bafq Distr.) IN dep] 4a VS4 P13 jsp//ave, rhy, ira, gr, cont Mnox, hema, magn some F¢ 0, 000, 600, 000 5 Taghizadeh ( 1977) 321
tuf
322Nizhncudinsk(SayanMts.) SU-SB field 4b/3b W/Sd MZ- T/PI3 cgl, am, sd n= m Mnox > brau, haus 100 ( F¢) 0, 007, 800, 000 15.6 Varentsovand Rakhma- 322
nov (1980)
346
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