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Late Quaternary vegetational history of Upper Assam, India

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Review of Palaeobotanyand Palynology, 72 (1992): 325-333 325
Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam

Late Quaternary vegetational history of Upper Assam, India

Kashinath Bhattacharya a and Sunirmal Chanda b

aDepartment of Botany, Visva-Bharati University, Santiniketan, 731235, India
bDivision of Palynology and Environmental Biology, Department of Botany, Bose Institute, Calcutta 700 009, India
(Reveived J u n e 24, 1991; revised a n d accepted F e b r u a r y 20, 1992)

ABSTRACT

Bhattacharya, K. and Chanda, S., 1992. Late Quaternary vegetational history of Upper Assam, India. Rev. Palaeobot. Palynol.,
72: 325-333.

Pollen diagrams made from the sub-surface Late Quaternary sediments of Upper Assam, India, reveal palaeoecological and
vegetational patterns which include associations of a large number of temperate ferns and other subtropical/temperate plants.
A peat sample at a depth of 1.80 m dates back to 17,930 + 575 yr BP. The occurrence of north-east Asian elements like Carya,
Pterocarya, and Tsuga suggests a trans-migratory link between India and countries of north-east Asia during the time of
deposition which has been subsequently eliminated due to climatic change or some other natural phenomenon.

Introduction Brahmaputra and its tributaries. The sediments

The state of Assam is situated in north-eastern
India, bounded on the north-east by Bhutan, Aru-
nachal Pradesh and Nagaland, on the south by
Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura and Bangladesh, and
on the west by West Bengal, Meghalaya and
Bangladesh (Fig. 1).
The present investigation is based on samples
collected in the Lakhimpur District of Upper
Assam which lies between 27 ° and 28°N and
between 94.5 ° and 96°E. This district is flanked to
the north by the lower hills of the Eastern Himala-
yas, much of which forms a part of the Brahmapu-
tra valley. The average altitude is 104m above
mean sea level. The Brahmaputra river delimits
the district to the south-east part where several
tributaries, namely Dibru, Dihing, Burhi Dihing,
etc., traverse the entire area. These rivers swell
during the rains and inundate a large part of the
area (Fig.2). The extensive Upper Assam plain is
formed of alluvial sediments deposited by the
Correspondence to: Dr. S. Chanda, Div. Palynology and Envi-
ronm. Biology, Department of Botany, Bose Institute, 93/1
Acharya P.C. Road, Calcutta, 700 009, India.
belong to different ages, stratified with fresh allu-
vium layers.
Very little is known concerning the Quaternary
vegetational history of north-eastern India, especi-
ally from Assam (Chanda and Bhattacharya,
1987), although there are a few scattered reports,
for example from Cinnamara (Gupta, 1971), Dig-
boi (Bhattacharya and Chanda, 1982), Tinsukia
(Bhattacharya et al., 1986), and Upper Assam
(Bhattacharya, 1985, 1986; Bhattacharya and
Chanda, 1984, 1985, 1987-88). It was therefore
supposed that the pollen analysis would be valu-
able for tracing the Quaternary vegetational his-
tory of this region and for revealing changes in
palaeoclimate and ecology.
Materials and methods
Samples from a section exposed in a brick kiln
quarry near Ledo-Matikhad, Upper Assam, were
collected during a field trip with the Geological
Survey of India, North Eastern Region, Shiliong,
in 1978. The deposit was thought to be on the
Tertiary belt as it was in a close proximity to Tirap

0034-6667/92/$05.00 © 1992 - - Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. All rights reserved.

326 K RHATTACHARYA AND S. CHANDA

profile of 2.48 m thickness as indicated in Table

I CHINA ==,I+---/ & CHiNi
II. No collections were made from ferruginous and
&RuNA$AL 4 sand/loose soil. Cl4 dating of one peat sample
from a depth of 1.80 m produced an age of
BHUTAN t 17,930 Ifr 575 yr BP.

The fossil pollen grains and spores recovered from

Ledo-Matikhad

A total of 52 fossil palynomorphs has been

enumerated based on their ecological status, of
which 45 taxa were recorded from the present
deposits. The grains (spores and pollen) were iden-
tified in the usual way by comparing the fossil
grains with recent reference slides from the Sporo-
theka of the Division of Palynology and Environ-
mental Biology, Bose Institute, with the help of
Fig. I. Geographical map of north-eastern India
Erdtman (1952) Erdtman et al. (1961, 1963)
Chanda (1963) Huang (1972) Kremp and Kawa-
colliery (Tertiary origin) but the large exposures
saki (1972) Faegri and Iversen (1975) Devi (1977)
of alluvial peaty clay raised a question as to its etc., and largely by using a pollen/spores key
age. The pollen analytical results suggest a late
prepared on the basis of the local palynoflora.
Quaternary age, and this has been confirmed by
Some of the pollen types have been identified to
radiocarbon dating.
species level but most were identified only to
Samples were collected in air-tight polythene
generic or family levels.
bags and contamination during storage was care-
fully avoided. The samples were prepared by the
conventional acetolysis method (Faegri and Arboreal pollen (AP)
Iversen, 1975). Samples were collected from two
deposits namely Ledo-Matikhad, Quarry No. 1 a. Pollen grains of subtroptcalitemperate trees/shrubs of the
forest or forest margins:
(Table I) and Quarry No. 2 (Table II).
(1) Pinus, (2) Tsuga, (3) Pachylurnas, (4) Sulix. (5) Curw.
(6) Pterocaryu, (7) Ardisiu, (8) Alnus, (9) Befulu, (10) Symplocos.
Ledo-Matikhud Quarry No. 1 b. Pollen grains of tropical trees with a wide range of habitat:
(I I) Family Meliaceae
The Quarry No. 1 profile was 2.50 m thick from
surface to bottom. The samples were collected at Non-arboreal pollen/spores (NAP)
a depth of 0.80-2.50 m below the surface covering
a thickness of 1.70 m. Continuous uninterrupted a. Fern spores:
sampling was made from 1.20-2.50 m as indicated ( 12) Osmunda. (13) Cheilanthes, ( 14) Eriosorus, (I 5) Lygodium,
in Table I. (16) Pteris, (17) Cibotium. (18) Microlepia, (19) Pteridium.
(20) Trilete (unidentified). (?I) Lepisorus, (22) Athyrium.
(23) Poiystic,hum, (24) Dovallin, (25) Leucostegia.
Ledo-Matikhad Quarry No. 2 (26) C~dosorus.
b. Pollen grains of subtropical/temperate herbs/shrubs:
The second formation of Ledo-Matikhad, i.e. (27) Strohilanthus. (28) Family Theaceae, (29) Stelluriu,
(30) Artemisiu.
Quarry No. 2, was situated about 240 m north of
c. Pollen grains of aquattc plants:
the brick kiln Quarry No. 1. The profile was of (3 I ) ljpha Iutifolia.
2.58 m thick from the surface to the bottom. d. Pollen grains of plants growing in moist habitat:
Collections were made from 0.10 m to 2.58 m, a (32) Impatiens. (33) Po!l;gonum piehejum. (34) Polygonurn.
LATE QUATERNARY VEGETATIONAL HISTORY OF UPPER ASSAM. INDIA 327

¢c

/
/
\
J
/
/"
t
I
t.
/

1 r a m -- 2 K m •

f#
\ N
I*

\.
!
/"
(--
S

Fig.2. Showing sites of profiles from Upper Assam with chief river systems.

(35) Justicia, (36) Aletris, (37) Family Liliaceae, (38) Family
Boraginaceae.
e. Pollen grains of plants growing in a relatively dry habitat:
(39) Family Amaranthaceae, (40) Family Chenopodiaceae.
[No attempt has been made to separate two families i.e.
Amaranthaceae and Chenopodiaceae, as the difference is subtle
(Erdtman, 1952; Riollet and Bonnefille, 1976; Martin, 1978)].
(41) Family Aizoaceae.
f. Pollen grains of cosmopolitan plants:
(42) Family Cyperaceae, (43) Calamus, (44) Family Brassica-
ceae, (45) Family Urticaceae, (46) Family Caryophyllaceae,
(47) Family Verbenaceae, (48) Family Cucurbitaceae,
(49) Family Asteraceae.
g. (50) Pollen grains of Poaceae
Firbas (1937) first established that the pollen grains of
cultivated grasses could be separated from wild grasses by size
differences. Guinet (1966) studied several wild and cultivated
grasses of South India and came to the conclusion that the
size criteria of grass pollen grains may not be applicable in
India and Ethiopia. This was further supported by Vishnu-
Mittre (1973) and Bonnefille (1969) by studies of Indian and
Ethiopian wild and cultivated grasses. Consequently here the
grass pollen curve has been collectively represented.
h. Unidentified palynomorphs:
(51) Type I, (52) Type II.
Ledo-Matikhad, Quarry No. 1
Pollen a n a l y t i c a l results in this d i a g r a m suggest
five pollen zones• T h e e x t r e m e left c o l u m n o f
c o m p o s i t e pollen d i a g r a m represents the litho-
s t r a t i g r a p h i c units in sequential order• O n its right
v e g e t a t i o n / c l i m a t i c zones have been i n d i c a t e d
b a s e d on the incidence o f spores a n d pollen grains.
F u r t h e r to its right is the c o m p o s i t e pollen d i a g r a m
328 K BHATTACHARYAAND S. ('ttANI)A

TABLE 1 TABLE |1

Details of Quarry No. I profile (from surface to bottom) Details of Quarry No. 2 protile (from surface to bottom)

Thickness No. of Thickness No. of

(m) samples (m) samples

Surf:ace Surface
Root penetrable area 0.35 Loose soil 0.1(1
Oxidised clay 0.40 I Loose disturbed soil 0.18 I
Transition between oxidised clay 0.10 I Loose disturbed clay with less peat 0.80 5
and grey clay Peat 0.90 16
Grey clay 0.35 3 Black clay 0.6(/ 7
Clay with organic matters 0.45 8 Ferruginous sand
Black clay 0.70 15 29 (Total)
Sandy clay 0.10 1
Sand 0.05
Iron hard band
29 (Total)

and Asteraceae are present in the middle part of

consisting of the total pollen of AP (Arboreal
pollen) and NAP (Non-arboreal pollen) including
ferns. In this part more important tree types, e.g.
Pinus, Tsuga, Salix, Carya, Ardisia, Symplocos,
etc., have been represented along with the incidence
of grasses, Cyperaceae and the important domina-
ting fern taxa. Exclusively tree pollen grains have
been represented in the middle of the diagram
showing relative frequency. On the extreme right
individual NAP types have been represented in
separate columns in the form of histograms (Fig.3).
Zone 1
the section, Ferns are relatively poorly represented
with Polystichum, Osmunda, Cheilanthes, Cibotium,
Leucostegia, Microlepia, Davallia, Pteridium, etc.
Zone I probably reflects open vegetation mainly
dominated by grasses in association with other
plants of various ecological habitats. The open
vegetation was interspersed with some subtropical/
temperate trees like Pinus, Tsuga, Salix, Carva,
Pterocarya, Symplocos, Betula, etc. indicating a
humid subtropical/temperate climate. The presence
of some wet land plants like Impatiens, Polygonum
plebejum, Polygonum sp., Liliaceae, Asteraceae,
Typha latijolia, also support this interpretation.

This zone probably represents open vegetation

with high NAP value (with a peak of as much as
92%). The arboreal vegetation consists of a
number of subtropical to temperate plants, namely
Pinus, Tsuga, Salix, Carya, Pterocarya, Symplocos,
Betula, Pachylarnax and Ardisia at a modest fre-
quency. Ardisia, however, is absent from the upper
part of the profile while Tsuga is absent from the
middle of the section.
Grass is the dominant constituent of the non-
arboreal vegetation, and gradually increases from
55% to a peak of 68%. Cyperaceae remains at
modest levels throughout and there are sporadic
occurrence of the pollen grains of Strobilanthus,
Stellaria, Impatiens, Typha latifolia, Polygonum
plebejum, Polygonum sp., Amaranthaceae, Cheno-
podiaceae, Liliaceae, etc. Pollen grains of A rtemisia
Zone I1
This zone is characterized by an open grassland
vegetation. The upper spectrum gives value of
100% NAP vegetation, and the lower spectrum
shows only 2.4% AP. Grass is the dominant
constituent and has a value 75% in the lower
spectrum and 84% in the upper spectrum. Cypera-
ceae shows 7% value in the lower spectrum which
declines to 4% in the upper spectrum. Typha
latifolia occurs only in the upper spectrum, whereas
Polygonum sp. and Liliaceae occur in both spectra.
The fern curve is similar to that in Zone I with
Osmunda, Leucostegia, Microlepia, Athyrium, etc.
Trees such as Salix, Carya, etc. are only sporadi-
cally present in the lower part.
LATE QUATERNARY VEGETATIONAL HISTORY OF UPPER ASSAM, INDIA 329

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Zone IH
This is the largest zone of the diagram where
AP again gains prominence with a peak of 35%
consists of Carya, Pterocarya, Ardisia and Salix.
Pinus and Tsuga are restricted only to the upper
part while Symplocos and Pachylarnax occur in a
slightly lower and higher concentration. The grass
curve declines to 47% with other non-arboreal
taxa like Stellaria, Impatiens, Artemisia, Strobi-
lanthus, Cucurbitaceae, Polygonum sp., P. plebejum,
Amaranthaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Verbenaceae,
etc. Ferns are the dominant constituents in this
zone reaching a peak of 35% where Polystichum
curve ascends to a peak of 25% accompanied by
Osmunda, Cheilanthes, Cibotium, Leucostegia,
Microlepia, Davallia, Athyrium, Pteridium, etc.
Like Zone I, this zcr~e probably also reflects
open vegetation along with some arboreal plants.
The values of grass decline with corresponding
increase of ferns. The middle part of the zone
indicates a semiforested condition unlike the begin-
ning and end of the Zone, where grasses and ferns
are prominent.
Zone IV
This Zone shows a marked resurgence of non-
arboreal grassland vegetation with a complete
absence of arboreal elements. The grass curve
reaches a peak of 67% with ferns including Pol-
ystichum, Osmunda, Leucostegia, Davallia, Pteri-
dium and non-arboreal elements like Strobilanthus,
Chenopodiaceae and Amaranthaceae.
Zone V
The last zone shows a combination of dominant
non-arboreal vegetation with scanty arboreal types
consists of Salix, Alnus, Ardisia, and Meliaceae.
The fern spores like Osmunda, Chelianthes, Daval-
lia, A thyrium, show more or less uniform abun-
dance values throughout. Other associated
elements include grasses, Cyperaceae, Stellaria,
Artemisia, Strobilanthus, Amaranthaceae, Cheno-
podiaceae and Verbenaceae.
Zone V suggests an open vegetation with spo-
radic trees and a high frequency of grasses and
K BHNI'TACHARYA AND S. CHANDA
Cyperaceae along with weeds like Artemisia, Ama-
ranthaceae, Chenopodiaceae, etc. The cause of
deforestation is not well understood.
Ledo-Matikhad, Quarry No. 2
The pollen diagram of Ledo-Matikhad Quarry
No. 2 can also be divided into five zones (Fig.4).
Zone I
This zone consists of dominant non-arboreal
elements interspersed by arboreal types. The cumu-
lative arboreal pollen curve fluctuates between
10% and 17% with Pinus, Salix, Carya, Tsuga,
Symplocos, Ardisia, Pterocarya, Alnus and Melia-
ceae. The grass curve rises gradually to a peak of
67.5%. Other non-arboreal elements like
Aizoaceae and Urticaceae appear in the lower part,
Chenopodiaceae and Verbenaceae in the upper
part and Stellaria and other caryophyllaceous gen-
era in the middle part. Strobilanthus is sporadic,
whereas Amaranthaceae remains steady all
through except in the middle part. Polystichum
and Davallia show dominance (24%) in the early
part but soon decline to about 10% with Leucos-
tegia, Osmunda, Cheilanthes and Athyrium in vary-
ing degrees.
The palynological assemblage of Zone I suggests
open vegetation dominated by grasses with inter-
spersed trees like Pinus, Salix, Carya, Tsuga, Ptero-
carya, Symplocos and Ardisia.
Zone H
This zone also reflects an open vegetation with
less arboreal elements like Salix, Ardisia and Carya
than the previous zone. Grass is the dominant
element with high values (81-82%) along with
non-arboreal elements like Boraginaceae,
Aizoaceae, Artemisia, Cucurbitaceae, Liliaceae,
Chenopodiaceae and Amaranthaceae and two fern
species, Polystiehum and Osmunda.
Zone Ill
This zone is dominated by non-arboreal ele-
ments like Stellaria, Artemisia, Liliaceae, Ama-
LATE QUATERNARY VEGETATIONAL HISTORY OF UPPER ASSAM, INDIA 331

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332
ranthaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Strobilanthus,
Polygonum sp., P. plebejum, Aizoaceae, Boragina-
ceae, Asteraceae, Cucurbitaceae, Urticaceae and
Typha latifolia. Arboreal types show a sign of
increase with Salix, Ardisia, Carya, Pterocarya,
Tsuga, Symplocos and Alnus. Grass is the dominant
constituent attaining a peak of 72%, which suffers
sharp fluctuations. Cyperaceae is found to be only
23%. Ferns are represented by Polystichum,
Osmunda, Davallia, Microlepia, Leucostegia, Cibot-
ium, Pteridium, etc. Carbon dating of one sample
at a depth of 1.80m was found to be
17,930 ± 575 yr BP.
Zone III reflects non-arboreal vegetation domi-
nated by grasses interspersed by some subtropical/
temperate plants indicating a cooler climate.
Zone IV
This zone sees a rise of AP which attains a peak
of 47%. Salix plays the most important part in
forest formation making with a peak of 39% with
Ardisia, Tsuga, Pinus, Symplocos, Pachylarnax,
Carya and Pterocarya. Among the ferns Pol-
vstichum shows a steady curve with low concen-
tration. The grass curve tends to increase from
37% to 58%. Non-arboreal elements like Strobi-
lanthus, Impatiens, Justicia, Caryophyllaceae.
Polygonum plebejum, Aizoaceae, Stellaria, Artemi-
sia, Asteraceae and Liliaceae occur in low and
fluctuating concentrations.
A rather dense forested condition prevails in
this zone, the major component Salix indicates a
stable climatic and ecological condition.
Zone V
This zone is characterized by an open grassland
vegetation with sporadic presence of arboreal ele-
ments like Salix, Ardisia, Carya, Pteroearya and
Pachylarnax, which are totally absent in the middle
part with a sharp decline of the tree forest to 5.5%
in the lower part and 3% in the upper part. Grasses
become highly dominating with 79% and 87%.
Pollen grains of Stellaria, Polygonurn, P. plebejum,
have been recorded from the lower part and Arte-
misia and Boraginaceae, from the upper part.
Occurrence of the pollen grains of Asteraceae,
K B H A F T A ( H A R Y A A N D S. C H A N D A
Liliaceae, Amaranthaceae, Aizoaceae and Cypera-
ceae is sporadic. Ferns played an insignificant role
in the vegetational association with Polystichum,
Cheilanthes, Davallia, A thyrium, Microlepia, Leu-
costegia and Osmunda.
This zone reflects the decline of the forested
condition for reasons that are not well understood.
Discussion
The pollen analytical results and the current
geomorphological setting indicate that the investi-
gated area was situated in a flood plain. The
peat or other layers between 1.80 m and 4.90 m
below the surface as evidenced by radiocarbon
dating were deposited about 12,210±340 to
17,930 ± 575 yr BP. (Bhattacharya, 1986). The peat
layers in general were found to be sandwiched
between the layers of sandy clay, black clay or
grey clay.
Interpretation of the pollen diagrams depended
on the following factors: (1) the relative frequency
of pollen production by different taxa, (2) the
extent of pollen dispersal, (3) habitat (whether
aquatic or terrestrial), (4) mode of pollination
(whether anemophilous, entomophilous or amphi-
philous), (5) total pollen output per anther of the
flowers, and (6) long distance transport, etc. (Fae-
gri and Iversen, 1975). All the above mentioned
factors may not apply to this investigation as the
sedimentation did not take place in a typical peat
bog environment but probably occurred in a vast
flood plain.
The pollen and spores recovered from different
deposits were found to be in a fairly good state of
preservation and are consistent with a logical
ecological association, although in some cases the
possibility of long distance transport of pollen
grains cannot be ruled out. The pollen analytical
results reflect a mixed assemblage of ferns, conifers
and angiosperms. Ferns are represented by a large
number of subtropical/temperate genera which
probably included A thyrium, Cibotium, Davallia,
Microlepia, Lepisorus, Osmunda, Cheilanthes, Pter-
idium, Polystichum, Leucostegia, etc. The phanero-
gams are represented by a mixed assemblage of
conifers and angiosperms. The conifers are found
to be psychophilic probably including both Pinus
LATE QUATERNARY VEGETATIONAL HISTORY OF UPPER ASSAM, INDIA
and Tsuga sp. The phanerogams have been divided
into AP and NAP. AP are represented by a large
number of related and unrelated taxa, namely,
Salix, Alnus, Betula, Symplocos, Ardisia, Pachylar-
nax, Carya, Pterocarya, etc., along with some NAP
taxa, namely Strobilanthus, Stellaria and also with
grasses.
Some of the pollen elements, like Pinus, Betula,
Alnus, and Salix, may have been transported from
higher elevation through a river system not very
far from the location of the deposit from where
the pollen grains were retrieved. The local pollen
grains mixed with transported elements are thus
revealed in the total pollen assemblage as has been
described in the pollen diagram.
Judging from the vegetational sequence it has
been concluded that a significant change in climate
took place during the time of sedimentation. The
lower parts of pollen diagram generally include
plants of subtropical/temperate climates but the
associations change in the upper parts, perhaps
indicating that climatic conditions deteriorated
resulting in deforestation before a slight ameliora-
tion in more recent times.
It is interesting to note that the Carya-Ptero-
carya-Tsuga assemblage occurs in most of the
diagrams. This typical subtropical assemblage is
now restricted to north-eastern Asia, especially
China and Japan. Such plants do not occur in the
contemporary vegetation of Upper Assam or sur-
rounding areas. This assemblage probably indi-
cates a trans-migratory route between India and
parts of north-east Asia. Some natural phenomena
during the late-Quaternary, such as seismic activi-
ties, tectonic movements etc., and associated cli-
matic change prevalent in this part of India, were
presumably responsible for disrupting this con-
nection.
References
Bhattacharya, K., 1985. Pollen Analysis of a few Quaternary
Deposits of Upper Assam with Reference to Dating, Vegeta-
tional History and Biostratigraphy. Thesis. Calcutta Univ.,
Calcutta, 178 pp.
Bhattacharya, K., 1986. Quaternary environment of Assam,
India. IGA Rev., 8: 77-79.
Bhattacharya, K. and Chanda, S., 1982. A brief report on
View publication stats
333
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