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Planning of Electric Power Distribution PDF
Planning of Electric Power Distribution PDF
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2.3 Estimation of a Concrete Value for the
Power Demand from the Given Margins 21
2.4 Operating Voltages in Supply and
Distribution Grids 25
2.5 Type of Power Supply 27
2.6 Central or Distributed Installation
of Low-voltage Supply 29
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switch between References to figures and tables
individual pages
… standard EN 15232 can be used for the building
management (see Tab. 2/9). However, note that energy
efficiency class D from EN 15232 plays no role …
Editorial Intro
duction
2
The planning of electric power distribution in buildings and infrastructure facilities is subject to
constant transformation. The search for an assignment-compliant, dependable solution should fulfil
those usual requirements placed on cost optimisation, efficiency, and time needs. At the same time,
3
technical development innovations and findings from the practical world are constantly seeping into
the planning process. Our books on electric power distribution are intended to support you in your
work as a designer and to provide you with a continuously updated and dependable instrument. 4
Various volumes under the “application manual” term have been compiled over time. To introduce a
form of structuring into the process, we will in future distinguish between planning and application 5
manuals.
The specific requirements of infrastructure facilities of individual industries and building types on 6
electric power distribution is worked on in the application manuals. Perhaps you have already made
acquaintances with the two editions on high-rise buildings and data centres. This is the series we
intend to continue with at intervals. We would be glad to take up any suggestions you may have here. 7
The planning manuals concern themselves more with those subjects generally used in planning
electric power distribution. They are oriented to that fundamental know-how which is at the basis
of all planning work. To this end, we are launching a new series which, initially, will consist of two
8
volumes.
This newly designed first volume, “Planning of Electric Power Distribution – Technical Principles”, 9
looks, in particular, at the general requirements and characteristics which are of interest in planning
electric power distribution. The follow-up, “Planning of Electric Power Distribution – Products and
Systems”, is being prepared. It will feature those technical details and descriptions of specific products 10
and systems so as to fulfil the requirements specified in this volume.
15
16
17
Con
tents
Intro Contents
duction
2
Integrated Planning – Cost Reduction 6 6 Dimensioning of Power Distribution Systems 98
4 1.2
1.3
Contents of the Individual Project Phases
Design / Performance Specification
10
12
7
7.1
Protection Devices for Low-Voltage Distribution 110
Circuit-breakers with Protection Functions 112
1.4 Some Basic Considerations on Power Distribution 13 7.2 Fuses 116
5 1.5 Standards, Standardisation Bodies, and Guidelines 14 7.3 Switchgear Assemblies 117
7.4 Miniature Circuit-breaker 129
2 Basics for Drafting Electrical Power
7.5 Selectivity in Low-Voltage Grids 134
6 Distribution Systems
2.1 Requirements to Electrical Power Systems
16
7.6 Protection of Low-Voltage Capacitors 147
7.7 Protection of Distribution Transformers 148
in Buildings 17
Intro
duction
2
11 Low-voltage Protection and Switching Devices 234 17 Appendix 346
11.1 Circuits and Device Assignment 236 17.1 Characteristics of Grid Supply Types 346
3
11.2 Requirements on the Protection Devices 17.2 List of Standards 347
in the Three Circuit Types 237 17.3 List of Abbreviations 357
11.3 Residual Current and Arc-fault Detection Devices 240 17.4 Bibliography 361 4
17.5 Conversion Factors and Tables 362
12 Starting, Switching, and Protecting Motors 248
12.1 Protecting Electric Motors 248 Imprint 366
5
12.2 Switching Electric Motors 249
12.3 Comparison of Connections for Motor Start-up 256
12.4 Safety of Machines 258 6
13 Supply using Converters and Generators 262
13.1 UPS Systems 263 7
13.2 Embedded Generation Systems 266
17
Intro
duction
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
1 Increasingly greater demands are placed on modern build- 1. “Properties” represent buildings, space-enclosing devel-
ings. As early as in the planning stage, demands for a high opments, outdoor facilities, engineering structures,
level of safety, flexibility throughout the entire life cycle, a transportation installations, load-bearing structures,
2 low level of environmental pollution, the integration of and technical system equipment
renewable energies and low costs must be taken into 2. “Buildings” represent self-contained, roofed, usable
account in order to exploit the full potential of economic structures which people can enter and which are
3 efficiencies and fulfilling technical demands. A special
challenge is the coordination of the individual installations.
suitable or appointed for providing shelter for humans,
animals or objects
Basically, the main installations are heating, ventilation, air 3. “New structures and new installations” represent prop-
9
Feed-in
10 Power distribution
11 Short-circuit / overload protection
Power management
12
ology
Building techn
13 Process and ma
nufacturing ind
ustry
ems
14 Planning,
configurin
g, produc
ts and syst
15
16
17 Totally Integrated Power – the long-term power distribution as foundations for Totally Integrated Automation and
Totally Building Solutions
Intro
duction
7. “Modernisations” represent structural steps taken to of the different systems makes it possible to attain maxi- 1
sustainably increase the practical value of a property - mum process efficiency and reliability. At the same time,
given they do not fall under Items 5, 6 or 9 costs weighing on building investors, users, and operators
8. “Space-enclosing developments” refer to the inner can be reduced by exploiting synergies. 2
design or set-up of interiors without significant incur-
sions made into the substance or structure; they can Integrated planning utilises the synergies of well matched,
come to light in conjunction with work undertaken in
Items 3 to 7
intelligent, integrated systems and products from a single
supplier and implements them in cost-effective solutions.
3
9. “Renovation” refers to steps for restoring the originally Interfacing and elaborate harmonization of different sys-
intend condition (designated condition) of a property
given that they are not covered by Item 4 or by steps
tems and products becomes obsolete. The expense for
spare parts management and procurement is reduced. 4
envisaged under Item 7 Integrated communication systems can be used to connect
10. “Maintenance work" represents steps taken to retain the power supply / distribution systems and products to other
designated condition of a property installations such as automated process and production 5
11. “Outdoor facilities” represent planned outdoor areas or systems or automated building management systems. The
spaces and appropriately designed facilities in associa- wiring expense can be substantially reduced by a well
tion with or in structures matched concept and thus the wider utilisation of the cable
infrastructure for data transmission attained from such a
6
Regarding the planning concept for power supply, it is not concept. These are merely some examples, how the
only imperative to observe standards and regulations, it is
also important to discuss and clarify economic and techni-
cost-benefit ratio can be crucially improved by integrated
planning as compared to conventional planning. 7
cal interrelations. To this end electric equipment, such as
distribution boards and transformers, is selected and rated The focus of Totally Integrated Power (TIP) lies on all power
in such a way that an optimum result for the power system distribution components as an integrated entity. TIP offers 8
as whole is achieved rather than focusing individual com- everything that can be expected from a future-oriented
ponents. All components must be sufficiently rated to power distribution system: openness, integration, efficient
withstand normal operating conditions as well as fault
conditions. In addition, the following important aspects
planning tools, manifold options for communication and,
as a result, a substantial improvement in efficiency. When
9
must be considered, when drawing up the power supply regarding power distribution requirements in terms of the
concept:
• Type, use, and shape of the building (e.g. high-rise build-
building automation, fire protection and safety systems
installations, it becomes soon obvious that the better the
10
ing, low-rise building, multi-storey building) individual installations are networked, the greater the rise
• Load centres must be determined, as well as possible in savings potential. Cost reductions up to 25 % are feasible.
routes for supply lines and possible installation sites for Investors and building operators can thus provide a cost-ef- 11
transformers and main distribution boards fective power supply system and boost its efficiency.
• Building-related connection values according to specific
area loads that correspond to the building’s type of use
• Statutory provisions and conditions imposed by building
As a rule, greater efficiency provides the investor with
benefits – arising from approval and financing simplifica-
12
authorities tions – in assessing the building project. This also enables
• Requirements by the distribution system operator (DSO) investors and operators to provide a more cost-efficient and
environmentally friendly energy supply system for which
13
The greatest potential for the optimisation of a project is potential customers can be more easily won over and the
during the planning phase. At this stage, the course is set required earnings obtained. Users benefit from high-level
for additional costs and cost increases which may incur electricity supply in both quality and quantity at favourable 14
during the erection and subsequent use of the building. conditions.
Intro
duction
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
1 On the one hand, it is up to the planner to win an edge Phase 1 – Establishment of basic data
over his competitors and gain unique selling points by
offering modern, innovative concepts for the layout of • Task definition
2 power supply systems and the selection of equipment. • Review of the project situation
But on the other hand, he is also responsible for his • Site analysis
planning work, which means that he may be held liable • Operations planning
3 for damages. Therefore it is important to clarify the
project scope and the economic conditions with the
• Preparation of a room concept
• Preparation of a concept on the functional scope
owner / developer at an early stage. • Environmental impact assessment
16
17
Intro
duction
9
Energy Management/
Energy Transparency
Operation &
Monitoring
Load
management
Load curves Forecast Maintenance
Substation
Status
reporting/
failure
Protocols
DATE:
EMPLOYEE
COST CENTER
PAY PERIOD BEGINNING
PAY PERIOD ENDING
Power
Quality
Cost center
10
Distribution
DATE
SUN MON TUE WED THUR FRI SAT SUN TOTAL
IN
OUT
Maintenance
management
IN
OUT
task
OVERTIME
TOTAL HOURS
DATE
SUN MON TUE WED THUR FRI SAT SUN TOTAL
IN
OUT
U IN
I OUT
P
checkup
TOTAL HOURS
central ON
11
W DATE
OUT
Process/ Building
IN
OFF OUT
TOTAL HOURS
PROCESS FIELD
12
Industrial
Products & Systems Renewables Medium voltage with Transformer Low voltage with
protection technology protection and measuring technology
13
≤ 110 kV
14
16
TIP04_13_001_EN
17
Fig. 1/1: Totally Integrated Power – integrated solutions for electrical power distribution
Intro
duction
10 Performance Specification
Weighing in the context of design or performance spec
ification must be based on different questions posed.
Tab. 1/1 shows a simple correlation matrix in which the
The performance or feature specification represents the competing situation of individual sub-targets is assessed.
11 target concept and is technically detailed so far that it can For example, sub-target 2 – Low line losses – is strongly
act as the basis for a technical specification. influenced by sub-target 1 – Cost of investment –
• It is a detailed description of a service to be performed, whereas sub-target 4 – High reliability of supply –
12 for example, the erection of a technical plant, the con-
struction of a tool, or the creation of a computer program
has no immediate interrelation with line losses.
13 Subgoals 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
16 7
8
Low maintenance and repair expense
Ease of operation
C p 1 1 p C – p
–
C
p C C C C C p C
9 High environmental compatibility p C C C C C C C –
Intro
duction
12
13
14
15
16
17
Intro
duction
iec.ch/members_experts
To minimise technical risks and / or to protect persons
5 involved in handling electric equipment or components,
major planning rules have been compiled in standards.
Standards represent the state of the art, they are the
6 basis for evaluation and court decisions. Technical stand-
ards are desired conditions stipulated by professional
associations which are however made binding by legal
9
Overview of standards and standardisation bodies
Regional Amerika Europa Australien Asien Afrika
10 PAS CENELEC
National USA: ANSI D: DIN VDE AUS: SA CN: SAC SA: SABS
CA: SCC I: CEI NZ: SNZ IND: BIS
11 BR: COBEI
…
F: UTE
GB: BS
… J: JISC
…
…
ANSI American National Standards Institute
12 BIS Bureau of Indian Standards
BS British Standards
CENELEC European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization
13 CEI
(Comité Européen de Normalisation Electrotechnique)
Comitato Ellettrotecnico Italiano
COBEI Comitê Brasileiro de Eletricidade, Eletrônica, Iluminação e Telecomunicações
14 DIN VDE
EN
Deutsche Industrie Norm Verband deutscher Elektrotechniker
European Norm
IEC International Electrotechnical Commission
JISC Japanese Industrial Standards Committee
15 PAS Pacific Area Standards
SA Standards Australia
SABS South African Bureau of Standards
16 SAC Standardisation Administration of China
SCC Standards Council of Canada
SNZ Standards New Zealand
17 UTE Union Technique de l’Electricité et de la Communication
10
Compilation of boundary conditions
11 Influencing factors
13
Calculation: • Lists of power consumers
– Energy balance • Forecasts of expansions
14 – Load flow (normal / fault)
– Short-circuit currents
• Temperatures
• Equipment data
(uncontrolled / controlled) • etc.
15 Dimensioning:
– Selection of equipment,
• Equipment data
– Electrical data
– Dimensions etc.
transformers, cables, protection
• Selectivity tables
and switching devices, etc.
16
– Selectivity limit tables
– Requirements according selectivity – Characteristic curves, setting data, etc.
and back-up protection • etc.
TIP04_13_002_EN
17
Fig. 2/1: Tasks of network planning and configuration
16 Totally Integrated Power – Basics for Drafting Electrical Power Distribution Systems
Con
tents
Intro
duction
Totally Integrated Power – Basics for Drafting Electrical Power Distribution Systems 17
Con
tents
Intro
duction
3
Average power Simultaneity Average building Average cost for heavy-
demand 1) factor 2) cost per walled-in current installation in a
4 Building use g area walled-in area 2)
16 2) The simultaneity factor is a guideline for preliminary planning and must be adapted for individual projects.
3) For data centres, Tab. 2/5 and its associated explanations show the boundary conditions and simple calculations for the given estimated values and their wide
margins.
*) Per bed approx. 800–4,000 W; **) Per seat; ***) Power demand strongly process-dependent
17
Tab. 2/3: Average power demand of buildings according to their type of use
18 Totally Integrated Power – Basics for Drafting Electrical Power Distribution Systems
Con
tents
Intro
duction
1)
modules)
The values specified here are guidelines for demand estimation and cannot substitute precise power demand analysis.
11
2) The simultaneity factor is a guideline for preliminary planning and must be adapted for individual projects. When dimensioning consumers in the safety power
supply system (SPS), their simultaneity factor must be considered separately (empirical value: g ≥ 0.8 for SPS busbar).
12
3) Average usable sun radiation in Germany per day 2.75 kWh / m2
Tab. 2/4: Average power demand of various functional / building areas back to page 18
13
2.2.1 Special Consideration of the Cost • Requirements as to availability determine redundancy
Situation for a Data Centre and safety systems 14
For a data centre, there are a number of factors influenc- The following assumptions are to be made for data
ing, among other things, the specific power demand.
Important aspects which result in a wide bandwidth of the
centre-specific cost estimates:
• An area-specific power demand of 125 to 1,500 W / m2
15
estimations of power demand, simultaneity factor and is assumed for a self-contained data centre (DaC in
specific costs are as follows:
• Differentiation between a self-contained building (data
2/5 The low value suggests a large space required
Tab. 2/5).
for information technology and infrastructure (for exam-
16
centre) or the ICT areas in a building ple owing to high redundancies), whereas the high value
• Different technologies for air conditioning and power suggests a high packing density of servers in the racks
supply influence space requirements and energy effi- and modern cooling and power supply systems 17
ciency
Totally Integrated Power – Basics for Drafting Electrical Power Distribution Systems 19
Con
tents
Intro
duction
dancy conditions upon which availability is founded. The data centre simultaneity factor in Tab. 2/3 has a leeway
8
Average building cost of walled-in area in € / m3 Class D (C ) C (B) B (A) A (A+)
9 Average power demand Offices 1.10 1 0.93 0.87
Tier I Tier II Tier III Tier IV
in W / m2
Auditoriums 1.06 1 0.94 0.89
10 DaC
125 360 390 490 550
Educational facilities
1,500 1,625 2,000 3,000 3,800 1.07 1 0.93 0.86
(schools)
11 IT room
500 690 810 1,130 1,400 Hospitals 1.05 1 0.98 0.96
* The cost share of embedded electricity generating sets (generators and UPS
systems) is approx. 70 % and the cost share for high and medium-voltage
switchgear, low-voltage switchgear, low-voltage installation systems, lighting
16 systems and lightning protection, and earthing systems amounts to approx.
30 % altogether.
Tab. 2/5: Data centre (DaC) power demand back to page 18
17 dependent on the concept for redundancy and infrastructure
20 Totally Integrated Power – Basics for Drafting Electrical Power Distribution Systems
Con
tents
Intro
duction
16
17
Totally Integrated Power – Basics for Drafting Electrical Power Distribution Systems 21
Con
tents
Intro
duction
1 Room structure – calibration factor kstruct the number of factors must be reduced accordingly in the
above equation. To obtain a simple estimate, it is not
Smaller rooms are easier to ventilate and light is distributed worthwhile weighting the individual factors in the formula.
2 better in the room through reflection on the walls and
ceiling. This calibration factor can also take the intended
room height into account. Our estimations that are dis- Air conditioning – calibration factor kclim
3 played in Fig. 2/3 as a curve also take into account that
small rooms and areas frequently have direct ventilation With regard to the air conditioning of a building, natural
and not air conditioning. ventilation, the efficiency of the cooling equipment and the
ing systems make buildings safe and are the basis for a
better user-friendliness. In the production sector, this factor
11 will often play a subordinate part. If one factor is neglected,
12
kstruct 1 kclim 1
13 0.8 0.8
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.4
14 0.2
0.2
0
0 very very
1 2 3 4 low low average high high
15 100 – 2,000 m2 500 – 4,000 m2 2,000 – 8,000 m2 > 6,000 m2 Power demand for air conditioning
1 Smaller, single rooms, hotel rooms, window-ventilated
2 Larger offices, window-ventilated Mean calibration factors kclim for data centres and kitchens
3 Retail shops, doctor’s practices, open-plan offices,
16 air conditioning, standard equipment
4 Open-plan offices, department stores, …, with upscale equipment
Mean calibration factors kclim for usage types such as
offices, department stores, hotel rooms, theatres, etc.
22 Totally Integrated Power – Basics for Drafting Electrical Power Distribution Systems
Con
tents
Intro
duction
Technical characteristics – calibration factor ktech Building management – calibration factor kBA / TBM 1
Even when the functionality of the technical building In the same way as for the technical characteristics, stand-
equipment has been defined, the difference in the techni- ard EN 15232 can be used for the building management 2
cal constructions is significant. High-speed lifts require (see Tab. 2/9
2/9). However, note that energy efficiency class D
higher starting currents than slower lifts, fans with EC from EN 15232 plays no role for the planning of BA / TBM
motors (electronically controlled) save power and modern
light fittings reduce the power demand, and the efficiency
systems in new buildings. The advantage of our procedure
with scaled calibration factors is revealed here. Characteri-
3
of many electrical consumers differ greatly from version to sation features can be adapted to the latest technology
version. through the scaling and the classification always defined
through one's own current experience. 4
A general classification for the energy efficiency according
to the EN 15232 standard is listed in Tab. 2/7. The effi- We will therefore omit class D and select a new class A+,
ciency factors of EN 15232 are transformed in Tab. 2/8 to which in addition to the properties of class A, is character- 5
the desired calibration area between 0 and 1. ised by remote monitoring, remote diagnostics, and remote
control as well as analysis tools for BA / TBM, as part of the
A distinction is not made for other types (such as sports
facilities, warehouses, industrial facilities, etc.) so that the
smart grid. For the four new classes C, B, A, and A+ we
then adopt the old calibration factors from Tab. 2/8
6
factor of 0.5 is selected for all classes. accordingly (Class C –> column D, Class B –> column C,
Class A –> column B, Class A+ –> column A of Tab. 2/8).
7
10
Totally Integrated Power – Basics for Drafting Electrical Power Distribution Systems 23
Con
tents
Intro
duction
5
Class Energy efficiency and building management
7
• Regular maintenance
• Energy monitoring
• Sustainable energy optimisation
Corresponds to further developed BA systems and some
8 B
special TBM functions
• Networked room control without automatic demand
acquisition
• Energy monitoring
13
14
15
16
17
24 Totally Integrated Power – Basics for Drafting Electrical Power Distribution Systems
Con
tents
Intro
duction
2.4 Operating Voltages in Supply and Power station sites are oriented towards the availability of 1
Distribution Grids primary energy sources, cooling systems, and other ambi-
ent conditions, therefore they are often removed from load
Different voltages are used to fulfil the different tasks of centres. Electric transmission and distribution grids connect 2
electric power supply and distribution. According to inter- power stations with electricity consumers. The grids thus
national rules, there are initially two voltage groups: form a supra-regional backbone with reserves to ensure
• Low voltage (LV):
up to and including 1,000 V AC (or 1,500 V DC)
reliability of supply and for balancing load differences. High
operating voltages (and therefore low currents) are pre-
3
• High voltage (HV): ferred for power transmission in order to minimise losses.
above 1 kV AC (or 1.5 kV DC) The voltage is then transformed to the usual values of the
low-voltage grid in the load centres close to the consumer. 4
Most electrical appliances used in household, commercial
and industrial applications work with low voltage. High The boundary conditions for selecting the supply voltage
voltage is used not only to transmit electrical energy over and the design of the technical connection points are 5
very large distances, but also, finely branched, for regional described in the Technical supply conditions of the distribu-
distribution to the load centres. Different voltage levels are tion system operator (DSO). Depending on the situation of
common for transmission and regional distribution because
the tasks and requirements for switching devices and
the DSO with regard to supply density, grid short-circuit
power and supply quality, an installed capacity between
6
switchgear are very different. This is how the term 'medium 150 and 1,000 kW may make the connection to the
voltage' emerged for voltages that are used to regionally
distribute electrical energy (Fig. 2/5).
medium-voltage level seem reasonable. Since there is no
uniform set of rules, this must be discussed with the re- 7
• Medium voltage (MV): sponsible DSO during planning.
above 1 kV AC up to and including 52 kV AC; most grid
operating voltages are within the range of 3 to 40.5 kV 8
(Fig. 2/5).
10
11
12
13
14
15
1 2 1 3
16
1 Medium-voltage 2 High-voltage 3 Low-voltage
Fig. 2/5: Voltage levels between the power station and the consumer 17
Totally Integrated Power – Basics for Drafting Electrical Power Distribution Systems 25
Con
tents
Intro
duction
1 Dependent on the DSO, a direct connection of the cus- The network configuration is determined by the respective
tomer to a transformer substation of the DSO (grid level 6 supply task, the building dimensions, the number of floors
in Tab. 2/10) may be possible in case of a power demand of above / below ground, the building use as well as the build-
2 more than 150 kW (house connection with 250 A), and if a ing equipment and power density. Typically, areas of differ-
connection to the grid above 300 or 400 kW needs to be ent power densities also require different network configu-
created, a connection to the medium-voltage level (grid rations. In this context, the reliability of supply and the
3 level 5) may be permitted. Often, a power factor cos φ is
also specified (Tab. 2/10).
supply quality of the electric power distribution system
should be paid special attention to. An optimal network
configuration should meet the following requirements:
12
Tab. 2/10: Grid level structure in the UCTE grid (UCTE – Union for the Co-ordination of Transmission of Electricity)
26 Totally Integrated Power – Basics for Drafting Electrical Power Distribution Systems
Con
tents
Intro
duction
2.5 Type of Power Supply Since the circuits for SPS loads must be laid separately, their 1
placement inside the building is relevant for budget consid-
Electrical energy can be fed into the grid in different ways, erations. In Germany, certain statutory regulations and
determined by its primary function (Tab. 2/11). For normal specifications are additionally applicable, which demand 2
power supply (NPS): the functional endurance of cables and wires in case of fire.
• Direct connection to the public low-voltage grid: in
Germany for example up to approx. 300 kW (two times
250 A house connection) at 400 / 230 V
In general, circuits for safety purposes routed through
fire-threatened areas must be designed fire-resistant. Never
3
• Transfer from the medium-voltage grid (max. 52 kV) via must they be routed through explosion-prone areas. Usu-
public or in-house substations (in Germany mostly with
transformers from 0.5 to 2.5 MVA)
ally, safety-purpose facilities receive an automatic power
supply whose activation does not depend on operator 4
action. According to IEC 60364-1 (VDE 0100-100), auto-
For the emergency standby power system (ESPS), power matic supply is classified by its maximum change-over time:
sources are selected based on regulations and as a function • Without interruption: automatic supply which can ensure 5
of the permissible interruption time: continuous supply during change-over under defined
• Generators for general standby operation and / or safety conditions, e.g. with regard to voltage and frequency
power supply (SPS)
• Uninterruptible power systems
fluctuations;
• Very short interruption: automatic supply which is availa-
6
–– Static UPS comprising a rectifier / inverter unit with ble within 0.15 s;
battery or flywheel energy storage for buffering
voltage failures
• Short interruption: automatic supply which is available
within 0.5 s; 7
–– Rotating UPS comprising a motor / generator set with • Mean interruption: automatic supply which is available
flywheel energy storage or a battery plus within 15 s;
rectifier / inverter unit for bridging • Long interruption: automatic supply which is available 8
after more than 15 s;
The constellation depicted in Fig. 2/6 with the correspond-
ing description given in Tab. 2/11 has proven itself in
infrastructure projects.
9
10
11
12
Type Example 13
TIP01_11_013_EN
Uninterruptible power
which must be operated without
interruption in the event of an NPS failure:
network network
16
supply (UPS) • Emergency lighting
• Servers / computers NPS consumer SPS consumer UPS consumer
• Communication systems
17
Tab. 2/11: Type of supply Fig. 2/6: Type of supply
Totally Integrated Power – Basics for Drafting Electrical Power Distribution Systems 27
Con
tents
Intro
duction
1 In IEC 60364-5-56 (VDE 0100-560) the following examples The procedure shown in Fig. 2/7 can be carried out by
of safety installations are given: customers and / or planners for a use-specific classification
• Emergency lighting / safety lighting of different power consumers and the associated corporate-
2 • Fire extinguishing pumps sensitive tasks. Criteria for the determination of business-
• Fire fighting lifts critical processes might for example be the following:
• Alarm systems such as fire alarm systems, carbon mon • Effects on life and health
3 oxide (CO) alarm systems, and intruder detection systems
• Evacuation systems
• Protection of important legal interests
• Observance of the law and regulations
• Smoke evacuation systems • Loss of the institution’s / company's reputation
7
Process definition /
task description
8
Definition of the permissible
duration of a power failure
9
Is the process / task No
10
business-critical?
Yes
Consideration of all electricity
11 consumers contributing
to the process
12 Is manual
emergency operation possible
Yes
(maybe partially)?
13 No
Is a short Is a shorter
No bridging time sufficient, No
interruption of the power
e.g. for a shutdown
14 supply permissible?
process?
Yes
Yes
16 Consumers to SPS
Consumers to UPS which
is supplied from NPS
Consumers to UPS which
is supplied via ESPS
Consumers to NPS
17
Fig. 2/7: Flowchart for an estimation of NPS, SPS and UPS
28 Totally Integrated Power – Basics for Drafting Electrical Power Distribution Systems
Con
tents
Intro
duction
10
Distributed power supply Central power supply
T1 PS8 11
PS7
T2 PS6
T1 T2 T3 T4 PS5 12
T3 PS4
PS3
T4 PS2 13
PS1 PS2 PS3 PS4 PS5 PS6 PS7 PS8
PS1
I”k I”k
kA kA 14
∆u
%
∆u
%
15
16
TIP01_11_020_EN
Totally Integrated Power – Basics for Drafting Electrical Power Distribution Systems 29
Con
tents
Intro
duction
9
Radial network (spur network) Ringed network normally open (n. o.)
10 Main switchgear Main switchgear
11
13
Station 2 Station 5 Station 2 Station 5
14
Station 3 Station 6 Station 3 Station 6
15
n.o.
16 Feed-in Feed-in
TIP04_13_003_EN
17 Fig. 2/10: Radial and ringed network for the connection of distributed transformer load centre substations
30 Totally Integrated Power – Basics for Drafting Electrical Power Distribution Systems
Con
tents
Intro
duction
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
Totally Integrated Power – Basics for Drafting Electrical Power Distribution Systems 31
Con
tents
Intro
duction
1 2.8 Power Supply Systems tion measures (Fig. 2/11). On the low-voltage side, it also
according to their Type of influences the system's electromagnetic compatibility
(EMC). From experience the TN-S system has the best
2 Connection to Earth cost-benefit ratio of electric grids at the low-voltage level.
Suitable power supply systems according to the type of In a TN system, in the event of a short-circuit to an exposed
3 connection to earth are described in IEC 60364-1
(VDE 0100-100). The type of connection to earth must be
conductive part, a considerable part of the single-pole
short-circuit current is not fed back to the power source via
selected carefully for the medium- or low-voltage network, a connection to earth but via the protection conductor. The
4 as it has a major impact on the expense required for protec- comparatively high single-pole short-circuit current allows
5 TN system: In the TN system, one operating line is directly earthed; the exposed conductive parts in the electrical installation are connected
to this earthed point via protection conductors. Dependent on the arrangement of the protection (PE) and neutral (N) conductors,
three types are distinguished:
a) TNS system: b) TNC system: c) TNCS system:
6 In the entire system, neutral (N)
and protection (PE) conductors
In the entire system, the functions
of the neutral and protection conductor
In a part of the system, the functions
of the neutral and protection conductor
are laid separately. are combined in one conductor (PEN). are combined in one conductor (PEN).
Power Power Power
7 source
Electrical installation
source
Electrical installation
source
Electrical installation
L1 L1 L1
L2 L2 L2
8 L3
N
L3
PEN
L3
PEN PE
PE N
9 3 3 3
1 1 1 1 1 1
TT system: In the TT system, one operating line is directly IT system: In the IT system, all active operating lines are
10 earthed; the exposed conductive parts in the
electrical installation are connected to earthing
separated from earth or one point is is connected
to earth via an impedance.
electrodes which are electrically independent of the
earthing electrode of the system.
11 Power
source
Electrical installation
Power
source
Electrical installation
L1 L1
L2
12
L2
L3 L3
N N
2
13 RB RA RB RA
3 1 4 3 1 4
Fig. 2/11: Systems according to the type of connection to earth in acc. with IEC 60364-1 (VDE 0100-100)
32 Totally Integrated Power – Basics for Drafting Electrical Power Distribution Systems
Con
tents
Intro
duction
for the use of simple protection devices such as fuses or Please note that neither the PEN nor the PE must be 1
miniature circuit-breakers, which trip in the event of a fault switched. If a PEN conductor is used, it is to be insulated
within the permissible tripping time. In building engineer- over its entire course – this includes the distribution sys-
ing, networks with TN systems are preferably used today. tem. The magnitude of the 1-pole short-circuit current 2
When using a TN-S system in the entire building, residual directly depends on the position of the CEP.
currents in the building and thus an electromagnetic inter-
ference by galvanic coupling can be prevented in normal
operation because the operating currents flow back
Caution: In extensive supply networks with more than one
splitter bridge, stray short-circuit currents may occur.
3
exclusively via the separately laid isolated N conductor
(Tab. 2/12). In case of a central arrangement of the power
sources, we always recommend the TN system as a rule. 4
In that, the system earthing is implemented at one central
earthing point (CEP), for example in the low-voltage main
distribution system, for all sources. 5
Characteristics
TN-C TN-C / S TN-S IT system TT system 6
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
Totally Integrated Power – Basics for Drafting Electrical Power Distribution Systems 33
Con
tents
Intro
duction
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
34 Totally Integrated Power – Basics for Drafting Electrical Power Distribution Systems
Chapter 3
Power System Planning Modules
Con
tents
1 Power system planning modules can be used for an easy The room conditions and the associated load require-
and systematic power distribution design for typical ments are essential for the basic concept. The flow dia-
building structures. These are schematic solution con- gram Fig. 3/1 shows, how a systematic analysis of the
2 cepts which clarify the spatial arrangement and connec- boundary conditions and the different single decisions
tion of important components for electric power distribu- lead to a a planning framework which helps the planner
tion. The modules shown below are suggestions for the find the right supply concept for his project.
3 planning of various building types and supply options. All
modules are based on a clear radial network and the The design proposals (Tab. 3/1) and the network planning
following goals are aimed at: modules (Fig. 3/2 to Fig. 3/6) help building up the power
10
11
12 Module
Building
type
Supply
Wiring /
main route
Floors
Floor
area
Total area
Power
required
Transformer
module
Generator UPS
2 × 630 kVA,
Low-rise 1 supply 1,000 – 400 kVA 200 kVA
1 Cable ≤ 4 2,500 m2 10,000 m2 ukr = 6 %,
13 building section 2,000 kW
Ik ≤ 30 kA
(30 %) (15 %)
2 × 800 kVA,
Low-rise 2 supply 2× 730 kVA 400 kVA
2 Busbar ≤ 4 2,500 m2 > 2,000 kW ukr = 6 %,
building sections 10,000 m2 (30 %) (15 %)
14 1 supply
Ik ≤ 60 kA
2 × 630 kVA,
High-rise 400 kVA 200 kVA
3 section, Busbar ≤ 10 1,000 m2 10,000 m2 ≤ 1,800 kW ukr = 6 %,
building (30 %) (15 %)
central Ik ≤ 30 kA
15 1 supply
section,
2 (2 + 1) ×
High-rise 630 kVA, 800 kVA 400 kVA
4 transformers Cable 10 – 20 1,000 m2 20,000 m2 ≤ 1,500 kW
building ukr = 6 %, (30 %) (15 %)
at remote
Ik ≤ 45 kA
16 location
2×3×
2× 2×
High-rise Distributed 800 kVA,
5 Busbar > 20 1,000 m2 20,000 m2 ≥ 2,000 kW 630 kVA 300 kVA
building supply ukr = 6 %,
17 Ik ≤ 60 kA
(30 %) (15 %)
Intro
duction
Functional areas:
Offices
Functional 2
building?
Briefing rooms
Data centre yes
Canteen kitchen with casino
Heating/ventilation/air conditioning
3
Radial network
Fire protection
with partial
Transport
load reserve
4
TN-C-S system,
LVMD with central
earthing point 5
i < 5?
no 6
Tip:
Max. side length: a
Floor area A = a2
Height per floor: h Low-rise building High-rise building 7
Number of floors: i
Max. number of floors
for one supply section:
i ≤ (100 m – 2a) / h
no no
8
A ≤ 2,000 m2? i ≤ 10?
Interlocked load
12
transfer with
4-pole devices
13
Low-rise building
Module 1
Low-rise building
Module 2
High-rise building
Module 3
High-rise building
Module 4
High-rise building
Module 5 14
yes yes
Tip:
Busbar trunking system if the focus
yes yes yes 15
TIP04_13_004_EN
17
Fig. 3/1: Overview of the network planning concepts
Intro
duction
Lifts
3 HVAC
FF lifts
4 HVAC-SPS
NPS4.2
UPS4.2
SPS4.2
5 4th floor
6
NPS3.2
UPS3.2
3rd floor SPS3.2
7
NPS2.2
UPS2.2
SPS2.2
2nd floor
8
NPS1.2
UPS1.2
SPS1.2
1st floor
9
10
LVMD
11
NPS SPS
G
12 MS
1 2 3~ UPS
13 Basement
from DSO
TIP04_13_005_EN
14 NPS
PCO
Normal power supply
Power company or system operator
FF Firefighters
HVAC Heating – Ventilation – Air conditioning
15 MS
LVMD
Medium-voltage switchgear
Low-voltage main distribution
SPS Safety power supply
UPS Uninterruptible power supply
16 DSO
z
Distribution system operator
Power monitoring system
17
Fig. 3/2: Module 1: Low-rise building, cable, one central supply section
Intro
duction
HVAC
3
FF lifts
HVAC-SPS
4
NPS4.1
SPS4.1
UPS4.1
NPS4.2
SPS4.2
UPS4.2
4th floor
5
NPS3.1
SPS3.1
UPS3.1
NPS3.2
SPS3.2
UPS3.2
3rd floor
6
NPS2.1
SPS2.1
UPS2.1
NPS2.2
SPS2.2
UPS2.2
2nd floor
7
NPS1.1
SPS1.1
UPS1.1
NPS1.2
SPS1.2
UPS1.2
1st floor
8
9
LVMD
10
NPS SPS
1 2 G UPS
3~
MS
z
11
Basement
TIP04_13_006_EN
from DSO
12
NPS Normal power supply
FF Firefighters
HVAC Heating – Ventilation – Air conditioning
MS
LVMD
Medium-voltage switchgear
Low-voltage main distribution
13
SPS Safety power supply
UPS Uninterruptible power supply
DSO
z
Distribution system operator
Power monitoring system
14
15
16
17
Fig. 3/3: Module 2: Low-rise building, busbar, two central supply sections
Intro
duction
3 FF lifts Lifts
HVAC HVAC-SPS
5
nth floor FD-NPS FD-SPS FD-UPS
6
(n–1)th floor FD-NPS FD-SPS FD-UPS
7
(n–2)th floor FD-NPS FD-SPS FD-UPS
8
2nd floor FD-NPS FD-SPS FD-UPS
9
1st floor FD-NPS FD-SPS FD-UPS
10
LVMD
11 NPS SPS
1 2 G UPS
3~
MS
12 z
Basement
TIP04_13_007_EN
from DSO
13
NPS Normal power supply
FD Floor distribution boards
14 FF
HVAC
Firefighters
Heating – Ventilation – Air conditioning
MS Medium-voltage switchgear
LVMD Low-voltage main distribution
SPS Safety power supply
15 UPS Uninterruptible power supply
DSO Distribution system operator
z Power monitoring system
16
17
Fig. 3/4: Module 3: Low-rise building, cable, one central supply section
Intro
duction
Lifts FF lifts 3
HVAC HVAC-SPS
3 4
4
5
nth floor FD-NPS FD-SPS FD-UPS
6
(n–1)th floor FD-NPS FD-SPS FD-UPS
7
(n–2)th floor FD-NPS FD-SPS FD-UPS
11
4th floor FD-NPS FD-SPS FD-UPS
Intro
duction
3 Lifts FF lifts
G
4 5 6 3~ UPS
HVAC HVAC-SPS
5
nth floor FD-NPS FD-SPS FD-UPS
6
(n–1)th floor FD-NPS FD-SPS FD-UPS
7
(n–2)th floor FD-NPS FD-SPS FD-UPS
13 MS
Air conditioning
Medium-voltage
switchgear
1st floor FD-NPS FD-SPS FD-UPS
LVMD Low-voltage main
14 SPS
distribution
Safety power supply
UPS Uninterruptible
power supply LVMD
15 b 4-pole switch
for connecting NPS SPS
the LVMDs 1 2 3 G
3~ UPS
DSO Distribution MS
16 z
system operator
Power monitoring
z
Basement
system
TIP04_13_009_EN
from DSO
17
Fig. 3/6: Module 5: High-rise building, busbar, energy center and remote distribution
1 As described in chapter 3, a single medium-voltage tions is required. The reasons for this, for example, are
substation with one point of supply from the network the high load concentrations in different areas of a large
operator and one or more distribution transformers for building complex, such as data centres and high-rise
2 supply of the low-voltage loads is not sufficient in large buildings used in the infrastructure, or also the distribu-
infrastructure projects. Instead, an internal, separately tion of loads over large areas, such as airports, industrial
operated medium-voltage system with several substa- plants, production plants, and hospitals.
3
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
Intro
duction
Main substations, main supplies 2. A load flow-optimised network separation and also the 7
possibility of automation and remote control technology
1. T
he configuration of main substations and main sup- should be taken into account for the operation of MV
plies should be “intrinsically safe”. This means that if grids, and also the accessibility of stations in order to 8
an HV / MV transformer or an MV feeding line should minimise the downtimes when a fault occurs.
fail, the connected loads have to be switched to an-
other main substation or other points of supply. How-
ever, on the one hand the power available to the
3. In order to ensure the supply quality in the distribution
network, the supply radii must be considered in rela-
9
switchable loads is limited in the medium-voltage grid, tion to the supply voltage. The rule of thumb is:
and on the other hand there is a danger of malopera-
tions and as a result, failure of parts of the supplied
–– For a high load density,
the supply radius r in km = ⅓ supply voltage in kV
10
network. By keeping the number of switching opera- –– For a low load density,
tions as low a possible, the total time until the power is the supply radius r in km = ½ supply voltage in kV
restored to the loads is minimised. (for example, for a low load density and a supply 11
radius of approximately 5 km, a voltage of 10 kV
2. In order to limit the short-circuit power in the medi- should be selected, whereas for a high load density,
um-voltage grid, the transformers of the main substa-
tions should not be operated in parallel. It is better
the voltage should be 15 kV or possibly 20 kV). 12
they are allocated to separate subnetworks.
Substations
3. The
switchgear in the main substations and main 1. If different transformer sizes are used in the substa-
13
supplies should be short-circuit proof with regard to tions, only a few standard types should be used.
the installations for the embedded generation and
emergency power supply in the MV grid. 2. For cost reasons, transformers in substations 14
up to 630 kVA are usually connected via switch-
4. T
he installation of main substations and main supplies disconnectors and HV HRC fuses. With high trans-
at the load centres corresponds to a radial supply from former outputs, circuit-breakers are used for reasons 15
the main substations and short distances to the load of selectivity or when automation is required.
centres. This enables losses to be minimised, a simple
and flexible network configuration as well as an eco-
nomic network extension.
16
17
Intro
duction
1 3. T
he economically sensible power range (influence on 5. Use uniform, short-circuit-proof cables such as
voltage drop, power losses, power quality) for energy 120 mm² Cu or 150 mm² Al for distribution cables and
transport in a low-voltage grid of 400 V is between 240 mm² Cu or 300 mm² Al for transmission cables.
2 50 kVA (approx. 72 A) and 250 kVA (approx. 360 A;
several low-voltage cables are required in one direc- 6. Avoid routing several cable systems together, if possi-
tion). For a larger power range, the construction of a ble, distribute the lines over the area. The combination
3 new substation should be considered. of distribution cables into cable harnesses with several
systems over a few routes results in mutual heating and
4. S
ubstations as multiple nodes make the search for a therefore restricted transmission capacity. This also
Intro
duction
11
12
13
14
15
16
MVMD TIP04_13_098_EN
17
Fig. 4/2: Network configuration: double spurs
Intro
duction
2 = substation, such as
3
or
TIP04_13_099_EN
6 MVMD
Rings start and end in the same main substation or in the Lines start in the main substation or in the main feed-in
9 main feed-in point, but on different busbar sections. The
reserve power is guaranteed through the maximum
point and end in the same remote station. A reserve
power with 100 % of a line is guaranteed through a
permissible utilisation of a half ring of 50 to 60 %. reserve cable (empty line without substations).
Intro
duction
4
Feeder cable
5
Feeder cable
6
TIP04_13_101_EN
MVMD Remote station 8
Fig. 4/5: Network configuration: lines with load-centre substation back to page 48
9
10
11
Remote station 12
13
14
TIP04_13_102_EN
16
Fig. 4/6: Network configuration: coupling of two main substation areas back to page 48 17
Intro
duction
Intro
duction
The following section considers the protection of electrical The power system protection devices must detect a short 2
equipment and their components against faults through circuit in the power system as quickly as possible and
protection devices and systems, and particularly the perform a selective tripping operation. The network
assessment of their usefulness. Technical details about
the configuration and functioning principle of the protec-
components and the loads should only be subject to
short-circuit currents and voltage dips for as short a time
3
tion relays and the associated modules can be found in as possible. When the switch is tripped by a protection
the relevant documents to be obtained from the
manufacturer.
device, either all loads should continue to be supplied (if
an instantaneous or immediate reserve is available), or as 4
few loads as possible disconnected, whereby they are
Power system protection should limit the effects of a immediately supplied again after the fault has been
defect in a system element on the system operation and located and corrected (if there is only a changeover 5
reduce the effects on parts that are directly affected as connection as power reserve).
far as possible. The criterion of selectivity, i.e. the clear
identification of the power supply unit affected by the
fault and its disconnection, is clearly linked to these
The following protection devices are available for the
power distribution:
6
requirements. In order to reduce the effects of a system • Overcurrent-time protection
fault as much as possible, the protection must take effect
as quickly as possible. This property has the side effect
(e.g. Siemens 7SJ…)
• Cable differential protection 7
that the destructive effects of high fault currents and arcs (e.g. Siemens 7SD…)
are reduced. The basic idea behind power system protec- • Transformer differential protection
tion is the detection of a fault through the presence of (e.g. Siemens 7UT…) 8
abnormal electrical states, and then to determine which • Machine protection
points in the network should be disconnected. (e.g. Siemens 7UM…)
17
Intro
duction
1 4.4.2 Selection of the Power System • Specification of the mounting location of the protection
Protection and the Power System relay and the circuit-breaker on which the protection
Protection Concept device is to take effect
2 • Selection of the protection relay type
One of the planner's tasks is the preparation of a power • Recommendations for the selection of the transforma-
system and protection concept that matches the custom- tion ratio of the transformers
3 er's requirements. As described previously, mainly spur,
double spur, and ring networks are used in the infrastruc-
• Specifications for the protection settings
• Consideration of specifications (for example technical
ture. Spur networks and open-type ringed networks are supply conditions of the DSO) and / or provision of
7
n.c.
I> 0.6 s
8 I>> 0.1 s
n.c.
n.c.
9 I>> 0.3 s
I> v 0.1 s
10
n.c.
Main station
I>> 0.3 s
Feedin
11
12
Station 1
Station 2
13
n.c.
n.c.
I>> 0.3 s
14 I> v 0.1 s
n.c.
15 I> 0.6 s
I>> 0.1 s
TIP04_13_103_EN
17
Fig. 4/7: Protection concept for a spur network back to page 53
Intro
duction
Various basic statements can be made for the selection of Spur (see Fig.
Fig. 4/7
4/7) 1
the protection devices and the time grading for the
previously described standard system configurations. The transformers connected directly in the spur are either
protected with a fuse switch-disconnecter combination or 2
Note: The grading times specified in the following examples with the aid of an overcurrent-time protection.
apply for the digital protection devices SIPROTEC 4, SIPROTEC
Compact, and SIPROTEC 5 in conjunction with Siemens
switchgear and correctly dimensioned current transformers. Double spur (Fig. 4/8 and Fig. 4/9
4/9)
3
The subordinate switchgear is supplied from two cable
systems operated in parallel. There are two ways to 4
selectively trip a fault on one of the cable systems:
n.c.
I> 0.6 s
I>> 0.1 s
8
n.c.
n.c.
n.c.
n.c.
9
I>> 0.6 s I>> 0.3 s I>> 0.3 s
I> v 0.1 s I> v 0.1 s
10
n.c.
n.c.
11
Main station
Substation
12
13
n.c.
n.c.
n.c.
n.c.
I>> 0.6 s
I> v 0.1 s
I>> 0.3 s I>> 0.3 s
I> v 0.1 s
14
n.c.
15
I> 0.6 s
TIP04_13_104_EN
I>> 0.1 s
n.c. Normally closed 16
I> v Short-circuit tripping in the forward direction; this means in the direction of the cable
17
Fig. 4/8: Protection concept for a double spur with directional time-overcurrent protection
Intro
duction
n.c.
8 I> 0.6 s
I>> 0.1 s
n.c.
n.c.
n.c.
n.c.
9
I>> 0.6 s ΔI 0.0 s ΔI 0.0 s
I> v 0.1 s I>> 0.3 s
10
n.c.
n.c.
Main station
11
Substation
12
13
n.c.
n.c.
n.c.
n.c.
14 I>> 0.6 s
I> v 0.1 s
ΔI 0.0 s
I>> 0.3 s
ΔI 0.0 s
n.c.
15
I> 0.6 s
I>> 0.1 s
16
TIP04_13_105_EN
Intro
duction
6
n.c.
n.c.
n.c.
Station 1
Station 2
7
8
n.c.
n.c.
n.c.
n.c.
n.c.
n.c.
I>> 0.5 s
I> v 0.1 s
I>> 0.3 s
9
n.c.
10
Main station
I>> 0.5 s
Feedin
11
12
n.o.
n.c.
n.c.
n.c.
n.c.
n.c.
13
I>> 0.5 s I>> 0.3 s
I> v 0.1 s
14
Station 4
Station 3
n.c.
n.c.
n.c.
I> 0.6 s
I>> 0.1 s
I> 0.6 s
I>> 0.1 s
I> 0.6 s
I>> 0.1 s 15
16
TIP04_13_106_EN
Intro
duction
1 Direction determination and time grading (Fig. 4/11) The current component that flows from the opposite side
does not energise the protection devices on this side.
The cables can be disconnected selectively with the aid of Only after the fault has been cleared on one side, enough
2 the direction determination of short-circuit currents when fault current can flow from the other side so that the
a fault occurs and a time grading. Voltage transformers fault can be finally cleared. This results in the breaking
are required for the direction determination. The direc- times having to be added. This must be taken into ac-
3 tion determination is required so that fault current is only
cleared when it is in the direction defined in the protection
count in the settings in the upstream overcurrent-time
protection devices.
device. As can be clearly seen in Fig. 4/11, this method is
6
n.c.
n.c.
n.c.
7
Station 1
Station 2
8
n.c.
n.c.
n.c.
n.c.
n.c.
n.c.
9 I>> 0.3 s I>> 0.9 s I> v 0.1 s I> v 0.7 s I> v 0.3 s I> v 0.5 s
I> v 0.1 s
n.c.
10
Main station
I>> 1.3 s
Feedin
11
12
n.c.
n.c.
n.c.
n.c.
n.c.
n.c.
13
I>> 1.3 s I>> 0.9 s I> v 0.1 s I> v 0.7 s I> v 0.3 s I> v 0.5 s
14
I> v 0.1 s
n.c.
n.c.
n.c.
Station 4
Station 3
16
TIP04_13_107_EN
Intro
duction
Directional comparison protection (Fig. 4/12) Note: With the SIPROTEC protection devices from Siemens, 1
this is guaranteed within 100 ms even over longer distances
In the directional comparison protection, the direction (also within 50 ms under certain boundary conditions).
determination is extended so that no time grading is 2
required in the ring. Through the evaluation of the fault Because of the current distribution over the two ends of
current direction and a corresponding blocking of the the ring, this can also result in an addition of the break-
protection device at the other end of the cable or the
adjacent ring panel in the station, all protection devices
ing times until the fault is finally cleared within the cable
ring. The advantage of the same breaking times is notice-
3
in the ring can be set to the same delay time. The block- able in larger rings (more than three stations in one
ing can be performed via binary inputs / outputs with
copper wiring as well as via a system interface with
direction).
4
fibre-optic cable (FOC). The evaluation and blocking as
well as the resetting of the breaking signal must be
performed within the set time delay. 5
6
n.c.
n.c.
n.c.
Station 1
Station 2
7
8
n.c.
n.c.
n.c.
n.c.
n.c.
n.c.
I>> 0.9 s
I> v 0.1 s
I>> 0.3 s
backward
I>> 0.3 s
backward
I>> 0.3 s
backward
I>> 0.3 s
backward
I>> 0.3 s
backward 9
forward forward forward forward forward
n.c.
10
Main station
I>> 0.9 s
Feedin
11
n.c.
n.c.
n.c.
n.c.
n.c.
n.c.
12
I>> 0.9 s I>> 0.3 s I>> 0.3 s I>> 0.3 s I>> 0.3 s I>> 0.3 s
I> v 0.1 s backward backward backward backward backward
forward forward forward forward forward
13
n.c.
n.c.
n.c.
14
Station 4
Station 3
forward Short-circuit direction determination forward; this means in the direction of the cable
Blocking
Note: Consider adding grading times for faults at the start of the ring!
17
Fig. 4/12: Protection concept for a network with closed ring and directional comparison protection
Intro
duction
1 Cable differential protection (Fig. 4/13) In modern devices, the communication between the
device pairs for the cable differential protection is gener-
In cable differential protection, each ring-cable section is ally via FOC, but communication via copper cable is also
2 assigned to a differential protection zones. A fault within possible. Because of the differential principle and the
this zone results in a simultaneous disconnection of both extremely fast communication between the devices, a
ends by the cable differential protection. This also elimi- tripping delay is not necessary. A further advantage of
3 nates the problem of the possible addition of breaking
times under unfavourable fault conditions. A fault out-
the differential protection principle is the simpler config-
uration compared with the complex structure for blocking
side the differential zone is not recognised as a fault. For by means of a direction comparison.
7
n.c.
n.c.
n.c.
Station 1
Station 2
8
n.c.
n.c.
n.c.
n.c.
n.c.
n.c.
9
I>> 0.5 s ΔI 0.0 s ΔI 0.0 s ΔI 0.0 s ΔI 0.0 s ΔI 0.0 s
10 I> v 0.1 s I>> 0.3 s
n.c.
11
Main station
Feedin
I>> 0.5 s
12
n.c.
n.c.
n.c.
n.c.
n.c.
n.c.
13
I>> 0.5 s ΔI 0.0 s ΔI 0.0 s ΔI 0.0 s ΔI 0.0 s ΔI 0.0 s
n.c.
n.c.
Station 4
Station 3
Intro
duction
Busbar protection The busbar differential protection is the faster and more 1
sensitive method, but entails higher costs. Fig. 4/14
Busbar faults within switchgear are very improbable shows the possibility of reverse interlocking at a substa-
today because of the construction of the systems, but not tion, which is integrated in a closed ring via directional 2
impossible. Usually such faults are detected by an up- comparison protection or via cable differential protection.
stream overcurrent-time protection and cleared. How-
ever, with this method the time until disconnection
depends on the grading times that result from the selec-
In order to increase the protection level within metal-
enclosed switchgear, arc-related faults that are associated
3
tive configuration of the network. In order to achieve with a pressure rise within the enclosed system, can be
shorter breaking times for busbar faults and therefore
reduce the damage as much as possible, or to reach a
quickly detected and cleared by means of pressure
switches. In such cases, the pressure switch functions as 4
higher protection level, either a special busbar differen- a busbar protection device.
tial protection can be used or a reverse interlocking
through the directional overcurrent-time protection. 5
14
n.c.
I> r
Normally closed
15
Short-circuit tripping in the backward direction; this means in the direction of the busbar
backward Short-circuit direction determination backward; this means in the direction of the busbar
16
TIP04_13_110_EN
forward Short-circuit direction determination forward; this means in the direction of the cable
Blocking
Communication link
17
Fig. 4/14: Protection concept of the reverse interlocking as busbar protection
Intro
duction
12
2
3
Petersen IRest
coil C0
13
15 1
2
3
Ik1“
16 Resistance R C0
TIP04_13_010_EN
17
Fig. 4/15: Neutral earthing (NE) in a LV system
Intro
duction
Depending on the neutral-point connection, there is a internal power plant networks are usually operated with 1
difference in the operating behaviour of the networks, an isolated neutral point. The costs for the equipment to
which is described in the following sections. The follow- compensate for earth-fault currents are eliminated. It is
ing are assessed: only recommended that the earth fault windings of the 2
• Size of the single-phase short-circuit current three voltage transformer sets that are connected openly
• Size of the neutral displacement voltage in the delta connection are equipped with an ohmic
• Transient overvoltage in the conductors not affected
• Type of voltage recovery in the affected conductors
damping resistor. This is to avoid the relaxation oscilla-
tions that can occur during the earth fault or during
3
after clearing the short circuit starting cycles. Even when the fault location is detected
with the aid of earth-fault relays, which can result in the
fast disconnection of the faulty line, the danger of double 4
4.5.1 Operation with Isolated Neutral Point
earth faults through earth-fault overvoltages and also the
The most common fault in all distribution networks is the voltage increase on faulty conductors still remains.
single-phase earth fault. Approximately 70 to 90 % of all 5
network faults start as a single-phase fault. In a network
4.5.2 Operation with Earth-fault
with a free neutral point, the conductor-earth voltages of
Compensation
the system are displaced when an earth fault occurs. The
fault-free conductors of the network are increased to the During operation with earth-fault compensation, the
6
delta voltage, whereby a voltage increase of √3 times the feeding HV / MV transformers must have a medium-
normal star voltage U occurs. The earth-fault current Ie
which is fed from the fault-free conductors via the earth
voltage winding at the neutral point for the connection
of an earth-fault neutraliser. Otherwise a neutral earthing 7
capacitance C0, flows across the fault location. The size transformer must be used. When selecting the trans-
of the earth-fault current is therefore determined by the former to which the earth-fault neutraliser (Petersen coil)
earth capacitance of the conductor. is to be connected, the relevant regulations, as described 8
in standard IEC 60076-6 (VDE 0532-76-6), must be taken
The following applies for the earth-fault current: into account. The earth-fault current can also be distrib-
Ie = 3 · U · ω · C0
uted over several earth-fault neutralisers or transformer
neutral points.
9
Only small earth-fault currents occur in spatially limited
cable networks and therefore relatively small earth capac-
In a network with earth-fault compensation, the same
displacement of the voltage neutral point occurs at an 10
itance. The thermal effect at the fault location is small. earth fault as in a network with free neutral point. The
For this reason, the cable affected by the fault can usually fault-free conductors take the delta voltage to earth. As
remain in operation until switchovers have been made in the conductor-earth capacitances in the network are 11
the network, which allow the cable to be isolated without independent of the neutral point connection, the capaci-
affecting the loads. During the time required for the tive earth-fault currents also reach the same size as in a
switchovers in the network, there is a danger that the
earth fault develops into a short circuit, or that as a result
network with free neutral point. 12
of the increased conductor-earth voltage, a second earth If an earthing reactor is connected at the neutral point of
fault in the network occurs on another phase conductor.
Such double earth faults can affect the consumers much
a transformer, the neutral displacement voltage drives an
inductive current that flows back into the network via the
13
more than single earth faults or short circuits because fault location. The capacitive earth-fault current and the
two different cable connections can be affected and then inductive reactor current are in the opposite phase. If the
two disconnections are required in the network. reactor is suitably dimensioned, the two currents are 14
approximately the same size and neutralise one another.
In large cable networks, earth faults usually develop very Only the active leakage current resulting from the active
quickly into short circuits. There is therefore not enough components flows across the fault location. In cable 15
time to make the switchovers. When operating cable networks, this current is approximately 2 to 5 % of the
networks with free neutral point, it is best when the capacitive earth-fault current. In practice, a residual
earth-fault currents are relatively small. Usually an earth-
fault current range of 10 to 35 A is suitable for this oper-
reactive current resulting from inexact harmonisation and
a harmonic leakage current are superimposed on the
16
ating mode. With small currents, there is a risk of inter- active leakage current, because the resonant circuit from
mittent earth faults with high transient overvoltages. network capacitances and earth-fault neutraliser are only
With large currents, there can be major thermal effects harmonized to the basic frequency of 50 Hz. 17
through an earth-fault arc. Small industrial networks and
Intro
duction
1 As with the free neutral point, operation can also be probability of automatic clearance of the fault current.
maintained with earth-fault compensation when an earth For this reason, equipment must be available for the
fault occurs, because the conductor voltages are only reliable and quick detection of a cable fault.
2 displaced against the earth potential. The voltages of the
conductors to one another are maintained. That is the
4.5.3 Operation with Neutral Earthing
main advantage of these two types of neutral-point
3 connection. The supply of the consumers connected to
the network is not affected by a single-phase fault and
With neutral earthing, currents similar to short-circuit
currents flow in the network when a single-phase fault
operation is also maintained during an earth fault. occurs. They must be detected and selectively isolated as
detecting these in cable networks with an active leakage In medium-voltage grids, the direct earthing of trans-
current, because they are only 2 to 5 % of the capacitive former neutral points is not used. The rigid neutral earth-
14 earth-fault current. Alternatively, transient earth-fault ing would result in high earth-fault currents of 10 kA or
relays can also clearly locate an earth fault. If these are more and would have no advantages in comparison to
not available, however, a laborious and time-consuming current limiting through neutral-point resistances
15 search with reconnections and disconnections must be (low-resistance neutral earthing). Exceptions are coun-
performed until the fault is localised. This method can tries that are influenced by British standardisation (BS).
cause significant disturbance in the network.
16 In medium-voltage cable networks, the common-mode
The high earth-fault currents can cause major damage
and potential increases at the fault location and high
reactors should be matched as closely as possible to the induction voltages in telecommunication cables. This may
network capacitances. It is therefore recommended that require costly protection measures. For this reason, the
17 one of the reactors be a plunge-core reactor that can be earth-fault current in medium-voltage systems is also
varied infinitely. The active leakage current increases the
Intro
duction
limited through additional neutral point impedances in High overvoltages are to be expected if arc reignitions of 1
countries where rigid neutral earthing is commonly used. circuit-breakers occur when breaking capacitive currents.
The problem does not seem important for circuit-breakers
The permissible level for the limitation is determined by without arc reignition. Despite this, the better overvolt- 2
the trigger conditions for the power system protection. age behaviour of the resistance earthing is advantageous
Even with an unfavourable network and position of the particularly for voltage changes in medium-voltage grids.
earth fault, the assigned relays must trigger reliably. In
medium-voltage grids, a highest earth-fault current of There is no uniform guideline for the measurement of
3
1 kA to 2 kA is practically always sufficient. This value will neutral-point resistances or reactor coils. It is appropriate
be in the lower range in industrial networks, because
they are not as large as public distribution networks, and
that the current measurement is determined by the
largest earth-fault current that was specified for the grid, 4
values down to 500 A are also common. The damage at for example, to meet the requirements of the power
the fault location is relatively small with such currents. system protection. This current is considered to be the
However, the current is also large enough to lead to the rated short-time current. The stressing duration is gener- 5
low-resistance earth connection required to locate the ally specified between 5 and 10 s taking into account
fault. In pure cable networks there is therefore no reason long grading times and earth faults that follow in quick
to limit the earth-fault current further. However, in net-
works in which generators are connected directly, it is
succession. Frequently, the resistance or reactance of the
earthing unit can be determined precisely enough by
6
better when the current is limited as much as possible means of the network star voltage and the largest earth-
(stator earth fault). fault current. For an assumed maximum earth-fault
current of 2,000 A, this results, for example, in an earth- 7
The insulation stress during an earth fault is determined ing resistance of 5 to 6 Ω in a 20 kV network. It is recom-
by the frequency of the voltage increases during opera- mended however, that the attenuation of the earth-fault
tion (characterised by the earth-fault factor according to current is checked through the series impedance. The 8
IEC 60071-1, VDE 0111-1) and by the transient earth- earthing units are isolated in the system voltage range
fault overvoltage (characterised by the overvoltage between 10 and 20 kV for the star voltage of the
factor). Compared with operation with free neutral point
or with earth-fault compensation, the low-resistance
network. 9
neutral earthing has definite advantages with regard to
4.5.5 Planning of Neutral Earthing
the insulation stress.
When planning the neutral earthing for a network, a 10
With earth faults, it is particularly important that the decision must first be made as to where the neutral
stressing of the network with increased voltage is signifi- earthing is to be performed and for what magnitude the
cantly shorter. The overvoltages are reduced through the earth fault current is to be limited. The neutral point 11
low-resistance neutral earthing not only for earth faults, should always be earthed in the feeding station. If there
but practically for all switching procedures. are several feed-in points, then neutral earthing must be
performed at each feed-in points. Only in this way is it
possible to achieve a simple and safe earth-fault discon-
12
4.5.4 Comparison of Neutral Earthing via
nection, independent of the network. Generally, the
Resistance or via Reactance
The low-resistance neutral earthing can be performed
conditions required for neutral earthing in substations
are much more difficult to fulfill.
13
either by means of resistance or reactance. In the
medium-voltage grids of many countries up to 20 kV, It is therefore of advantage for a medium-voltage supply
resistance earthing dominates, because the attenuation grid when a common resistance is connected to the 14
of the transient overvoltages for earth faults and switch- neutral points of the transformers or a neutral earthing
ing procedures is higher. With the reactance earthing, transformer in the feeding station. The neutral earthing is
high overvoltages can occur particularly when clearing
earth faults. The neutral earthing via reactance is only
then independent of the network. Through the selection 15
of suitable transformers or neutral earthing transformers
recommended [2] when the ratio of the zero-sequence (small zero phase-sequence impedance), the attenuation
reactance X0 to the positive sequence reactance X1 of the
network remains less than or equal to 10 (X0 / X1 ≤ 10).
can be minimised by the zero phase-sequence imped-
ances of these network components. The magnitude of
16
This means that the earth-fault current must be more the largest earth-fault current is mainly determined by
than 25 % of the 3-phase short-circuit current and there- the effective zero phase-sequence impedance of the
fore above the minimum value required by the power neutral earthing and therefore mostly by the rating of the 17
system protection. neutral-point resistance. The series impedance – and
Intro
duction
1 therefore also the fault power in the secondary-unit Fig. 4/16 shows a summary of the most important electri-
substation – has no great effect due to the generally used cal parameters for the various neutral-point connections.
high current limiting. However, when a fault occurs in the
2 network, the earth-fault current is significantly damped The earth-fault currents are detected via the wiring of the
by the cable impedances. In contrast to multi-phase short protection transformer using a Holmgreen connection
circuits, fault currents can occur here that are of the same 4/17 or by means of a cable-type current
(see Fig. 4/17a)
3 size as the rated cable currents. The main point to be
investigated during the planning is whether all earth
transformer (see Fig. 4/17b). The following is
recommended:
faults trip the assigned relays and the relays intended as
13
14
15
16
17
Intro
duction
TIP04_13_111_EN
Low-resistance neutral earthing
Neutral-point connection Free neutral point Earth-fault compensation
With impedance Rigid
2
1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
Connection
ICE
3
C0
Petersen
Coil
I Rest
3
C0 Resistance R
I k1“
3
I k1“
3
3
Objective Continuous operation during a single-phase fault Selective tripping of a single-phase fault 4
1 UnN 1
Rating — XD ≈ R≈ << —
3 · ω · C0 3 · Ik1“ 3 · ω · C0
1/(j · ω · C0)
5
Z0/Z1 Very high resistance 20 … 100 1…5
Z1
Current at the
ICE ≈ j · ω · C0 · 3 · UnN
IRest ≈ j · ω · C0 ·
(d + jv) · 3 · UnN
Ik1“ =
c· 3 · UnN
2 · Z1 + Z0
6
fault location
10 A < ICE ≤ 35 A IRest ≤ 60 A Ik1“ ≤ 2 kA Ik1“ ≤ 1,5 · Ik3“
10
Measurementbased detection of earth faults with
12
L3 L3
7SJ61/62/63/64 7SJ61/62/63/64
I L1 I L1
3 × I0
IL3 > IL3 > 14
IE > IEE >
15
3xI0
16
17
Fig. 4/17: Measurement-based detection of earth faults with a) Holmgreen connection b) cable-type current transformer back to page 64
Intro
duction
1 All in all, the quality of electrical power supply is character- The electrical designer will indirectly factor in the aspect of
ised by the voltage and service quality as well as its availa- service quality by considering the functionality and quality
bility. The basic challenge in planning is to find the opti- aspects of the products and systems involved in the project.
2 mum of investment and operating costs on the one hand
and a risk estimation (frequency and effects of failures) on In order to specify the required product quality of connected
the other hand (see Fig. 5/1). power consumers with regard to their supply voltage, the
3 Supply quality =
curve of the “Information Technology Industry Council“
(ITIC), formerly “Computer and Business Equipment Manu-
voltage quality + availability + service quality facturers Association” (CBEMA), as shown in Fig. 5/2 is
7 server, machine control, or medical facility. Today, many single-phase power supply units are used for
the wide input voltage range of 110 to 240 V. As such, the
A cost estimate of supply problems should at least take into curves nevertheless provide a good starting point for the
account the costs of interruptions, failures, and putting the protection measures to be chosen. The parameters of
8 hardware into service again. Indirect costs such as costs voltage quality and availability will be discussed in the next
incurred due to a deterioration of customer loyalties or two sections and rounded off by an estimate of the power
even contract losses can practically not be assessed as cost demand. Basically, the entire infrastructure chain must be
9 factors during the planning stages. The specific usage of
the facility plays an important part in a cost estimate so
included in such a consideration.
11
12
Cost
TIP04_13_011_EN
Optimisation range
(dependent on the
14 specific cost situation)
Total cost 400
Voltage
Non-permissible range
(damage may occur)
tolerance
300 ranges with
uninterrupted
17 Fig. 5/1: Diagram of cost optimisation conditional upon supply Fig. 5/2: ITIC curve for computer power supply units [4]
quality
Intro
duction
5.1 Voltage Quality The fault parameters described in EN 50160 affect the 1
operation of the power supply system and the connected
The voltage quality results from the technical specifications power consumers. Tab. 5/2 assigns potential causes and
linked with the different interests of consumers and suppli- effects to the individual voltage problems. Due to the 2
ers. It is impaired by faults in the power supply on the one current energy policy, this issue is now increasingly becom-
hand and system perturbations caused by the connected ing the focus of the planner's attention. The power genera-
appliances, plants, and equipment on the other hand.
EN 50160 describes the following main characteristics of
tion concept based on controlled power stations in the
vicinity of load centres is being restructured towards decen-
3
the supply voltage for connection to the public grids: tralised power supply dependent on time and local condi-
• Voltage magnitude, slow voltage changes
• Fast voltage changes, flicker
tions. Consequently, intelligent concepts such as the smart
grid are used and that the efficient use of measuring and 4
• Voltage dips automation technology, storage technologies, energy
• Supply interruptions consumption controls, and energy conversion technologies
• Voltage unbalance such as uninterruptible power supply systems and charging 5
• Harmonic voltage and interharmonic component stations for electric vehicles need to be planned.
• Line-frequency and transient overvoltages
• Frequency variations EN 50160 does not specify any values for electromagnetic
compatibility (EMC) or limit values for the emission of
6
In many European countries, this standard serves as a interferences. It describes the characteristics of the supply
guideline or reference for parameter adaptation to the
characteristics of national power systems in order to create
voltage and related requirements for general operation.
Whereas the D-A-CH-CZ guideline [5] defines EMC as the 7
national standards. The establishment of such standards is capacity of an electrical appliance to function in a satisfac-
normally performed on the basis of the experience gained tory manner in the given electromagnetic environment
by local initiatives with the implementation of monitoring without causing impermissible electromagnetic distur- 8
systems for power quality which allow the determination of bances itself. This kind of reciprocal impact in the distribu-
appropriate voltage parameters. Tab. 5/1 shows a more tion network and on the distribution network is called
detailed subdivision with appropriate level and guidance
values.
system perturbation. 9
Voltage unbalance
U (negative phase-sequence system) / U (positive phase-sequence
system) < 2 % during ≥ 95 % of a week
10 min average 1 week 13
< limit value in acc. with EN 50160 and THD < 8 % during > 95 % 10 min average of each
Harmonics Un2 … Un25 1 week
of a week harmonic
Subharmonics being discussed 1 week 14
Signal voltages < standard characteristic curve = f(f) during ≥ 99 % of a day 3 s average 1 day
Number < 10 … 1,000 / year; there of > 50 % with t < 1 s and 10 ms r.m.s. value
Voltage dips
∆U10ms < 60 % Urated U10ms = 1 … 90 % Urated
1 year
15
10 ms r.m.s. value
Short voltage interruptions Number < 10 … 1,000 / year; there of > 70 % with a duration of < 1 s 1 year
U10ms ≥ 1 % Urated
Long voltage interruptions Number < 10 … 50 / year; there of > 70 % with a duration of < 3 min 1 year 16
10 ms r.m.s. value
Temporary overvoltage (L-N) Number < 10 … 1,000 / year; there of > 70 % with a duration of < 1 s 1 year
U10ms > 110 % Urated
Transient overvoltage < 6 kV; µs … ms No data
17
Tab. 5/1: Voltage characteristics of electricity supplied by public grids in accordance with EN 50160
Intro
duction
1
Problem Description Cause Effect
3 f1 > f2
generator or small co-generation
sites
• Unstable frequency power
sources
4 interruption
time up to
Supply interruption:
Planned or accidental total loss of
• Switching operations attempting • Sensible software process
to isolate an electrical problem crashes
Voltage signal
three minutes power in a specific area; and maintain power to affected • Loss of computer / controller
momentary interruptions lasting area memory
5 0 0.1 0.2 time (s) 0.4 0.5 from half a second to 3 minutes
and long-term interruptions
• Accidents, acts of nature, etc.
• Fuses, actions by a protection
• Hardware failure or damage
6 short voltage dip Voltage dip / sag or swell: • Start-up or shutdown of very • Memory loss, data errors,
Any short-term (half cycle to large item of consumer shrinking display screens
Voltage signal
10
reduced voltage level with repetition Flicker: • Intermittent loads • Rapid variations in the
Intro
duction
A classification of different operational environments and processing facilities in the data centre. Protection by UPS, 1
the assignment of appropriate characteristic parameters filters, or surge arresters is common for this class. The
and compatibility levels are described in the standard series classification in accordance with IEC 61000-2-4
IEC 61000 (VDE 0839). Tab. 5/3 gives an overview of the (VDE 0839‑2-4) is shown in Tab. 5/4. 2
contents of the individual standards. According to
IEC 61000-2-4 (VDE 0839-2-4) equipment and devices Voltage stability, voltage unbalance, and harmonics play an
must be classified as Environment class 1 of electromag-
netic compatibility when they respond very sensitively to
important part in assessing malfunctions and voltage
quality.
3
interference parameters of power supply, such as the data
5
IEC 61000 – Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)
-2 EMC – Ambient conditions
6
EMC – Environment – Compatibility levels for low-frequency conducted disturbances and signalling in public low-
-2 VDE 0839-2-2
-4 VDE 0839-2-4
voltage power supply systems
EMC – Environment – Compatibility level in industrial plants for low-frequency conducted disturbances
7
EMC – Environment – Compatibility levels for low-frequency conducted disturbances and signalling in public
-12 VDE 0839-2-12
-3 VDE 0838-3
EMC – Limits – Limitation of voltage changes, voltage fluctuations and flicker in public low-voltage supply systems,
for equipment with rated current ≤ 16 A per phase and not subject to conditional connection
9
EMC – Limits – Limitation of voltage changes, voltage fluctuations and flicker in public low-voltage supply systems
-11 VDE 0838-11
– Equipment with rated current ≤ 75 A and subject to conditional connection
-12 VDE 0838-12
EMC – Limits – Limits for harmonic currents produced by equipment connected to public low-voltage systems with
10
input current > 16 A and ≤ 75 A per phase
-4 EMC – Testing and measuring procedures
-7 VDE 0847-7
EMC – Testing and measurement techniques – General guide on harmonics and interharmonics measurements and 11
instrumentation, for power supply systems and equipment connected thereto
-15 VDE 0847-15 EMC – Testing and measurement techniques – Flickermeter – Functional and design specifications
30 VDE 0847-30 EMC – Testing and measurement techniques – Power quality measurement methods 12
Tab. 5/3: Structure of the standard series IEC 61000 (VDE 0838, VDE 0839, VDE 0848)
13
This class applies to protected supplies, having compatibility levels which are lower than for public grids. It refers to the
Class 1 operation of equipment which responds in a very sensitive manner to disturbances in the power supply, for example the
electrical equipment of technical laboratories, certain automation and protection gear, certain data processing facilities etc. 14
This class generally applies to points of common coupling (PCC) with the public grid and for in-plant points of coupling (IPC)
with industrial and other non-public power supply networks. The compatibility levels for this class are generally identical with
Class 2
those applying to public grids. Therefore, components which were developed for use in public grids can also be employed in
this class for industrial environments. 15
This class only applies to in-plant points of coupling (IPC) in industrial environments. For some disturbances, it comprises
higher compatibility levels than those in Class 2. This class should be considered, for example, if one of the following
Class 3
conditions is true.
• A major load share is fed by the power converters
16
• Welding machines exist
• Large motors are frequently started
• Loads vary quickly
17
Tab. 5/4: Electromagnetic compatibility levels in accordance with IEC 61000-2-4 (VDE 0839-2-4)
Intro
duction
SA Connected load as single-phase or two-phase load Tab. 5/5: Electromagnetic compatibility levels in accordance with
SkV Short-circuit power at the linking point EN 50160 for line voltages up to 35 kV
7
5.1.2 Harmonics Uneven harmonics Even harmonics
Intro
duction
The values specified in the standards are for forming a Uneven harmonics Even harmonics
1
reference level in a defined environment which exceeds the
No multiples Multiples
actual interference level only with a low probability (< 5 %).
They are used for a metrological inspection of the user's
Order
of 3
Relative Order
of 3
Relative Order Relative
2
systems. Monitoring systems can be used for measuring voltage voltage voltage
which provide more extensive options for data processing h in % h in % h in %
and analysis than required by EN 50160. The SICAM Q100
Power Quality Recorder (see Fig. 5/3
5/3) is able to communicate
5 3 3 3 2 2 3
7 3 9 1.5 4 1
flexibly with automation systems and evaluation stations via
11 3 15 0.3 6 0.5
standard protocols such as IEC 61850 and Modbus TCP. Accord-
ing to IEC 61850, collected power quality data and event 13 3 21 0.2 8 0.5
4
recordings can be transmitted to the SICAM PQS system in 17 2 10 0.5
standard data formats such as PQDIF and COMTRADE.
17 ≤ h ≤
49
0.27
21 ≤ h ≤
45
0.2
10 ≤ h ≤
50
0.25 5
SICAM Q100 meets the precision requirements of a Class A
measuring device in accordance with IEC 61000-4-30 Tab. 5/7: EMC level up to 35 kV for Environment class 1 (Tab. 5/4) in
(VDE 0847-30) for measuring the voltage quality. Harmon-
ics (see Fig. 5/4
5/4) are detected in accordance with the speci-
accordance with IEC 61000-2-4 (VDE 0839-2-4)
6
fications made in IEC 61000-4-7 (VDE 0847-7) and flickers
Uneven harmonics Even harmonics
are calculated as described in IEC 61000-4-15
(VDE 0847‑15). No multiples Multiples 7
of 3 of 3
The identification, determination, and profile formation of Order Relative Order Relative Order Relative
the measuring points for system quality monitoring play an h
voltage
in % h
voltage
in % h
voltage
in %
8
important part in project design. Since the supply network
5 6 3 5 2 2
is a dynamic system in the building infrastructure, the
optimisation of the measuring points is based on the
insights gained in day-to-day operation. Besides the selec-
7
11
5
3.5
9
15
1.5
0.4
4
6
1
0.5
9
tion of measuring points, the determination of system 13 3 21 0.2 8 0.5
quality requires a definition and determination of the
evaluation criteria at the individual measuring points.
17 2 10 0.5 10
17 ≤ h ≤ 21 ≤ h ≤ 10 ≤ h ≤
0.27 0,2 0.25
49 45 50
In order to properly estimate harmonic voltage interfer-
ences in line with the D-A-CH-CZ guideline [5], it is impor- Tab. 5/8: EMC level up to 35 kV for Environment class 2 (Tab. 5/4) in 11
tant to consider the functioning principles of the harmonic accordance with IEC 61000-2-4 (VDE 0839-2-4)
generators used. According to [5], two groups are to be
differentiated:
Uneven harmonics Even harmonics
12
Group 1: Equipment with a low emission of harmonic No multiples Multiples
content (10 % ≤ THDi ≤ 25 %)
Order
of 3
Relative Order
of 3
Relative Order Relative
13
Group 2: Equipment with medium-range and high emission voltage voltage voltage
h in % h in % h in %
of harmonic content (THDi > 25 %)
5 8 3 6 2 3 14
For example, pumps, ventilators, compressors, air condi- 7 7 9 2.5 4 1.5
tioning appliances, DC-controlled fans, and compact fluo- 11 5 15 2 6 1
rescent lamps with electronic ballast belong to Group 2.
Compact fluorescent lamps with inductive ballast and
13 4.5 21 1.75 8 1 15
12-pulse converters are typically assigned to Group 1. For 17 4 10 1
self-commutated converters with pulse width modulated
conversion via power capacitors, the harmonic content is
17 ≤ h ≤
49
4.5 ×
(17 / h) –
21 ≤ h ≤
45
1
10 ≤ h ≤
50
1 16
0.5
less than 10 % so that such converters don’t need to be
considered. However, the same also applies if integrated Tab. 5/9: EMC level up to 35 kV for Environment class 3 (Tab. 5/4) in
harmonic filters for 6- or 12-pulse diode or thyristor invert- accordance with IEC 61000-2-4 (VDE 0839-2-4) 17
ers ensure a corresponding reduction.
Intro
duction
5 SOS SkV
=b·
SA SA
Fig. 5/3: SICAM Q100 power quality recorder back to page 73
6
(b = 0.082 for low voltage or b = 0.058 for medium voltage)
7 If the limit lines of Fig. 5/5 for SOS / SA are exceeded, passive
or active filters can be used as an effective means to limit Information
Harmonics voltage
8
Harmonics current Harmonics voltage L1
Interharmonics voltage
23,90 %
9
9,56 %
Automation functions
Limits
Group indications 4,78 %
10
Harmonics voltage L2
11 6,88 %
16 0.1
1 5 10 50 100 500 1,000
LV: Low voltage SkV/SA
17 MV: Medium voltage
Intro
duction
TIP04_13_014_EN
The so-called EMC Directive of the European Union [6] 10
defines electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) as "the capa- 2
Cable routing and screening Fig. 5/6: Distance dependency of the magnetic back
flux density for various conductor arrangements
to page 76 6
The propagation of interference currents and the electric
and magnetic fields linked to them depend both on the
cable type and their arrangement. Generally speaking and 7
in accordance with EN 50174-2 (VDE 0800-174-2), signal
and data cables should be routed well away from power
supply leads. 8
Configuration:
11
Sidebyside 1 Cu conductor
2 PVC insulation Singlecore cable
without spacing
3 Strand sheathing
4 PVC outer sheathing 12
1 2 3 4
Configuration:
In bundles
1 Cu conductor
2 PVC insulation
Singlecore cable 13
3 Strand sheathing
4 PVC outer sheathing
1 2 3 4
Configuration: 14
Multicore cable 1 Cu conductor
2 PVC insulation Multicore cable
L1L2L3NPE
3 Strand sheathing
1 2 3 4 5
4 PVC outer sheathing
15
Multicore Configuration:
1 Cu conductor Multicore
L1L2L3N
with concentric
screening (PE)
2 PVC insulation
3 Strand sheathing
cable with
concentric PE 16
4 Concentric Cu screen braiding
better 5 PVC outer sheathing
17
TIP04_13_015_EN
Fig. 5/7: Classification of simple cable types and wiring with regard to EMC back to page 76
Intro
duction
1 The requirements placed on this separation depend on the loading of conductors leads to a deterioration of EMC
following: conditions. The symmetrical splitting of conductors in the
• EMC characteristics of the IT cables busbar trunking system has significant advantages because
2 • Design, dimensions, and geometrical arrangement of the of the reduced magnetic interference with the environ-
power supply cables ment. The Siemens LD busbar trunking system (LDA / LDC)
• Type of circuits supplied with its symmetrical conductor splitting is thus particularly
3 • Possibly existing isolation devices suitable for the transmission of high currents.
The procedure how to define isolation / separation require- Earthing and equipotential bonding
4 ments is described in EN 50174-2 (VDE 0800-174-2). In
particular for data centres, doubling the value established In particular stray currents may become a severe problem.
for the (isolating) distance between IT cabling and power That is, currents flowing through the protection conductor
supply leads is recommended. and the screening of data and IT cables can cause failures,
5 malfunctions, and even damage. In the low-voltage net-
Bundling into cable groups and twisting phase and work, it is the connection to earth conditions in the power
return conductor is beneficial for electric power supply system which are decisive for this cable-bound EMC. The
6 Fig. 5/6
(see Fig. 5/6). The different bundlings of conductors and
the use of cable screens are arranged in an EMC-quality-
strict separation of the protection conductor from the
neutral conductor in the TN-S network helps to avoid these
5/7
significant manner in Fig. 5/7. kinds of stray currents.
7 When comparing cables and a busbar trunking system, also For each functional unit, a central earthing point (CEP)
the conductor splitting plays an important part. Commonly, should be additionally formed in the TN-S network. The
busbar trunking systems are better in terms of EMC in case following is to be considered in the planning phase:
8 of equal currents. Fig. 5/8 also reveals that an asymmetrical
9 Conductor arrangements
100
TIP04_13_016_EN
L1
10 cm L1 = 1,000 A e-j0°
10 L2 L2 = 1,000 A e-j120°
Magnetic flux density B in µT
10 cm L3 = 950 A e-j240°
L3
L1
11 10 cm
L2
L1 = 1,000 A e-j0°
L2 = 1,000 A e-j120°
10
10 cm L3 = 1,000 A e-j240°
L3
12 10 cm
L1
L1 = 200 A e-j0°
L2 L2 = 200 A e-j120° 1
10 cm L3 = 200 A e-j240°
L3
13 L1
Interference limit ECG
L1 = 1,000 A e-j0° Interference limit EEG
3c
L2 = 1,000 A e-j120°
m
3c
L3 = 1,000 A e-j240°
14
0.1 Interference limit EMG
L3 3 cm L2
16 L1 = 2,500 A e-j0°
L2 = 2,500 A e-j120°
Distance to source of interference in m
L3 = 2,500 A e-j240°
17 Fig. 5/8: Cable configuration and suitability with regard to EMC (the interference levels for electromyograms (EMG), electrocardiograms
(ECG), and electroencephalograms (EEG) are specified in the standard IEC 60364-7-710 (VDE 0100-710))
Intro
duction
Splitter
9
bridge
Source
Protective
Main
earth
10
equipotential bar 2
bonding –
transformer
System earthing 11
Low-voltage main distribution
U
12
L1 L1
L2 L2
L3 L3
PEN N 13
TIP04_13_017_EN
PE PE
Central
earth
point
14
Main
earth
15
Sub-distribution board
bar 1
L1 L1
L2 L2
L3 L3 16
N N
PE PE
Intro
duction
7
5.3.1 Availability Classes
As a mathematical term, availability is defined as the
Based on the classification performed by the Harvard quotient from the "mean time between failure“ (MTBF) and
8 Research Group (HRG) in 2002 (see Tab. 5/10), several the sum of all MTBF and the "mean time to repair" (MTTR):
grades of availability have established. In its High Availabil-
ity Compendium [8], the German Federal Office for Infor- Availability A = MTBF / (MTBF+MTTR)
9 mation Security (Bundesamt für Sicherheit in der Informa-
tionstechnik (BSI)) presents a classification quoting down-
times corresponding to the respective status of non-availa-
12 AVC 1
Standard safety based on basic IT protection with
normal demand for availability
99 % 1 % <8h < 88 h
14
AVC 4 Highest availability 99.999 % 0.001 % < 26 s < 6 min
AVC 5 Disaster-tolerant Max. availability 0 0 0
* Supplementary risk analysis acc. to BSI-Standard 100-3
15 Tab. 5/11: Typical availability classes acc. to the High-availability Compendium of the BSI [8]
16
MTBF MTTR A Operational compatibility
1 day 1 second 86,400 s / 86,401 s = 99.999 % Not acceptable
1 month 30 seconds 2,592,000 s / 2,592,030 s = 99.999 % Still acceptable
Tab. 5/12: Availability A for different interruption characteristics back to page 79
Intro
duction
However, availability only becomes significant if the magni- A reliability calculation can be made to quantify the reliabil- 1
tudes of MTBF and MTTR are known. Tab. 5/12 shows three ity of supply. Using models for the replication of the system
estimations of the availability in different fault scenarios. and the associated reliability characteristics, the weak-
nesses and optimisation options in the electrical power 2
The percentages of availability differ marginally in the sixth distribution system can be identified. The following models
digit after the decimal point. The significance of a long, describing the power supply operation and failure behav-
uninterrupted phase of operation is obvious, as many
minor interruptions may impair the work rhythm. Some
iour are known:
• Element model
3
guidelines can be derived from this: • Failure model
• Preference should be given to high quality of the products
applied
• Resupply model
• Consumer load model 4
• The number of components used should be kept as small
as possible, since every component must be regarded as a The calculation of reliability characteristics is very elaborate
potential source of trouble and can be made manually for very small and simple 5
• Repeated interference and switching operations, in networks only. In programs for the quantitative determina-
particular in connection with modularisation and load-de- tion of the reliability of supply, the following methods are
pendent operation, should be avoided
• A dependency on single components should be avoided
basically used:
• State space method
6
since their failure or switching off such a “single point of • Boolean networks
failure“ (SPOF) would affect the whole system • Monte Carlo simulation
7
On top of this, a failure of the electrical power supply In the calculations, generally every network conditions
means that a restart of the infrastructure cannot be ex- must be considered, and for all combinations of failed
pected within seconds but more likely after many hours or network elements the frequency of occurrence and the 8
even days. If a defect concerns special components such as duration of this fault state must be determined. Thus, the
the transformers, UPS, or switchgear panels, their replace- total failure extent can be determined for every state.
ment may take several days or weeks.
In most cases a cost analysis is used to assess the calculated
9
characteristics. For that, the not supplied energy is deter-
5.3.2 Reliability Calculations
Interruptions are mostly caused by accidental occurrences.
mined in kilowatt hours and the interrupted power in
kilowatts and converted into monetary variables. It has
10
These events can be analysed quantitatively using statisti- turned out, however, that due to the large spread of com-
cal methods and probability calculation. Therefore, proba- mercial and economic costs of interruptions, in most cases
bility calculation forms the basis of reliability calculation. no clear recommendations for or against investments in 11
The calculations are made with random variables which network extensions can be derived.
cannot be forecasted exactly, nor can the results thereof.
The random variables are assessed appropriately and a
large number of calculations yield results that suffice a
When comparing the calculated characteristics of two
extension variants, a reliability calculation may show which
12
probability with a corresponding fluctuation margin. variant is more reliable. Since a model always has to get by
17
Intro
duction
1 External influences ruption. The higher the regarded network level is (see grid
level structure in chapter 2), the larger are usually the
Supply interruptions can be caused by climatic and atmos- effects of a supply interruption. The expenditure for redun-
2 pheric impacts. Since these cannot be influenced directly, dant supply at the individual grid levels must be selected
only their effects can be prevented or minimised by second- accordingly. In medium-voltage grids, a changeover reserve
ary measures in network planning and design as well as in is economically feasible.
3 network operation. Typical incidents are variations in
temperature and humidity, thunderstorms, storms, ice and Network configuration
snow, wind-borne sand and sea salt, UV radiation, earth-
Intro
duction
go with greater mechanical and thermal stress and higher the supply interruption. For example, misadjustments are 1
breaking capacities. avoided in the forefront already by precise instructions in
the documentation.
Automation 2
Failure and damage statistics can help to comprehend
The degree of automation of the network has great influ- failure causes and processes to a certain extent and to
ence on the number and most of all the duration of supply
interruptions. Even in a medium-voltage network, the
render visible weak points or defects in the network. This
allows for their early removal and an improvement of the
3
automation of the central systems is advantageous with reliability of supply.
regard to the reliability of supply, despite the variety of
equipment and the large amount of data. The implementa- Personnel
4
tion of simple network automation helps to avoid misad-
justments but requires a simple and clear network configu- The number of personnel required for reliable operation
ration. largely depends on the size of the network, the technology 5
used, and the degree of automation of the network. Apart
Production, installation, and commissioning from the number of personnel also its qualification, i.e. pro-
Intro
duction
advantage and also allows for clear stockkeeping. 5/11 two of the three systems
In the UPS example of Fig. 5/11,
4 Maintenance
connected in parallel are sufficient to safely supply the
connected load. In the case of maximum utilisation of
redundancy, each of the connected UPS systems supplies
Maintenance combines all measures necessary to retain two-third of the required power.
5 (service) and restore (repair) the target state. This also
includes the determination and assessment of the actual Generalising, we speak of an (n+1) redundancy if n items
state (inspection). By regularly inspecting the equipment, of equipment are sufficient in parallel operation to ensure
6 weak points and defects can be recognized and rectified in
the course of service and repair.
undisturbed operation so that one item of equipment may
fail or be switched off. Thus, no further redundancy exists
then.
7 5.3.3 Redundancy
System redundancy
The availability of a system is influenced by the quality of
its components (the availability of the individual compo- The configuration of two parallel supply systems allows
8 nents) on the one hand and redundancy configurations on system redundancy to be obtained. At the same time,
the other hand. Generally speaking, redundancy character- parallelism should be maintained as far as possible down to
izes the use of multiple technical resources which are the load be supplied. Ideally, electric power supply of
9 technically identical or at least functionally identical. In the
following, the ICT terminology is used.
consumers is ensured by at least two redundantly usable,
separate power supply units.
or design for the same function) are used in a redundant To cut back somewhat on the expenditure that would be
manner. Electric power distribution may involve considera- required for system redundancy, parallel-operating compo-
11 tion being given to a very diversified range of redundancy nents are used (n+1)-redundantly and the consumers are
configurations in planning. divided into several groups supplied in different ways. This
concept, however, only brings advantages when more than
12 Attention: The following differentiation of the redundancy
types may easily lead to mix-ups!
two consumer groups are differentiated – that is, at least
three consumer groups and three or more supply groups.
Put simply, the simultaneous modularity of the systems and
13 Standby redundancy Fig. 5/12 a UPS redundancy with (2+1)
loads is utilised. In Fig.
parallel-operating UPS systems is distributed to four sys-
A spare component is operated in idle mode side by side tems in an isolated-parallel redundancy system
with the active component. It only becomes active should (2+1)+(2+1)+(2+1)+(2+1) = (3+1)^(2+1) for four con-
14 the primary component fail. This type of redundancy is also sumer blocks. The redundancy of the four systems (3+1) is
called “cold” redundancy or “hot” redundancy depending on linked with the redundancy of the components (2+1).
the duration of readiness. Basically, a spare tyre is a “cold”
15 redundancy since refitting takes quite some time. Fig. 5/10
exemplifies the output of the standby UPS being connected
to the input of the static bypass line of the primary UPS.
16 Only when switching over to the bypass line does the
standby UPS become active. In some texts, standby redun-
dancy is also called “isolated redundancy.”
17
Intro
duction
Secondary UPS
1
TIP04_13_018_EN
3
Primary UPS
5
Communication tie
for parallel operation
UPS 1
50 kVA 6
UPS 2 100
TIP04_13_019_EN
50 kVA kVA
UPS 3
7
50 kVA
9
50 kVA
50 kVA
50 kVA
10
UPS 12
UPS 11
UPS 10
Communication
tie for parallel
operation
11
UPS 1 UPS 9
50 kVA 100 100 50 kVA
kVA kVA
UPS 2
50 kVA
UPS 8
50 kVA
12
100 100
UPS 3 kVA kVA UPS 7
50 kVA 50 kVA
13
Communication tie
for parallel
14
TIP04_13_020_EN
50 kVA
50 kVA
50 kVA
operation
UPS 4
UPS 5
UPS 6
15
Fig. 5/12: Isolated-parallel UPS system with back to page 82
a link through two independent power supply
units acc. to (m+1)^(n+1) – here: (3+1)^(2+1)
16
17
Intro
duction
1 5.4 Reactive Power and Compensation Transmission losses and energy consumption are reduced
and expensive expansions become unnecessary as the
The total power, the so-called apparent power, of a trans- same equipment can be used to transmit more active
2 mission network is composed of active and reactive power power owing to reactive power compensation.
(Fig. 5/13). While the power consumers connected into
supply transform the active power into active energy, the Determination of capacitor power
3 reactive energy pertaining to the reactive power is not
consumed. The reactive power at the consumer side is A system with the installed active power P is to be compen-
merely used for building up a magnetic field, for example, sated from a power factor cos φ1 to a power factor cos φ2.
4 for operating electric motors, pumps, or transformers. The capacitor power necessary for this compensation
5/15
(see Fig. 5/14). Qc = 0.5 · P
10
11
12
TIP04_13_021_EN
Active power
Apparent power
Reactive power
13
14
15
Magnetic field
16
Grid of the power supplier Motor Drive
17
Fig. 5/13: Composition of the total power of a transmission grid
Intro
duction
Qc = 0.1 to 0.2 · P 2
20 kV
Calculation of the reactive power based on the
electricity bill 3
For installations which are already running, the required
capacitor power can be determined by measuring. If active
and reactive work meters are available, the demand of 400 V
4
capacitor power can be taken from the monthly electricity
TIP04_13_022_EN
bill.
Iw Ib
5
tan φ = reactive work / active work M
13
14
15
16
17
Intro
duction
1 Actual value
Conversion factor F
(given)
tan φ1 cos φ1 cos φ2 cos φ2 cos φ2 cos φ2 cos φ2 cos φ2 cos φ2 cos φ2 cos φ2 cos φ2 cos φ2
2 = 0.70 = 0.75 = 0.80 = 0.82 = 0.85 = 0.87 = 0.90 = 0.92 = 0.95 = 0.97 = 1.00
4.90 0.20 3.88 4.02 4.15 4.20 4.28 4.33 4.41 4.47 4.57 4.65 4.90
3.87 0.25 2.85 2.99 3.12 3.17 3.25 3.31 3.39 3.45 3.54 3.62 3.87
3 3.18 0.30 2.16 2.30 2.43 2.48 2.56 2.61 2.70 2.75 2.85 2.93 3.18
2.68 0.35 1.66 1.79 1.93 1.98 2.06 2.11 2.19 2.25 2.35 2.43 2.68
2.29 0.40 1.27 1.41 1.54 1.59 1.67 1.72 1.81 1.87 1.96 2.04 2.29
4 2.16 0.42 1.14 1.28 1.41 1.46 1.54 1.59 1.68 1.74 1.83 1.91 2.16
2.04 0.44 1.02 1.16 1.29 1.34 1.42 1.47 1.56 1.62 1.71 1.79 2.04
5 1.93 0.46 0.91 1.05 1.18 1.23 1.31 1.36 1.45 1.50 1.60 1.68 1.93
1.83 0.48 0.81 0.95 1.08 1.13 1.21 1.26 1.34 1.40 1.50 1.58 1.83
1.73 0.50 0.71 0.85 0.98 1.03 1.11 1.17 1.25 1.31 1.40 1.48 1.73
6 1.64 0.52 0.62 0.76 0.89 0.94 1.02 1.08 1.16 1.22 1.31 1.39 1,64
1.56 0.54 0.54 0.68 0.81 0.86 0.94 0.99 1.07 1.13 1.23 1.31 1.56
7 1.48
1.40
0.56
0.58
0.46
0.38
0.60
0.52
0.73
0.65
0.78
0.71
0.86
0.78
0.91
0.84
1.00
0.92
1.05
0.98
1.15
1.08
1.23
1.15
1.48
1.40
1.33 0.60 0.31 0.45 0.58 0.64 0.71 0.77 0.85 0.91 1.00 1.08 1.33
8 1.27 0.62 0.25 0.38 0.52 0.57 0.65 0.70 0.78 0.84 0.94 1.01 1.27
1.20 0.64 0.18 0.32 0.45 0.50 0.58 0.63 0.72 0.77 0.87 0.95 1.20
1.14 0.66 0.12 0.26 0.39 0.44 0.52 0.57 0.65 0.71 0.81 0.89 1.14
9 1.08 0.68 0.06 0.20 0.33 0.38 0.46 0.51 0.59 0.65 0.75 0.83 1.08
1.02 0.70 – 0.14 0.27 0.32 0.40 0.45 0.54 0.59 0.69 0.77 1.02
10 0.96
0.91
0.72
0.74
0.08
0.03
0.21
0.16
0.27
0.21
0.34
0.29
0.40
0.34
0.48
0.42
0.54
0.48
0,63
0.58
0.71
0.66
0.96
0.91
0.86 0.76 – 0.11 0.16 0.24 0.29 0.37 0.43 0.53 0.60 0.86
11 0.80 0.78 0.05 0.10 0.18 0.24 0.32 0.38 0.47 0.55 0.80
0.75 0.80 – 0.05 0.13 0.18 0.27 0.32 0.42 0.50 0.75
0.70 0.82 – 0.08 0.13 0.21 0.27 0.37 0.45 0.70
12 0.65 0.84 0.03 0.08 0.16 0.22 0.32 0.40 0.65
0.59 0.86 – 0.03 0.11 0.17 0.26 0.34 0.59
16
17
Intro
duction
16
17
Intro
duction
1 Single compensation
TIP04_13_024
• Constant power demand
• Long ON times M
5
Here, load is taken off the feeder lines to the power con-
Fig. 5/16: Single compensation
sumers; a continuous adjustment of the capacitor power to
6 its reactive power demand is not possible, however.
Group compensation
7 With group compensation, each compensation device is
assigned to a consumer group. Such a consumer group may
consist of motors or discharge lamps, for example, which
8 are connected into supply together through a contactor or
switch. In this case, special switching devices for connect-
ing the capacitors are not required either (Fig. 5/17). Group
9 compensation has the same advantages and disadvantages
as single compensation.
TIP04_13_025
10 Central compensation
M M M
Reactive power control units are used for central compen-
sation, which are directly assigned to a switchgear unit,
11 distribution board, or sub-distribution board and centrally Fig. 5/17: Group compensation
Controller
16
TIP04_13_026_EN
17
Intro
duction
TIP04_13_027_EN
heaters, street lights, etc.). The latter also functions as a Ripple control signal
transmission path. Control commands are transmitted by
means of pulse sequences in the range of 167 to approx.
2,000 Hz which are superimposed on the voltage with an
3
amplitude of approx. 1 – 8 % of the respective nominal
power system voltage. The audio frequency (AF) 1 is
switched on and off for transmission following a code 4
(pulse grid), which creates a “telegram”. The consumer to Capacitor
be remote-controlled is downstream-connected to a special (control unit)
receiver (ripple control receiver) which filters the pulse 5
telegrams out of the network and deduces the desired
Fig. 5/19: Schematic diagram of the compensation in a network
control information from them (Fig. 5/19).
with an audio frequency ripple control system
1 The ripple control frequency tables for Germany, Austria, Switzerland, etc. are
17
available at: rundsteuerung.de
Intro
duction
TIP04_13_029_EN
4 choke reactance XL and capacitor reactance XC at system
frequency. M
XL
XC
1
5 fres = fN ·
p
Non-linear
loads
Linear
loads
Thyristor-switched
compensation
TIP04_13_030_EN
AF > 250 Hz: p = 7 %
13 Tuned filter circuits are built from series resonant circuits Fig. 5/22: Choked capacitors with thyristor control
which consist of capacitors with upstream-connected
reactors. These resonant circuits are tuned in such a way
14 that they form resistors for the individual harmonic currents
which are near zero and thus smaller than the resistors of
the remaining network. Therefore, the harmonic currents
15 originating from power converters are absorbed by the
filter circuits to a large extent. Only a small rest flows into
the higher-level three-phase system so that the voltage is
16 hardly distorted and a negative influence on other power
consumers is ruled out (Fig. 5/22).
17
Intro
duction
Intro
duction
1 5.5 Protection Against Lightning protection zone(s) (LPZ) (see Fig. 5/23). For each LPZ, the
Current and Overvoltage geometrical borders, relevant characteristics, lightning
threat data, and kinds of damage to be considered are
2 Overvoltages considerably damage electric and electronic defined. Starting from the unprotected state of the prop-
appliances. This includes even small voltage peaks on the erty, the assumed risk is reduced by taking (further)
supply line. This can be seen from the damage caused to protection measures until only an acceptable residual risk
3 lines, circuit boards, or switchgear. Such damage can be
prevented with suitable protection measures against surge
remains. The standard considers not only protection meas-
ures for installations with the persons, electrical and elec-
currents and overvoltages. tronic systems located therein, but also for supply lines.
4 Overvoltages are caused by lightning discharge (LEMP – The protection zones are defined as follows:
lightning electromagnetic pulse), switching operations
(SEMP – switching electromagnetic pulse), and electrostatic Zone 0 (LPZ 0)
5 discharge (ESD). They occur in a fraction of a second only.
Therefore, they are also called transient voltages or tran- Outside the building, direct lightning impact:
sients (from the Latin transire = pass). They have very short –– No protection against lightning strike (LEMP)
6 rise times of a few microseconds (μs) before they drop
again relatively slowly over a period of up to several 100 μs.
–– LPZ 0A: endangered by lightning strikes
–– LPZ 0B: protected against lightning strikes
establish the necessity of lightning protection first and then Inside the building, high-energy transients caused by:
define the technically and economically optimal protection –– Switching operations (SEMP)
8 measures described in IEC 62305-3 (VDE 0185-305-3) and –– Lightning currents
IEC 62305-4 (VDE 0185-305-4). To this end, the property to
be protected is subdivided into a (or several) lightning
9
10
LPZ 0 A
11 LEMP
LPZ 0 B M
12 LPZ 1
LEMP
Room shield
Venti-
lation LPZ 2 Terminal
13 LPZ 3
LEMP
LPZ 2
LPZ 0 B LPZ 0 B
14 IT
network
SEMP
17
Fig. 5/23: Lightning protection zone concept
Intro
duction
TIP04_13_032_EN
lightning protection. The electromagnetic field of lightning
can be dampened by way of spatial shielding. The impulse Earthing system of Earthing system
withstand voltage of the insulating interfaces and the the transformer of the struck
protection level of the SPDs must be coordinated with the building structure 11
Fig. 5/24: Current splitting for a balanced lightning protection
system
12
Nominal voltage of the power Voltage from conductor to neutral Rated surge voltage
supply system (network) in conductor derived from the rated AC
acc. with IEC 60038
(VDE 0175-1)
or DC voltage up to and including 13
Overvoltage category
Intro
duction
1 Overvoltage category II: Energy-consuming equipment bound overvoltage induction is no longer possible. Within
supplied by the stationary installation. the scope of an efficient and comprehensive protection
concept against overvoltages, the power supply has to be
2 Example: Equipment such as household appliances, considered in the first step. The high-energy overvoltages
portable tools, etc. and similar devices. and surge currents occurring in this area cause flashovers
over clearances in air and creepage distances as well as to
3 Overvoltage category I: Equipment for the connection to
circuits in which measures have been taken for a limitation
earth due to the insulation of live parts and cables. Af-
fected by this is the entire electrical equipment, from the
of the transient overvoltages to a suitable low value. central building supply through to the power consumer.
4 Example: Equipment with electronic circuits and a The measures required to protect the power supply
correspondingly low protection level. of systems and devices depends on the results of the
hazard analysis. Three protection stages are defined
5 The term “effective protection circuit” describes a seamless (see Tab. 5/16) on which an effective protection concept is
measure for protection against overvoltages. The first step based. The SPDs for the individual stages basically differ in
in the development of such a protection concept is the the magnitude of the discharge capacity (surge current
6 acquisition of all devices and system areas in need of
protection. This is followed by the assessment of the re-
carrying capacity) and the protection level (maximum
remaining instantaneous value of the overvoltage)
quired protection levels of the acquired devices. Generally, depending on the relevant protection stage.
12
13
14
Protection stage Designation SPD type Protection level Usual installation location
17
Intro
duction
1
I)
2
5
type 1 type 2 type 3
6
II)
7
10
11
type 1+2 type 3
III) 12
13
14
15
TIP04_13_033_EN
type 2 type 3
16
Intro
duction
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
4 Basic rules ing line, as well as the selection of the connecting line itself
(cable / line or busbar connection) under consideration of
On principle, circuit dimensioning shall be performed the technical features of the corresponding switching / pro-
in compliance with the technical rules / standards listed in tection devices. For supply circuits in particular, dimension-
5 Fig. 6/1. Details will be explained below. ing also includes rating the power sources.
Cross-circuit dimensioning Depending on the circuit type, there may be different focal
6 When selected network components and systems are
points of dimensioning, as demonstrated below. The
dimensioning target of overload and short-circuit protec-
matched, an economically efficient overall system can be tion can be attained in correlation to the mounting location
9
Overload protection IEC 60364-4-43 VDE 0100-430
10
12
Protection against electric shock IEC 60364-4-41 VDE 0100-410
13
14 Voltage drop
IEC 60364-5-52 VDE 0100-520
IEC 60038 VDE 0175-1
15
IEC 60364-7-710 VDE 0100-710
TIP04_13_034_EN
16 Selectivity
IEC 60364-7-718
IEC 60947-2
VDE 0100-718
VDE 0660-101
IEC 60898-1 VDE 0641-11
17
Fig. 6/1: Standards for dimensioning protection devices and routing in circuits
Intro
duction
6.1 Circuit Types and Basic Rules for attaining the best possible selectivity towards all up- 1
stream and downstream devices.
The basic dimensioning rules and standards listed in
section 6.1 principally apply to all circuit types. In addition, Distribution circuit 2
there are specific requirements for these circuit types
(see section 6.2) which will be explained in detail below. Dimensioning of cable routes and devices follows the
maximum load currents to be expected at this distribution
level. As a rule:
3
Supply circuits
Intro
duction
9
Protection against electric shock
10
11 Disconnection Signalling
12
TN system TT system IT system IT system
13
Overcurrent Overcurrent Insulation Insulation
14 protection devices protection devices monitoring devices monitoring
devices
Residual-current Residual-current Overcurrent
devices (RCD) devices (RCD) protection devices
15 In special cases: Residual-current
fault-voltage-operated devices (RCD)
protection devices
TIP04_13_035_EN
16 In special cases:
fault-voltage-operated
protection devices
17
Fig. 6/2: Dependency of personal protection on power supply systems back to page 101
Intro
duction
Intro
duction
16
17
Intro
duction
TIP04_13_036_EN
peak short-circuit current. The protection characteristic is
determined by the selected rated current (Fig. 6/3) I
• Medium-voltage circuit-breakers (IEC 62271-100;
VDE 0671-100)
Adjustable characteristic
curves or setting ranges 6
Circuit-breakers can provide time-overcurrent protection
Fig. 6/3: Protection characteristic of HV HRC fuse and MV
(definite-time and inverse), time-overcurrent protection
with additional directional function, or differential protec-
overcurrent-time protection 7
tion. So far, distance protection has rarely been used in
infrastructure and industrial grids owing to their low
spatial extension
inverse-time delay
8
• Secondary relays
Secondary relays whose characteristic curves are also t
determined by the actual current transformation ratio are
used as protection devices in medium-voltage grids. Static
I 2 t = constant
I 4 t = constant
9
digital protection devices are increasingly preferred
definite-time-delay
Intro
duction
The protection function of the circuit-breaker in the power The protection characteristic curve is determined by the
2 distribution system is determined by the selection of the rated circuit-breaker current as well as the setting and the
6/5 Releases can be divided
appropriate release (see Fig. 6/5). operating values of the releases.
into thermo-magnetic tripping units (TMTU, previously also • Miniature circuit-breaker in accordance with IEC 60898-1
3 called electromechanical releases) and electronic tripping
units (ETU).
(VDE 0641-11)
Miniature circuit-breakers (MCBs) can be distinguished by
• Overload protection their method of operation:
Intro
duction
1
t in s Overcurrent release ”L“
L
IrN Standard I2t
1,000
Ir optional I4t
2
S
Shorttime delayed
tr
shortcircuit release ”S“
100 Standard tsd
optional I2t
3
Instantaneous
I
10
Ig
shortcircuit release ”I“
Standard On 4
Isd optional Off
1
N
Neutral conductor protection ”N“
Standard 0,5 –1 • Ir 5
0.1 tg optional Off
tsd
Earthfault release
Ii G
6
TIP04_13_038_EN
Standard tE
0.01 optional I2t
7
0.5 1 5 10 50 100
I in kA
8
Fig. 6/5: Variants of tripping curves back to page 104
6.2.3 Selectivity Criteria release must be less than the lowest short-circuit current
9
• In addition to primary criteria of use such as rated current at the end of the line to be protected. Only this setting of
and rated switching capacity, selectivity is another impor-
tant criterion for optimum supply reliability. The selective
Isd or Ii guarantees that the overcurrent release can fulfil
its operator and system protection functions 10
operation of series-connected protection devices is deter-
mined by the following criteria: Attention: When using these settings, permissible setting
• Time difference for clearance (time grading) only tolerances of ± 20 %, or the tolerance specifications given by 11
• Current difference for operating values (current grading) the manufacturer must be observed!
only
• Combination of time and current grading (inverse-time
grading)
Generally it is required:
Isd or Ii ≤ Ik min –20 %
12
• The requirement that defined tripping conditions be
Direction (directional protection), impedance (distance
protection), and current difference (differential protection)
observed determines the maximum conductor lengths or
their cross sections
13
are also used. • Selective current grading can only be attained if the
short-circuit currents are known
Requirements for selective response of • In addition to current grading, partial selectivity can be 14
protection devices achieved using combinations of carefully matched protec-
tion devices
Protection devices can only act selectively if both the • In principle, the highest short-circuit current can be both 15
highest (Ik max) and the lowest (Ik min) short-circuit currents the three-phase and the single-phase short-circuit current
for the relevant system points are known at the project • When feeding into LV networks, the single-phase fault
configuration stage. As a result:
• The highest short-circuit current determines the required
current will be greater than the three-phase fault current
if transformers with the Dy connection are used
16
rated short-circuit switching capacity of the cir- • The single-phase short-circuit current will be the lowest
cuit-breaker. Criterion: Icu respectively Ics > Ik max fault current if the damping zero phase-sequence imped-
• The lowest short-circuit current is important for setting ance of the LV cable is active 17
the short-circuit release; the operating value of this
Intro
duction
1 Since the selectivity response of protection and switching Significant tripping times
devices made by different manufacturers is not known,
products supplied by one manufacturer only should be For the sake of clarity, only the delay time tsd is plotted for
2 installed throughout if the planning criterion of "selectivity" circuit-breakers with definite-time-delay overcurrent re-
is to be fulfilled. With large installations, it is advisable to leases (S), and only the opening time to for circuit-breakers
determine all short-circuit currents using a special com- with instantaneous overcurrent releases (I).
3 puter program. Here, our SIMARIS design dimensioning and
calculation software comes as the optimum solution. Grading principle
4 Grading the operating currents with time grading Delay times and operating currents are graded in the
opposite direction to the flow of power, starting with the
Time grading also includes grading the operating currents. final circuit.
This means that the operating value of the overcurrent • Without fuses, for the load breaker with the highest
5 release belonging to the upstream circuit-breaker must current setting of the overcurrent release
generally be set with a factor of 1.5 higher than that of the • With fuses, for the fused outgoing circuit from the busbar
downstream circuit-breaker. Tolerances of operating cur- with the highest rated fuse-link current
6 rents in definite-time-delay overcurrent S-releases (± 20 %)
are thus compensated. When the manufacturer specifies Circuit-breakers are used in preference to fuses in cases
narrower tolerances, this factor is reduced accordingly. where fuse links with high rated currents do not provide
200
S
• The tripping curves of circuit-breakers given in the manu- ms
100
t st 150 ms
t sd 180 ms
Intro
duction
In the case of selectivity involving two or more voltage Medium-voltage time grading 1
levels (for example for transformer protection), all currents
and tripping curves on the high-voltage side are converted Tripping command and grading time
and referred to the low-voltage side on the basis of the 2
transformer’s transformation ratio. When determining the grading time tst, it must be kept in
mind for the medium-voltage level that the set time elapses
Tools for preparing grading diagrams after the protection device was energized, before this
device issues the trigger command to the shunt or under-
3
• Standard forms with paired current values for commonly voltage release of the circuit-breaker (command time tk).
used voltages, for example for 20 / 0.4 kV, 10 / 0.4 kV,
13.8 / 0.4 kV
The release causes the circuit-breaker to open. The short-
circuit current is interrupted when the arc has been extin- 4
• Templates for plotting the tripping characteristics guished. Only then does the protection system revert to the
normal (rest) position (release time) (Fig. 6/7).
Fig. 6/6 shows a typical grading diagram, which could also 5
be drawn manually, with the tripping curves of two series- The grading time tst between successive protection devices
connected circuit-breakers that considers tolerances. When must be greater than the sum of the total clearance time tg
the SIMARIS design planning software is used, a manual
preparation of grading diagrams is no longer necessary.
of the breaker and the release time of the protection sys-
tem. Since response time tolerances, which depend on a
6
number of factors, have to be expected for the protection
devices (including circuit-breakers), a safety margin is
incorporated in the grading time. Whereas grading times of 7
less than 400 to 300 ms are not possible with protection
devices with mechanical releases, electronic releases have
grading times of 300 ms, and digital releases used with 8
modern vacuum circuit-breakers even provide grading
times of only 250 to 200 ms.
9
10
Current I
Short-circuit
Protection
Time setting of the overlaid protection
11
current Grading time tst
time setting
Command time tk
12
Operating
current
Variation time Variation time Variation time
of protection of circuit-breaker of protection
13
Load current
14
Current-breaking
time
Release
time
Safety
margin 15
TIP04_13_040_EN
of circuit-breaker
Total current-breaking
16
time tg of circuit-breaker
Intro
duction
Grading and delay times In Germany, circuit-breakers must have back-up fuses with
2 a maximum current rating of 100 A to protect them against
Only the grading time tst and delay time tsd are relevant for damage by short-circuit currents. This is laid down in the
time grading between several series-connected cir- Technical Supply Conditions (TAB, German: Technische
3 cuit-breakers or in conjunction with LV HRC fuses (Fig. 6/8).
The grading time tsd2 of breaker Q2 can roughly be equal-
Anschlussbedingungen) of the distribution system opera-
tor. According to standards (IEC, VDE), it is also permitted
ized to the grading time tst2 and the delay time tsd3 of that a switching device be protected by one of the up-
11
12
Q3
tö1 opening time of breaker Q1
L
tsd3 tst2 grading time for breaker Q2
13 S
tsd3 ≈ tst2 + tst3 tst3
tsd2
grading time for breaker Q3
delay time for breaker Q2
tsd3 delay time for breaker Q3
tst3
14 L
Q2
tsd2
L
S
inverse-time delayed, Ir
definite-time delayed, Isd, tsd
S Safety I instantaneous, Ii
tsd2 ≈ tst2
margin
M Time t TIP04_13_041_EN
17
Fig. 6/8: Time grading of several series-connected circuit-breakers
3
Protection devices used in MV Switch-disconnectors, Circuit-breaker, current
HV HRC fuses transformer, overcurrent
4 protection
LV Circuit-breakers or Tie breakers Circuit-breaker
LV HRC fuses
5 Medium-voltage side
I> I> I>
HV HRC
6 HV HRCHV HRC I >> I >> I >>
MV MV MV MV
Transformers with temp. detectors or thermal MV MV
LV
7 protection LV LV LV
LV LV
9 LV
HRC
LV LV
HRC HRC
10
11
12
HV HRC or LV HRC fuse
HV HRC or HRC
HV LV HRC fuse
or LV HRC fuse Circuit-breakerCircuit-breaker
Circuit-breaker
13 I>
I >>
Independent overcurrent-time
I>
two-level
I >>
II >
I >> two-level > and
two-level
protection,
Independent overcurrent-time
> and I >>, Independent
at IcurrentIItransformer
>>>,
andat current
protection,
overcurrent-time protection,
transformer
I >>, at current transformer
Withdrawable Withdrawable
circuit-breakercircuit-breaker
Withdrawable circuit-breaker
(with cut-off point)
(with cut-off point) point)
(with cut-off
Reactive-power control unit
Reactive-power control unit
Reactive-power control unit
14
TIP04_13_044_EN
TIP04_13_044_EN
16 Tab. 7/1: Overview of protection grading schemes for transformer and LV circuits
17
Intro
duction
Tab. 7/2: Overcurrent protection devices for cables and lines and their protection task back to page 110
6
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
Intro
duction
4 In order to increase the degree of protection further, circuit- Selective networks can more easily be designed using
breakers can also be equipped with additional releases, for zero-current interrupters than by upstream protection
example for disconnecting upon undervoltage, or with devices, since zero-current interrupters can work with a
5 supplementary modules for detecting fault / residual cur- tripping time delay across a wider current range (time
rents. They are distinguished according to their protection selectivity). With current-limiting circuit-breakers this range
task as follows: covers only up to 10 to 12 times the nominal current.
6 • Circuit-breakers for system protection acc. to IEC 60947-2 /
(VDE 0660-101)
Above that energy selectivity must considered. High selec-
tivity values for energy selectivity can only be attained by
• Circuit-breakers for motor protection acc. to IEC 60947-2 / using high-quality and technically complex tripping mecha-
7 (DIN VDE 0660-101)
• Circuit-breakers used in motor starters acc. to
nisms. Tab. 7/3 gives an overview of the overcurrent protec-
tion releases for circuit-breakers.
IEC 60947‑4-1 (VDE 0660-102)
• Miniature circuit-breakers for cable and line protection With regard to the tripping function of circuit-breakers two
8 acc. to IEC 60898-1 (VDE 0641-11) types, with corresponding current-time characteristics, can
be distinguished:
• Thermal magnetic trip unit, TMTU
9 • Electronic trip unit (ETU) with adjustable I2t or I4t charac-
teristics
10
Protection function Code Delay type of the release Symbols acc. to IEC 60617 / DIN 40713
Schematic symbol or Graphic symbol
11 Overload protection L Inverse time delay (electronic
LT with I2t or I4t or thermal
(long time) curve of the bimetal,
12 see Fig. 7/1)
Selective short-circuit S1) Definite time delay by time
protection (with delay) ST element or I2t-dependent I>
(short time) delayed
13
Earth-fault protection G1) Definite time delay or I2t-
GF dependent delayed I
(ground fault)
14
Short-circuit protection I not delayed
(instantaneous) INST I>
>>
15 (instantaneous)
1) or SENTRON 3WL and 3VA / 3VL circuit-breakers by Siemens also with zone-selective interlocking (ZSI acc. to IEC / TR 61912-2).
F
In the following sections, combinations of releases will only be referred to by their codes as L-, S-, and I-releases, etc.
17
Intro
duction
1
TMTU ETU
2
inverse-time
L delay
t thermal 3
L inverse-time
delay
I2t = constant
I4t = constant
5
inverse-time-
S delay
6
I2t = constant
7
I definite-time I
instantaneous delay instantaneous 8
I
9
Adjustable characteristic curves or setting ranges
TIP04_13_168_EN
10
Fig. 7/1: Characteristic tripping curves for low-voltage circuit-breakers
11
Typical characteristic curves of circuit-breakers with ETU ETU allow the choice between I2t and I4t characteristics.
and TMTU are depicted in Fig. 7/1. The different tripping
functions are described in the following sections.
Possible setting ranges are schematized in Fig. 7/1. 12
Mechanical (thermal), inverse-time-delay overload releases
Thermal magnetic trip units have either fixed or adjustable
settings, whereas the electronic trip units used in Siemens
are not always suitable for networks with a high harmonic
content. Circuit-breakers with electronic trip units must be
13
circuit-breakers all have adjustable settings. The overcur- used in such cases.
rent releases can either be integrated in the circuit-breaker
or supplied as separate modules for retrofitting or replace- 14
ment. For exceptions, please refer to the manufacturers'
specifications.
15
Overload protection with long-time delay (L-) release
Intro
duction
TIP04_13_047_EN
with LI-release
4 The system voltage and system frequency are crucial
K factors for selecting the circuit-breakers according to the
• Rated insulation voltage Ui and
5 • Rated operating voltage Ue
Fig. 7/2: Setting possibilities for Siemens circuit-breakers
Rated insulation voltage Ui
6 Short-circuit protection with short-time-delay (S) and The rated insulation voltage Ui is the standardised voltage
instantaneous (I) releases value for which the insulation of the circuit-breakers and
Intro
duction
4.5 < Icu ≤ 6 0.7 1.5 Tab. 7/5: Minimum requirement for circuit-breakers with regard to
Tab. 7/4: Minimum values for the ratio n of back to page 114
short-circuit making and ultimate short-circuit breaking capacity 5
Rated short-circuit breaking capacity short-circuit release with time delay. According to
6
IEC 60947-2 (VDE 0660-101), Icw must observe the min-
The short-circuit breaking performance of the circuit-
breaker is verified in accordance with IEC 60947-2
imum values of Tab. 7/5. In product data, the tcw value for
an Icw value must always be indicated. 7
(VDE 0660-101) and can be characterized by two values:
• Rated ultimate short-circuit breaking capacity (Icu) Cut-off / let-through values
test sequence III (switching sequence: O –t – CO with 8
O = open, t = time, CO = closing and opening): For zero-current interrupters, the cut-off current ID of the
–– Proof of overload release (test current = twice the circuit-breaker is equal to the solid short-circuit current. The
current set value) current-limiting circuit-breaker reaches the cut-off current
as the maximum momentary value during disconnecting,
9
–– Testing of ultimate short-circuit breaking capacity
–– Proof of dielectric strength dependent on the solid short-circuit current. The short-
–– Proof of tripping on overload
circuit trip unit shall trip within a limit range of ± 20 % of
the set trip value. The manufacturer usually provides 10
(test current = 2.5-fold current set value)
characteristic curves for the different tripping times.
Test sequence V applies to circuit-breakers with inte-
grated fuse (see IEC 60947-2, VDE 0660-101)
The Joule integral (I2t during disconnecting) is referred to 11
• Rated service short-circuit breaking capacity (Icu) as let-through energy. With increasing current, the let-
test sequence II (switching sequence: O – t – CO – t – CO through energy of the circuit-breaker also rises. In analogy
with O = open, t = time, CO = closing and opening): to the cut-off current, the let-through energy of a current-
limiting circuit-breaker is significantly lower than for the
12
–– Testing of service short-circuit breaking capacity
–– Proof of operating performance sine halfwave with solid short-circuit current.
–– Proof of dielectric strength
Rated circuit-breaker currents
13
–– Proof of heating
–– Proof of tripping on overload (test current = 1.45-fold The rated current In of circuit-breakers corresponds to
current set value, all phases in series or with 3-phase
current)
the rated continuous current Iu from IEC 60947-1 14
(VDE 0660‑100) and is equal to the conventional free-air
thermal current Ith. The conventional enclosed thermal
Rated short-time withstand current Icw current Ithe must be specified if it deviates from the rated
current.
15
The rated short-time withstand current characterizes the
permissible thermal fault withstand capability. The device
can carry the specified r.m.s. value of the short-time cur-
16
rent under the test conditions IEC 60947-1 (VDE 0660‑101)
for a given period of time tcw without getting harmed. To
do so, the circuit-breaker must be equipped with a 17
Intro
duction
1 7.2 Fuses
Low-voltage high-rupturing-capacity (LV HRC) fuses have a Functional category g (full-range fuses)
2 high short-circuit breaking capacity. They fuse quickly to
limit the short-circuit current. The protection characteristic Functional category g applies to full-range fuses which can
is given by the selection of the operational class (see "Type" interrupt currents from the minimum fusing current up to
3 in Tab. 7/6). the rated short-circuit breaking current.
8 Classification of LV HRC fuses and comparison of IB Operating current of the circuit
characteristics of gG and aM operational classes IZ Continuous current carrying capacity of the line
In Rated current of the protection device
9 LV HRC fuses are divided into interruption range (functional
categories) and operational classes according to their type.
(here: fuse)
I2 Current for effective interruption of the protection
They can continuously carry currents up to their rated device within the fixed time
12 gG
gM
General applications
Protection of motor circuits
Full range
Full range
230 / 400 / 500 / 690 V
230 / 400 / 500 / 690 V
253 / 440 / 550 / 725 V
253 / 440 / 550 / 725 V
aM Short-circuit protection of motor circuits Partial range 230 / 400 / 500 / 690 V 253 / 440 / 550 / 725 V
17
Tab. 7/6: Classification of LV HRC fuses based on their functional characteristics defined in CLC / TR 60269-5 (VDE 0636-5)
Intro
duction
A
Circuit-
breaker
13
100
A
10-1
Ik 14
I Icu Ik
10-2 15
TIP04_13_043_EN
I
8 Response L-release I-release Fuse
10-3
4 102 103 104 5 Disconnection Circuit-breaker Fuse + 16
Circuit-breaker
I in A
Fig. 7/3: Comparison of characteristic curves pertaining to LV HRC Fig. 7/4: Switchgear assembly comprising fuse and circuit-breaker 17
fuses of operational classes gG and aM (rated current 200 A)
Intro
duction
1 therefore, be selected such that its cut-off current ID is less • Coordination type 1: Destruction of contactor and over-
than the rated ultimate short-circuit breaking capacity Icu of load relay are permissible. The contactor and / or overload
the circuit-breaker. relay must be replaced if necessary
2 • Coordination type 2: The overload relay must not be
damaged. Contact welding at the contactor is, however,
Fuse, contactor, and thermal inverse-time-delay permissible, given the contacts can easily be separated or
3 overload relay the contactor can easily be replaced
The switchgear assembly comprising contactor and over- Protection and operating ranges of equipment
4 load relay is referred to as a motor starter or, if a three-
phase motor is started directly, a direct-on-line starter. The
contactor is used to switch the motor on and off. The Grading diagram for a motor starter
overload relay protects the motor, motor supply conduc-
5 tors, and contactor against overloading. The fuse upstream The protection ranges and the relevant characteristics of
of the contactor and overload relay provides protection the equipment constituting a switchgear assembly used
against short circuits. For this reason, the protection ranges as a motor starter are illustrated in the grading diagram in
6 and characteristics of all the components (Fig. 7/5) must be
carefully coordinated with each other.
Fig. 7/5. The fuses in this assembly must satisfy a number
of conditions:
• The time-current characteristics of fuses and overload
7 Specifications for contactors and motor starters relays must allow the motor to be run up to speed
• The fuses must protect the overload relay from being
The IEC 60947-4-1 (VDE 0660-102) standard applies destroyed by currents approximately 10 times higher
to contactors and motor starters up to 1,000 V for than the rated current of the relay
8 direct-on-line starting (with maximum voltage). When • The fuses must interrupt overcurrents beyond the capa-
short-circuit current protection equipment is selected for bility of the contactor (i.e. currents approximately
switchgear assemblies, a distinction is made between 10 times higher than the rated operating current Ie of
9 various types of protection according to the permissible
degree of damage as defined in IEC 60947-4-1
the contactor)
• In the event of a short-circuit, the fuses must protect the
(VDE 0660-102): contactor such that any damage does not exceed the
10
11
1 Tripping curve of (thermal)
12 t
Module with
LV HRC fuse,
inverse-time-delay
overload relay
contactor 2 Destruction curve
and thermal of thermal overload relay
13 1
overload relay
(motor starter)
3 Rated breaking capacity
of contactor
1 min 4 Characteristic contactor
curve for easily separable
2
14 5
contact welding
Prearcing time/current
B characteristic curve of the fuse,
A 4 (dependent on operational class aM
15 current limiting
performed by fuse)
6 Total clearing time curve
of fuse, class aM
TIP04_13_045_EN
16 3 C
6
A, B, C Safety margins
in case of proper
short-circuit protection
1 ms
I
17
Fig. 7/5: Switchgear assembly comprising fuse, contactor, and thermal inverse-time-delay overload relay
Intro
duction
14
15
16
17
Intro
duction
TIP04_13_047_EN
with LI-release
vicinity of the distribution board (Fig. 7/6). The short-circuit
UB1
12
t
13
TIP04_13_048_EN
14
ip Peak short-circuit current (maximum value)
ID1 Cut-off current of circuit-breaker Q1
Intro
duction
4
Starter circuit-breaker with I-release, contactor, and
overload relay I 3 Icu
5
TIP04_13_049_EN
Overload protection is provided by the overload relay in
conjunction with the contactor, while short-circuit protec-
tion is provided by the starter circuit-breaker ("starter
protector"). The operating current of its I-release is set as
I 6
low as the starting cycle will permit, in order to include low
1 Rated breaking capacity L Characteristic curve
short-circuit currents in the instantaneous breaking range
as well (Fig. 7/9). The advantage of this switchgear
of contactor
2 Rated making capacity
of inverse-time-delay
overload release
7
assembly is that it is possible to determine whether the of contactor I Characteristic curve
fault was an overload or short circuit according to whether 3 Characteristic contactor of instantaneous
the contactor, triggered by the overload relay, or the starter curve for easily separable
contact welding
electromagnetic
overcurrent releases
8
circuit-breaker has opened. Further advantages of the Icu Rated short-circuit breaking
starter circuit-breaker following short-circuit tripping are capacity of circuit-breaker
three-phase circuit interruption and immediate readiness
for reclosing. Switchgear assemblies with starter circuit-
9
breakers are becoming increasingly important in control Fig. 7/8: Switchgear assembly comprising circuit-breaker and
units without fuses. contactor
10
Circuit-breaker
11
with I-release
t for starter assemblies
L
Contactor 12
Inverse-time-delay
overload relay
I
with L-release
13
Setting range
Icu
14
TIP04_13_050_EN
16
L Characteristic curve of I Characteristic curve of
(thermal) inverse-time- adjustable instantaneous
delay overload relay overcurrent release
Intro
duction
1 7.3.3 Switchgear Assemblies with thermistor motor protection devices without overload
Thermistor Motor Protection Devices relays. Feeder cables are protected against short circuits
and overloads either by fuses and circuit-breakers
2 Overload relays and releases cease to provide reliable (Fig. 7/10 a) or only by fuses (Fig. 7/10 b).
overload protection when it is no longer possible to estab-
lish the winding temperature from the motor current. This Motors with thermally critical rotors
3 is the case with:
• High switching frequency Motors with thermally critical rotors, even if started with a
• Irregular, intermittent duty locked rotor, can only be provided with adequate protection
4 • Restricted cooling
• High ambient temperature
if they are fitted with an additional overload relay or
release. The overload relay or release also protects the
cabling against overloads (Fig. 7/10 a, c, and d).
In these cases, switchgear assemblies with thermistor
5 motor protection devices are used. The switchgear assem- Note: We recommend the use of an electronic motor
blies are designed with or without fuses depending on the protection system such as SIMOCODE (with or without
plant configuration. The degree of protection that can be thermistor protection) for motors. Advantages are: broad
6 attained depends on whether the motor to be protected
has a thermally critical stator or rotor. The operating tem-
performance range, comprehensive control functionality,
bus interfacing (PROFIBUS DP), etc.
perature, coupling time constant, and the position of the
10
11
a) b) c) d)
Fuse Fuse
12 Circuit-breakers Circuit-breakers Circuit-breaker
with L- and I-releases with L- and I-releases with I-releases
14 Thermistor
motor protection
Thermistor
motor protection
Thermistor
motor protection
Thermistor
motor protection
TIP04_13_051_EN
M M M M
15 +ϑ +ϑ +ϑ +ϑ
16
Fig. 7/10: Switchgear assembly comprising comprising thermistor motor protection plus additional overload relay or release (schematic
circuit diagram)
17
Intro
duction
ip
2
or by means of circuit-breakers without fuses. The level of ip, ID in kA
cosφ 0.3
anticipated current limiting, which is higher in fuses with
low rated currents than in current-limiting circuit-breakers
with the same rated current, may also be a crucial factor in 13
cosφ 0.5
63 A I
D 100 A 3
ID 63 A
10
making a choice in favour of one or the other solution. 8
ID
TIP04_13_052_EN
The following should be taken into consideration when
comparing the protection characteristics of fuses and 1
circuit-breakers: 1 10 22 100
• The rated short-circuit breaking capacity, which can vary
considerably
Short-circuit currents Ik in kA
6
ID Cut-off current For example for Ik = 10 kA:
• The level of current limiting which is always higher with
ip Peak short-circuit current ID Fuse (100 A) 7.5 kA
fuses of up to 400 A than for current-limiting circuit-
breakers with the same rated current
ID Circuit-breaker 8 kA 7
• The shape of the prearcing time / current characteristics of
fuses and the tripping characteristics of circuit-breakers
• The disconnection conditions acc. to IEC 60364-4-41 Fig. 7/11: Current-limiting characteristics of circuit-breaker (63 A)
and LV HRC fuses (63 A or 100 A)
8
(VDE 0100-410)
b B A
Comparison between the tripping curves of fuses with 10 ms Icu
13
TIP04_13_053_EN
Intro
duction
1 • Limit current range (1) Selecting circuit-breakers for circuits with and
The typical test range for fuse currents (A) is, for example, without fuses
between 1.25 and 1.6 times the rated current while the
2 test range for the limit tripping currents of the overload Circuits and control units can be designed with or without
release (B) is between 1.05 and 1.2 times the current fuses.
setting. The adjustable overload release allows for the
3 current setting and, therefore, the limit tripping current
to be matched more closely to the continuous current
Circuits with fuses (fuse-protected design)
carrying capacity of the equipment to be protected than it The standard design with fuses intended for system
reason, a fuse limits the short-circuit current more effec- Circuits without fuses (circuit-breaker protected design)
10 tively than a circuit-breaker
Tab. 7/10
In the case of distribution boards without fuses (Tab. 7/10),
This results in an extremely high rated breaking capacity for short-circuit protection is provided by circuit-breakers for
fuses of over 100 kA at an operating voltage of 690 V AC. system protection. In such configurations, circuit-breakers
11 As compared to this, the rated ultimate short-circuit are also used as load switches, for motor protection only, or
breaking capacity Icu depends on several factors, such as for starter assemblies together with the contactor. The
the rated operating voltage Ue and the type of protection ranges of the switchgear assemblies comprising
12 construction. circuit-breaker, contactor, and overload relay have already
been dealt with. Further technical data can be found in the
A comparison between the protection characteristics of literature supplied by the manufacturer.
13 fuses, circuit-breakers, and their switchgear assemblies is
compiled in Tab. 7/7 and Tab. 7/8
7/8.
14
15
16
17
Intro
duction
Maintenance expense No
f (no. of switching operations 6
and condition)
Selectivity No expense Extra expense required
Replaceability Yes 5) if the same make 7
Short-circuit protection:
Cable and line Very good Good
Motor Very good Good 8
Overload protection:
Cable and line Sufficient Good
1)
Motor Not possible
Type of construction may be: arc-quenching method, short-circuit strength owing to specific resistance, constructive design
Good
9
2) For example by means of shock-hazard protected fuse-switch-disconnectors with high-speed closing
3) By means of fuse monitoring and dedicated circuit-breaker
10
4) By means of fuse monitoring
5) Because standardised
Tab. 7/7: Test range limits for the tripping performance of protection equipment (f(…) denotes a functional back to page 124
dependence of the characteristic from the quantities and parameters in brackets)
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
Intro
duction
Fuse
2
Circuit-breaker
Contactor
3 Protected items
and switching
frequency Overload
protection
4 Thermistor motor
protection M M M M
M M
3~ 3~
5 +ϑ +ϑ +ϑ +ϑ
Overload protection
– Cable and line + + + + + + + + + +
9 Circuit-breaker
Contactor
Protected items
10 and switching
frequency
Overload
protection
Thermistor /
11 SIMOCODE motor
protection
M
3~
M
3~
M M M
3~
M
+ϑ +ϑ +ϑ
12 Overload protection
– Cable and line + + + + + + + + + + +
– Motors (with thermally critical stators) + + 1) + + + + + + + + 1) + +
– Motors (with thermally critical rotors) + + 1) + + + + + + + + 1) + +
13 Short-circuit protection
– Cable and line + + + + + + + + + + + +
– Motor + + + + + + + + + + + +
14 Switching frequency
1)
+ + + + – –
Protection with minor restriction in the event of a line failure + + very good + good – minor
Tab. 7/8: Comparison between the protection characteristics of different switchgear assemblies back to page 124
15 (schematic circuit diagrams)
16
17
Intro
duction
Fixed setting
Fixed setting
Adjustable
Adjustable
Adjustable
Tripping
3
Fuse
No. Type of circuit-breaker characteristic 1)
S
L
I
Feed-in circuit-breaker
1 Circuit-breaker for ≥ Ik1 × – × – × 4
system protection with Icu
1
selectivity requirement t
Ik1
Ik1 I
5
Distribution circuit-breaker
2 Fuse for system ≥ Ik2 – – – – – × 6
2 protection Icu
t
Ik2 Ik2
Ik2 I
7
Ik2
Load circuit-breaker
3 Fuse and circuit- ≥ Ik3 – – – – – ×
8
breaker for motor ≤ Ik3 × – – × – – Icu
protection t
Ik3 I
9
3 4 5
14
15
16
17
Intro
duction
Fixed setting
Fixed setting
Adjustable
Adjustable
Adjustable
3 Tripping charac-
No. Type of circuit-breaker teristic 1)
S
L
I
Feed-in circuit-breaker
4 1 Circuit-breaker for system ≥ Ik1 × – × – ×
protection with selectivity Icu
requirement t
5 1
Ik1 I
Ik1
Distribution circuit-breaker
6 22) Circuit-breaker for system ≥ Ik2 – × – × –
protection without Or Icu
selectivity requirement × – – × – t
7 2 3 × –
Or
– – ×
Ik2 I
9 Ik2 I
Load circuit-breaker
11 Ik3 I
4 5
5 Circuit-breaker and direct ≥ Ik3 – – – × –
Ik3 Ik3 on-line starter for motor ≥ Ik3 × – – – – Icu
12 protection t
M M
3~ 3~ Ik3 I
Tab. 7/10: Power distribution with circuit-breaker without fuse back to page 124
14
15
16
17
Intro
duction
Intro
duction
1 • Combined terminals for simultaneous connection of current value. If a certain threshold is exceeded in the
busbars and feeder cables event of a short circuit, however, an electromagnetic
• Main switch quality in accordance with IEC 60204-1 overcurrent release instantaneously trips. The tripping
2 (VDE 0113-1) range (time-current threshold zone) of the MCBs, following
• Separate switch position indicator IEC 60898-1 (VDE 0641-11) is determined by the parame-
ters I1 to I5 (see Fig. 7/13). Parameters IB and Iz of the line
3 Alternating-current type MCBs are suitable for all AC and
3-phase networks up to a nominal voltage of 240 / 415 V
are correlated to the above.
and all DC networks up to 60 V (1-phase) and 120 V The tripping conditions of the MCBs for characteristics B, C,
8 1st Condition 2nd Condition IB Operating current to be expected, i.e. current drawn
I B ≤ In ≤ I z I2 ≤ 1.45 · Iz by the power consumer under normal operating conditions
IB Iz
Iz Permissible continuous load current for a conductor,
9 when the maximum continuously applied temperature
of the insulation is not exceeded
1.45 · Iz I
In I2
1,45 · Iz Maximum permissible overload current of limited duration,
10 Time t
Int It
at which a sudden, temporary exceeding of the maximum
continuously applied temperature does not yet result
I1 I2 in a safety-relevant reduction of insulation properties
12 I3
Int Specified non-tripping current (previously conventional
non-tripping current I1), meaning the current which
does not result in disconnection under defined conditions
17
Fig. 7/13: Schematic reference value diagram of lines and their protection devices
Intro
duction
Resulting from this, an assignment of rated currents for This has to be taken into account in particular for an instal- 4
MCBs to conductor cross sections can be given (Tab. 7/11), lation in hot rooms, in encapsulated distribution boards
related to an ambient temperature of + 30 °C, as it is con- where, owing to the current-induced heat losses of the
sidered appropriate in IEC 60364-4-43 (VDE 0100-430), built-in devices, higher temperatures may prevail and for 5
and in relation to the type of installation and accumulation distribution boards installed outdoors. MCBs can be used at
of equipment. temperatures ranging from –25 °C to +55 °C. The relative
Siemens MCBs are available with the tripping characteris- Siemens miniature circuit-breakers are resistant to climate 7
tics B, C, and D, bearing, inter alia, the VDE mark based in accordance with IEC 60068-2-30. They were successfully
upon the CCA procedure (CENELEC Certification tested in six climatic cycles.
Agreement). 8
All tripping characteristics are depicted in Fig. 7/14. Due to 300
the position of the tripping bands, the following applies
from curve A to D: I1 I2
MCB tripping characteristics B, C, D acc.
to IEC 60898-1 / VDE 0641-11 9
A1)
Time t
B C D
• Current pulse withstand strength rises 60
I1 (t > 1h) 1.13 · In 1.13 · In 1.13 · In 1.13 · In
• Permissible line and cable length for the protection of
10
Minutes
10
12
Rated cross Iz (line) 5
2)
section qn Rated MCB current In permissible continuous
for protection of load current in case of
I3 13
Seconds
2 3 2 3 1
conductors conductors conductors conductors
under load under load under load under load 0.4
in mm2 in A in A in A in A
A B
I5
C
I5
D
I5 I5
14
1.5 16 16 19.5 17.5 0.1
I4 I4 I4 I4
TIP04_13_055_EN
2.5 25 20 27 24
4 32 32 36 32 15
6 40 40 46 41 0.01
1 2 3 4 6 8 10 20 30 40 60 80 100
10 63 50 63 57
16 80 63 85 76 1)
Multiple of rated current In
16
Meets the requirements of IEC 60364-4-41/ VDE 0100-410
25 100 80 112 96 2) Disconnect condition acc. to 60364-4-41/ VDE 0100-410
for TN networks with Un = 400 V
35 125 100 138 119
17
Tab. 7/11: MCB and conductor cross section matrix Fig. 7/14: Time-current limit ranges of MCBs
Intro
duction
1 Degree of protection does not mention a current limiting class and only refers to
the I2t characteristic to describe the MCB in general terms.
As MCBs are mainly installed in distribution boards, their
2 degree of protection must meet the requirements of the In Germany, the Technical Supply Conditions (TAB) of the
respective type of environment. MCBs without an encapsu- German distribution system operators (DSO) apply. TAB
lation can reach IP30 according to IEC 60529 (VDE 0470-1) stipulates for residential and commercial buildings that
3 provided that they have adequate terminal covers. MCBs
can be equipped with a snap-on fixing for rapid fitting on
only class 3 MCBs with a rated switching capacity of at least
6,000 A be used in distribution boards connected down-
35-mm wide standard mounting rails. Some versions may stream of the electricity meter, since the service entrance
4 additionally be screwed on mounting plates. fuse per residential unit is always ≤ 63 A, thus ensuring
back-up protection.
Installation
Devices must be labelled 6000 .
5 Moreover, some type series are available with a rapid 3
wiring system for manual handling without the use of Selectivity
tools, which even enables the removal of individual MCBs
6 from the busbar system. Selectivity means that only that protection device will trip
in the event of a fault which is closest to the fault location
in the current path. This way the energy flow can be
7 Rated switching capacity Icn maintained in circuits which are connected in parallel. In
7/15 the current curve in a disconnection process is
Fig. 7/15,
Besides a reliable adherence to characteristic curves, an shown schematically with regard to current-limiting classes.
important performance feature of MCBs is their rated Siemens MCBs of type B16 reduce the energy flow to
8 switching capacity. On the basis of IEC 60898-1 much lower values than defined for current limiting class 3.
(VDE 0641‑11), it is divided into switching capacity classes Fig. 7/15 shows the selectivity limits of MCBs with different
and indicates up to which level short-circuit currents can be current limiting classes as the intersection of the MCB
9 broken. Standard values for the rated short-circuit breaking
capacity are 1,500 A, 3,000 A, 4,500 A, 6,000 A, 10,000 A,
tripping curve with the prearcing characteristic of the fuse.
The highly effective current limitation of the MCB can also
15,000 A, 20,000 A, and 25,000 A. Siemens MCBs provide be noted as a better selectivity towards the line-side fuse.
11 Current limiting classes If the short-circuit current exceeds the rated MCB switching
capacity at the point where the MCB is installed, another
In order to obtain information about the selectivity of MCBs short-circuit protecting device has to be connected
12 to line-side fuses, current limiting can be considered
according to the I2t characteristic. Tab. 7/12 lists the I2t
upstream. Without impairing the operability of the breaker
in such cases, the switching capacity of such an assembly
values of current limiting class 3 for type B and C miniature will be increased up to 50 kA.
13 circuit-breakers up to a rated current of 63 A which are
permitted in the European region. The basis is change A13 In some countries, circuit-breakers rather than LV HRC fuses
of the EN 60898-1 (VDE 0641-11) standard. IEC 60898-1 are increasingly connected upstream, which – depending
14
Rated short-circuit breaking capacity ≤ 16 A 20, 25, 32 A 40 A 50, 63 A
15 in A
Type B Type C Type B Type C Type B Type C Type B Type C
3,000 15,000 17,000 18,000 20,000 21,600 24,000 28,000 30,000
4,500 25,000 28,000 32,000 37,000 38,400 45,000 48,000 55,000
16 6,000 35,000 40,000 45,000 52,000 54,000 63,000 65,000 75,000
10,000 70,000 80,000 90,000 100,000 108,000 120,000 135,000 145,000
17 Tab. 7/12: According to EN 60898-1 / A13 (VDE 0641-11 / A13): permissible I2t-(let-through) values of current limiting class 3 (in A2s) for
MCBs type B and C up to 63 A
Intro
duction
10
Permisssible I2t value of 1.5 mm2 line
Transformer
11
I2t in A2s
DIAZED 50 A 1 2 3
Fuse
MCB
B 16
12
104
Ik i
13
Ieff
I in A
14
TIP04_13_056_EN
B 16 3 2 1 Sine half-wave
15
103
0 5 10 10-1 0.3 0.6 1 3 6 101
t in ms Ik in kA 16
Fig. 7/15: Selectivity of MCBs in current limiting classes 1, 2, and 3 towards back-up fuses (curve B16 applies back to page 132 17
to Siemens model 16 A, tripping characteristic B)
Intro
duction
4 A distinction is made between two types of selectivity: Since these characteristic curves are compared over several
• Partial selectivity according to IEC 60947-2 orders of magnitude, they are traditionally plotted on
(VDE 0660‑101): log-log paper. In the overload range, operating and total
5 If there are two series-connected overcurrent protection clearance times are approximately the same and can be
devices, the load-side protection device protects up to a plotted on one time-current diagram.
given overcurrent value by overcurrent discrimination
6 without the other protection device being active
• Full selectivity according to IEC 60947-2 (VDE 0660-101):
Selectivity in the event of a short circuit can be evaluated
for the time range ≥ 100 ms by comparing characteristic
Overcurrent discrimination of two series-connected curves in the L or respectively the S section. Among other
10 • Time selectivity:
Grading of the adjustable tripping times (tsd in the S-part)
testing or a desk study is usually very high if different
devices are used in the power distribution system, selec-
of the short-circuit releases This applies to standard as tivity limits can often be obtained from renowned equip-
well as to current-dependent characteristics. Regarding ment manufacturers only. Then, the respective cut-off
11 circuit-breakers with LSI characteristic, time selectivity is currents or let-through energies can be compared to the
frequently used in main distribution boards and at inter- operating currents, respectively the let-through energies, of
faces between devices of different manufacturers the protection devices in practice. The prerequisite being
12 • Dynamic / energy selectivity
Selectivity based on the evaluation of the let-through
that the relevant data is available from the equipment
manufacturer and that it is analysed thoroughly. For the
energy or respectively, the cut-off current, of the down- reasons given above, a selectivity evaluation requires the
13 stream device and the tripping energy or tripping current
of the upstream protection device.
strict use of products by one manufacturer only.
Intro
duction
1
Determination of the selectivity limit
2
TIP04_13_057_EN
As a rule, all selectivity limits between two protection ts in s
200 A
devices can be determined by carrying out measurements (160) 100 A 200 A
or tests. These measurements are virtually indispensable,
particularly when assessing selectivity in the event of a
Ik=1,300 A Gr.00 Gr.1 3
short circuit, owing to the extremely rapid switching opera- 1.4
50 A 50 A 100 A
tions when current-limiting protection equipment is used.
The measurements can, however, be very costly and com- Ik = 0.03
1.37 s
4
1,300 A
plicated, which is why many manufacturers publish selec-
tivity tables for their switchgear. If SIMARIS design is used,
the software automatically takes all these criteria for
K1 101 102 103
1.3
10 4
5
Siemens products into account. I in A
17
Intro
duction
1 The different selectivity evaluations shall be dealt with ally be set to less than Ikmin -20 % so that even very small
briefly below. short circuits are cleared at the input terminals of the
downstream circuit-breaker Q1 within the required time
2 Current selectivity (grading the operating currents of
I-releases) Only partial selectivity can be established by comparing
characteristic curves for current grading, since the curve in
3 Selectivity can be achieved by grading the operating cur-
rents of I-releases (Fig. 7/17).
the range < 100 ms – which is frequently, and quite rightly
represented by broken lines – owing to the complicated
dynamic switching and tripping operations, does not
9
Opening time t in s
Sr = 400 kVA 10 4
10 at 400 V,
50 Hz
102
Q2 Q1
I II
min.
103
11
ukr = 4 % 101
Ir = 577 A
Ik = 15 kA
Ie = 600 A 102
(L-release) 10 0
12 Ik = 10 kA
Q2
Ie = 4,000 A
(I-release)
L L
101
13 II
10 0
Ie = 60 A
(L-release)
Q1 I I
14 5.0 kA Ie = 720 A
(I-release) 10 -1
TIP04_13_058_EN
15 2.1 kA
M
10 -2
3~ 4
5 102 2 5 103 2 5 10 4 2 5
Fig. 7/17: Current selectivity for two series-connected circuit-breakers at different short-circuit current levels (example)
Intro
duction
“mechanically slow” release does not have time to unlatch. The example of Fig. 7/18 shows the block diagram with 1
The cut-off current is dependent on the prospective four series-connected circuit-breakers and the associated
short-circuit current (maximum solid short-circuit current grading times for selective short-circuit protection. The
to be expected) and the current limiting properties. necessary grading time, which allows for all tolerances, 2
depends on the operating principle of the release and the
Selectivity limits of two series-connected circuit-breakers type of circuit-breaker.
M 16
Intro
duction
netic overcurrent releases must be high enough to ensure Selectivity between circuit-breaker and fuse
4 that the releases only operate in case of direct ”dead” short
circuits and, under normal operating conditions, do not When considering selectivity in conjunction with fuses, a
interfere with selective grading. permissible tolerance of ± 10 % in the direction of current
flow must be allowed for in the time-current
5 Zone-selective interlocking (ZSI) characteristics.
ukr = 6 %
11 In = 1,445 A
Ik = 24.1 kA
103
Q1 Q2 Q3
12 Q3
tsd3 = 200 ms
Ii (20 kA)
102
L L L
Main
101
13 distribution
board
tsd2 = 100 ms
Q2 S S
10 0
14 Sub- Ik = 17 kA tsd2 =
tsd3 =
200 ms
distribution 100 ms
board
10 -1
TIP04_13_060_EN
15 Q1
I
Ik = 10 kA 10 -2
16 M
~
102 2 5 103 2 5 10 4 2 5 10 5
Current I in A
17 Fig. 7/19: Selectivity between three series-connected circuit-breakers with limitation of short-circuit stress by means of an additional
I-release in circuit-breaker Q3
Intro
duction
TIP04_13_062_EN
I
Selectivity between LS-releases and fuses with relatively
5
Ii I
high rated currents Overcurrent limit
Opening time t in s 9
10 4
TIP04_13_061_EN
tsd = 200 ms
A t ZSI = 50 ms
Q5 E
103 Q1/Q2/Q4 Q3 Q5 10
K2
102 11
A tsd = 100 ms A
Q3 E t ZSI = 50 ms Q4 E
tsd = 10 ms 101 12
t ZSI = 50 ms
tsd = 200 ms
M
A
3~
t i = 10 ms
10 0 tsd = 100 ms
t ZSI 13
Q1 E Q2
t i = 10 ms
10 -1
K1
t ZSI = 50 ms
Icu 14
M M ti =
3~ 3~ 10 -2 10 ms
Fig. 7/20: Zone-selective interlocking (ZSI) of series- or parallel-connected circuit-breakers (block diagram) back to page 138 17
Intro
duction
1 their characteristic curves – including safety margins – Selectivity ratios in the short-circuit range
do not touch. Generally, a safety margin of 100 ms
between the reference curves is usually sufficient in A reliable and usually relatively high selectivity limit for the
2 practice (Fig. 7/22). short-circuit range can be determined in the I2t diagram.
Here, the maximum value of the let-through I2t value of
Selectivity between fuse and downstream the circuit-breaker is compared to the minimum value of
3 circuit‑breaker the prearcing I2t value of the fuse (Fig.
Fig. 7/24
7/24). Since these
values are maximum and minimum values, tolerances are
obsolete.
Selectivity ratios in the overload range
4 Selectivity with parallel feed-in
In order to achieve selectivity in the overload range, a
safety margin of tA ≥ 1 s is commonly required between the
5 lower tolerance band of the fuse and the characteristic Improving selectivity with parallel feed-in units
curve of the inverse-time-delay overload release (Fig. 7/23).
With parallel feed-in to a busbar, the total short-circuit
6 In the case of short-circuits, it is important to remember
that, after the releases in the circuit-breaker have tripped,
current IkΣ that occurs in the faulted branch circuit com-
prises the partial short-circuit currents Ik part in the individual
the fuse continues to be heated during the arcing time. As feed-in units and represents the base current in the grading
10
Q1 F1
F1 Q1
11 t
F1
L Q1 t
S L
L tA ≥ 1 s
12
L Q1 I
I
13 F1
S tA ≥ 100 ms
TIP04_13_064_EN
TIP04_13_063_EN
I
ts tsd Ii I
14 Ik
Isd I
Overload limit
17 Fig. 7/22: Selectivity between circuit-breaker with LS-releases Fig. 7/23: Selectivity between fuse and downstream
and downstream fuse for short-circuit protection circuit-breaker for the overload range
Intro
duction
at the busbar centre and feeding lines of equal length – example 630 A to 1,000 A. It is important to ensure that a 1
each carry only half this current, i.e. ≤ 10 kA. safety margin of ≥ 100 ms between the tripping character-
istic of the S-release and the prearcing time / current charac-
Additional current selectivity with parallel teristic of the LV HRC fuse is provided not only during 2
transformer operation parallel operation, but also during single operation of
transformers.
In the grading diagram, the tripping characteristic of circuit-
breakers Q2 and Q3 must, therefore, be considered in When setting the releases of circuit-breakers Q1, Q2, and
3
relation to the base current of circuit-breaker Q1. Since the Q3, it must be ensured that selectivity is also achieved for
total short-circuit current is ideally distributed equally
among the two feed-in units (ignoring the load currents in
operation with one transformer and for all short-circuit
currents (1- to 3-phase). For cost-related reasons, 4
the other branch circuits) with the branch circuit located at S‑releases for the feeder circuit-breakers must also be
the busbar centre, the tripping characteristic of circuit- provided for low and medium rated fuse currents, as the
breakers Q2 and Q3 can be shifted optimally to the right resulting current selectivity of I-releases is insufficient. 5
along the current scale by a characteristic displacement
factor of 2 up to the line IkΣ, which represents the base
current for this fault condition. The result of this is selec-
tivity both with regard to time and current.
6
If the characteristic curve of the individual circuit-breaker is
used instead of the shifted characteristic, the exact
T1 Identical power
output
T2 7
short-circuit current (distribution) which flows through the
Ir = 600 A
circuit-breaker must be taken into consideration. With
asymmetrical configurations and with incoming (feeding) Q2 L
S
Isd
Ii
Ik
= 3,000 A
= 12,000 A
≤ 10 kA
Q3 L
S 8
and outgoing circuits located in the busbars, short-circuit I I Ik ≤ 10 kA
current distribution will differ according to the impedance Ikpart
along the feeding lines. This is particularly important for
fused branch circuits especially with high protection, for
Ir = 200 A 9
Q1 L Ii = 2,400 A
I
IkΣ
10
M
F1 ~
11
I2t
F1
Single Parallel
104
Q1 Q2 Q2+Q3 Base IkΣ
12
t in s L L L
Ikpart
Q1 103
TIP04_13_129_EN
Miniature
Q1
102
13
circuit-
breaker 101
Selectivity limit ISel I S 14
100
Q1 Circuit-breaker (max. let-through value) Ii tsd = 100 ms
TIP04_13_065_EN
Intro
duction
During parallel operation of three transformers, the selec- The type of device used in the branch circuits and the
2 tivity conditions are in principle improved more than with selectivity ratios depend primarily on the question whether
two units owing to the additionally achieved current selec- circuit-breakers with current-zero cut-off, i.e. without
tivity, as the characteristic displacement factor is between current limiting, or with current limiting are used as tie
3 2 and 3. Here, too, LS-releases are required in the feed-in
units to obtain unambiguous selectivity conditions for the
breakers. Instantaneous, current-limiting tie breakers
relieve the outgoing circuits of the effects of high unlimited
circuit-breaker. total peak short-circuit currents Ip and, therefore, permit
to allow a fault between the transformer and feeder circuit- Setting the overcurrent releases in tie breakers
breaker to be detected as shown in Fig. 7/26. To this end,
5 the S-releases of the circuit-breakers Q1 to Q3 must be set In order to be able to draw unambiguous conclusions about
to a value less than Ik and the I-releases greater than Ik, but selectivity in case of relatively low short-circuit currents, as
less than IkΣ. The highest and lowest fault currents are are present in the branch circuits of sub-distribution boards,
6 important here. The I-releases will then disconnect only the
faulted transformer branch circuit at the high-voltage and
the values set for the overcurrent releases in tie breakers
must be as high as possible.
low-voltage side. The circuit-breakers in the “healthy”
Parallel-connected feed-in units via tie breakers With two feed-in units and depending on the fault location
8 (left or right busbar section or branch circuit), only the
Tie breakers must perform the following protection func- associated partial short-circuit current (for example Ik part2)
tions in fault situations: flows through the tie breaker Q3 as shown in Fig. 7/27.
9 • Instantaneous release with faults in the vicinity of the
busbar
• Relief of branch circuits of the effects of high total
10 short-circuit currents
11
12
13 T1 T2 T3
IkPart 1 IkPart 2
IkΣ Ik Ik Q1 Q2
14 L
< 30 kA < 15 kA < 15 kA Q3
Q1 S Q2 Q3
I
15 15 kA 15 kA
IkΣ
TIP04_13_067_EN
TIP04_13_066
16
17 Fig. 7/26: Selectivity with three feeding transformers operating Fig. 7/27: Short-circuit splitting through the tie breaker Q3 with
simultaneously two feeders Q1 and Q2
Intro
duction
With three feed-in units and fault Selectivity and undervoltage protection 1
With three feed-in units, the ratios are different depending If a short circuit occurs, the system voltage collapses to a
on which of the branch circuits shown in Fig. 7/28 a and b residual voltage at the short-circuit location. The magni- 2
is faulted. tude of the residual voltage depends on the fault imped-
• If a fault occurs at the outgoing circuit of the centre ance. With a ”dead” short circuit, the fault impedance and,
busbar section (Fig. 7/28a), approximately equal partial
short-circuit currents flow through the tie breakers Q4
therefore, the voltage at the short-circuit location drop to
almost zero. Generally, however, arcs will be present during
3
and Q5 short circuits that generate arc-drop voltages between
• If a fault occurs at the branch circuit of the outer busbar
section, (Fig. 7/28b), two partial short-circuit currents
approximately 30 V and 70 V, speaking from experience.
This voltage, starting at the fault location, increases propor- 4
flow through the tie breaker Q4 tionately to the intermediate impedance with increasing
proximity to the power source.
Computer-assisted selectivity check 5
Precise values for the short-circuit currents flowing through
the tie breakers are required to permit optimum setting of
the overcurrent releases. They provide information con-
6
cerning selective characteristics with a large number of
different fault currents, and are determined and evaluated
with the aid of a planning tool such as SIMARIS design. 7
10
11
a) Fault in the branch circuit b) Fault in the branch circuit
at the central busbar section at the outer busbar section
12
13
Ikpart 1 Ikpart 2 Ikpart Ikpart
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q1 Q2 Q3
Q4 Q5 Q4 Q5
14
2 Ikpart
15
TIP04_13_068_EN
3 Ikpart
IkΣ IkΣ
16
Fig. 7/28: Splitting of short-circuit currents for the purpose of setting the overcurrent releases in the tie breakers Q4 and Q5 in case of 17
three feed-in units and faults a and b in the outgoing circuit of different busbar sections
Intro
duction
1 Fig. 7/29 illustrates the voltage conditions in a low-voltage Tripping delay for contactors and undervoltage releases
switchgear installation with a ”dead” short circuit.
Undervoltage releases and contactors with tripping delay
2 If a short circuit occurs at K1 (Fig. 7/29a), the rated oper- are required to ensure that the selective overcurrent protec-
ating voltage Ue drops to 0.13 ∙ Ue at the busbar of the tion is not interrupted prematurely. They are not necessary
sub-distribution board and to 0.5 ∙ Ue at the busbar of the if current-limiting circuit-breakers, which have a maximum
3 main distribution board. The nearest upstream circuit-
breaker Q1 clears the fault. Depending on the size and type
total clearing time of 10 ms, are used.
9
a) Short circuit at the sub-distribution board b) Short circuit at the main distribution board
10
11
Q3 Q3
12 0.5 · Ue 0.13 · Ue
Main
distribution
13 Q2
tv ≥
Q2 board
100 ms
14 80 m
3 × 95 mm2 Cu
K2
0.13 · Ue Sub-
distribution
15 board
TIP04_13_069_EN
Q1 Q1
tv = 0
16 K1
Intro
duction
Node fuses
for Siemens LV HRC fuses (400 V, up to 400 A).
4
Feeder circuit-breaker for power transformers in the
The nodes of a meshed low-voltage system are normally meshed network
equipped with cables of the same cross section and with 5
LV HRC fuses of operational class gG of the same type and In a multi-phase meshed system (Fig. 7/31), that means
rated current (Fig. 7/30). feeding several medium-voltage lines and transformers,
10
11
Ik1 F1 F2 Ik2
a
Ik
Ik4
Ik 14
b
15
TIP04_13_070
TIP04_13_071
Ik
16
Fig. 7/30: Short-circuited cable with its two feed-in nodes a and b Fig. 7/31: Example of a meshed system with multi-phase feeding 17
Intro
duction
10
K3
11
K2
12
a
13 K1
14 b
15
TIP04_13_072_EN
a HV HRC fuses
c
b LV circuit-breaker with I2t
Intro
duction
16
17
Intro
duction
protection of spur lines and transformers. Relay operating currents with emergency generator
operation
5 Circuit-breakers
Care should be taken to ensure that the operating currents
If more frequent switching is required and for transformers of the protection relays provided for normal system opera-
6 rated 630 kVA and higher, we recommend protection by
circuit-breakers. This is often specified by the DSO for the
tion are also attained in the event of faults during emer-
gency operation using generators with relatively low rated
consumer substation as well. outputs.
7 Protection relays
7.7.1 Dimensioning of Protection
Protection relays connected to current transformers (pro-
8 tection core) can perform all protection-related tasks It must be noted that the best possible fault clearing time in
irrespective of the magnitude of the short-circuit currents the event of a short circuit will be from 70 to 120 ms when
and rated operating currents of the required circuit-breakers and protection relays are used. The fault
9 circuit-breakers. clearing time for a switch and fuse combination is about
5 ms. Owing to this short fault clearing time and the
Digital protection current-limiting effect of HV HRC fuses, a short circuit will
Intro
duction
Intro
duction
1 Grading of HV HRC fuses with low-voltage circuit- devices, as well as the short-circuit currents likely to be
breakers and downstream LV HRC fuses present at the fault locations must then be taken into
account.
2 Requirements
Tolerances of HV HRC fuses
Selectivity is to be established between the protection
3 devices of the branch circuits and those of the feed-in,
which together form a functional unit; the safety margins
According to EC 60282-1 (VDE 0670-4), the tolerance of HV
HRC fuse-links can be ±20 %. Siemens HV HRC fuse-links
of the protection devices must also be considered (Fig. 7/35 have a tolerance of ±10 %.
Grading between LV HRC fuses and L- / S-releases Protection by circuit-breakers with definite-time
overcurrent protection (DMT)
5 Selectivity is achieved with the 315-A fuse-link used in the
example (Fig. 7/35). With L- and S-releases the excitation
Requirements
values IR and Isd as well as the delay times tR and tsd must
6 be matched to the transformer output and the down-
stream LV HRC fuse. If a low-voltage circuit-breaker is used
The two feed-in circuit-breakers in Fig. 7/38 to Fig. 7/41
form a functional unit and must be selectively graded
with an additional I4t characteristic in the L-release, high- towards the protection devices at the low-voltage side.
functional unit, a restriction in selectivity in the upper If DMT protection is applied, whose protection function
short-circuit current range is accepted in case of faults in merely consists of the two I> and I>> (ANSI 50 / 51)
11 the vicinity of the busbars (as indicated by the circle in the short-circuit zones, and if no further measures are taken for
diagram for the 80 A HV HRC fuse in Fig. 7/35 to Fig. 7/37), transformer protection, the I> zone is normally used as
because faults inside the switchgear in this short-circuit standby protection for the low-voltage side. This means the
12 range can virtually be ruled out for Siemens low-voltage
SIVACON switchboards.
I> zone is set to 1.5 up to 2.0 times the transformer’s rated
current. Consequently, the size of the branch circuits in the
main distribution system at the low-voltage level is limited
13 Even partial selectivity of the low-voltage circuit-breaker in
the branch circuit with the HV HRC fuse (Fig. 7/35) in the
in order to ensure selectivity there. For example, with a
630 kVA transformer this means:
upper short-circuit range is often acceptable, as dead • A fuse of a maximum size of 160 A can be used in the
3-phase short-circuit currents can be ruled out in practice, main distribution (Fig. 7/38). In practice, this roughly
14 and faults will be below the selectivity level just a few corresponds to 20 % of the rated transformer current
meters downstream of the protection device (here: the • With circuit-breakers, their maximum size depends on the
intersection of the HV HRC fuse curve and S-release curve). setting ranges of the circuit-breakers’ releases and their
15 In these cases, the more cost-effective variant, the HV HRC tolerances, as well as the protection devices in the branch
fuse, is preferred to a medium-voltage circuit-breaker, and circuits of the sub-distribution board. Selective grading
not the fulfilment of 100 % selectivity. using SENTRON 3WL circuit-breakers (630 A or even
16 The requirement of full selectivity and the use of HV HRC
Fig. 7/39
800 A) is possible (Fig. 7/39). Generally speaking, circuit-
breakers can be used with current ratings of 50 % up to
fuses can often be met by implementing zone-selective 80 % of the rated transformer current
interlocking (ZSI) with low-voltage circuit-breakers. All of
17 the downstream distribution systems and protection
Intro
duction
Intersection of the characteristics Q2 and Q3 in the middle Authorized information on the precise rating of these 1
short-circuit range is permissible because current transformers matching the protection relays applied
• the low-voltage circuit-breaker and the medium-voltage and the prevailing boundary conditions can only be given
circuit-breaker form a functional unit by the specialized technical departments of the equipment 2
• the L-release of the low-voltage circuit-breaker Q2 pro- manufacturer. In practice, the rated currents of the current
tects the transformer against overloading, which practi- transformers used for DMT protection devices can be
cally is present in the range of 1.0 – 1.3 times the rated
current of the transformer only
determined as follows:
• General use of 1-A current transformers (secondary side)
3
• a safety margin of 50 ms to 100 ms exists between the if numerical protection technology is applied. Usually, this
operating value of the I> tripping of the DMT protection
(lower tolerance band) and the upper tolerance bands of
approach almost completely rules out possible problems
regarding non-saturated transmission of short-circuit 4
the characteristic LV HRC fuse curve F1 and the S-release currents and the burdening of the current transformers
of the circuit-breaker Q1 in the branch circuits, which for DMT protection in advance
means that selectivity is ensured • The primary rated current of the current transformer 5
should be 1.2 to 2.0 times the transformer rated current.
2-zone DMT protection with overload protection This protects the current transformer against damage
Intro
duction
Assuming that additional overload protection Ith has also The short-circuit current zone I>> is set in such a way, that
3 been set in the DMT protection device, the short-circuit
current zone I> is chosen in such a way that it will excite at
it will only detect primary-side faults which are then cleared
as fast as possible. Usually, it is chosen with a safety margin
a safety margin of approximately 20 % towards the min- of approximately 20 % above the maximum 3-phase fault at
Dy vector group, this fault is shown at the primary side as When taking the cmax factor for low-voltage systems into
follows: account – as given in the standard for short-circuit current
5 Ik1 min sec calculation, IEC 60909-0 (VDE 0102) –, the maximum
Ik min prim = secondary-side three-phase short-circuit current can ini-
ü· 3 tially be approximated as:
6 ü representing the transformer’s transformation ratio. cmax · InTr sec · 100
In the example from Fig. 7/40 and Fig. 7/41: Ik3 max sec =
ukr
7 ü = 10 kV / 0.4 kV = 25 I
Ik3 max prim = k3 max sec
ü
Assuming a minimum single-phase short-circuit current of
8 approx. 12.5 kA (in this example: transformer with With the 630-kVA transformer of the example and a
630 kVA, ukr 6 %), there is: cmax factor = 1.1 there is
Consequently, when considering a safety margin of Consequently, when considering a safety margin of
I’k min prim = 0.8 ∙ Ik min prim ≈ 230 A I’k min prim = 1.2 ∙ Ik min prim ≈ 800 A
11 With a selected value A selected value of I’k max prim = 810 A results in the
following setting value:
I’k min prim = 210 A
12 I>> ≥ 810 A = 13.5 A
there is the setting value: 60/1
13 I> ≥ 210 A = 3.5 A In practice, the time delay of the I>> zone is set to 50 to
60/1 100 ms.
15
16
17
Intro
duction
1
1,000
TIP04_13_081_EN
3GD 50 A 10 kV
2
t
3GD
50 A
3
100 400 kVA 4
ukr 6 %
Ik < 10.5 kA
5
0.4 kV
6
10
s
8
Ia min
1
≥ 25 % Safety margin 9
10
IRush
0.1 11
ms
≥ 20 % Safety margin
12
13
0.01
1,000 10,000 I in A at 0.4 kV 100,000
14
A at 0.4 kV 1,000 2,000 3,000 5,000 7,500 10,000 20,000 50,000
A at 10 kV 40 80 120 2 00 400 800 2,000
I
15
ts Prearcing time of fuses
Minimum breaking current Ia min of HV HRC fuse
16
Fig. 7/33: Example for dimensioning a HV HRC fuse acc. to the minimum breaking current of the HV HRC fuse and back to page 149 17
the energizing current of the transformer
Intro
duction
1
1.000
TIP04_13_082_EN
10 kV
2 F3
3GD 50 A
t
3GD
3GD 80 A
3
min
F3 50 A
F2 (80 A)
3NA 630 A Base Ik < 10.5 kA
4 100 400 kVA
ukr 6 %
F1
5 3NA 400 A F2 3NA
630 A
6
10 0.4 kV
s
7
3NA
F1
400 A
8
1 Ia min Ik< 10.5 kA
9
≥ 25 % Safety margin
is not observed!
10
11 0.1
ms
12
13
0.01
1,000 10,000 I in A at 0.4 kV 100,000
14
A at 0.4 kV 1,000 2,000 3,000 5,000 7,500 10,000 20,000 50,000
17 Fig. 7/34: Example of grading HV HRC fuses – LV HRC fuses in the branch circuit and a 400 kVA transformer back to page 149
Intro
duction
1
1,000
TIP04_13_083_EN
10 kV
F2
2
t
3GD 80 A
3GD 3
min
F2 80 A
Q1 Base Ik < 16.4 kA
100 3WL 1,000 A 630 kVA
ukr 6 %
4
3WL
I2t Characteristic
Q1 1,000 A
tsd 300 ms
5
0.4 kV
10
F1
3NA 315 A
6
s
3NA
F1 315 A 7
Ik < 16.4 kA
8
1
tsd
9
10
0.1
ms
11
12
0.01 13
1,000 10,000 I in A at 0.4 kV 100,000
16
Fig. 7/35: Example of grading a HV HRC fuse F2 with circuit-breaker Q1 and downstream LV HRC fuse F1 in the back to page 149 17
branch circuit
Intro
duction
1
1,000
TIP04_13_084_EN
10 kV
2
F2
t
3GD 80 A
3 3GD
min
Q1 F2 80 A
3WL 1,000 A
I4t Characteristic Base Ik < 16.4 kA
4 100 630 kVA
ukr 6 %
3WL 1,000 A
5 Q1 Isd 4,000 A
tsd 300 ms
0.4 kV
6 10
F1
3NA 400 A
s
3NA
7 F1 315 A
8 Ik < 16.4 kA
1
9 tsd
10
11 0.1
ms
12
13 0.01
1,000 10,000 I in A at 0.4 kV 100,000
14 A at 0.4 kV 1,000 2,000 3,000 5,000 7,50010,000 20,000 50,000
A at 10 kV 40 80 120 200 400 800 2,000
15 ts Prearcing time of fuses
I
tsd Delay time of S-release (Q1)
16
17 Fig. 7/36: Example of grading a HV HRC fuse F2 with circuit-breaker Q1 (optional I4t characteristic of the L-release) back to page 150
and downstream LV HRC fuse F1 in the branch circuit
Intro
duction
1
1,000
TIP04_13_085_EN
10 kV
2
F2
t
3GD 80 A
3GD
3
min
F2 80 A
Q2
3WL 1,000 A
Base Ik < 16.4 kA
I2t Characteristic
100 630 kVA
ukr 6 %
4
Q1
3WL 630 A 3WL 1,000 A
I2t Characteristic Q2 Isd 4,000 A 5
tsd 300 ms
0.4 kV
10 3WL 630 A
6
Q1
s
Isd 2,500 A
tsd 200 ms
7
Ik < 16.4 kA 8
1
tsd2
9
10
tsd1
0.1
11
ms
12
0.01
13
1,000 10,000 I in A at 0.4 kV 100,000
Fig. 7/37: Example of grading a HV HRC fuse F2 with circuit-breaker Q2 and downstream circuit-breaker Q1 with back to page 149 17
an LSI-release in the branch circuit
Intro
duction
1
1,000
TIP04_13_086_EN
2 Q3
10 kV
t
I> 66 A/500 ms
3 60/1 A
min
630 kVA
Base Ik < 16.4 kA
100
4 Q2
3WL 1,000 A
ukr 6 %
3WL 1,000 A
I2t Characteristic Q2 Isd 4,000 A
5 tsd 300 ms
0.4 kV
Q1 3WL 630 A
6 10
Isd 1,260 A
tsd 200 ms
3NA
s
F1
160 A
7
Ik < 16.4 kA Ik < 16.4 kA
8
Q3
1
I> / t>
9
10 tsd2
F1
3NA 160 A
11 0.1 Q3
ms
I>> / t>>
12
13 0.01
1,000 10,000 I in A at 0.4 kV 100,000
14 A at 0.4 kV 1,000 2,000 3,000 5,000 7,500 10,000 20,000 50,000
A at 10 kV 40 80 120 200 400 800 2,000
15 ts Prearcing time of fuses
I
17 Fig. 7/38: Example of grading a circuit-breaker with DMT protection (Q3), 3WL circuit-breaker, 1,000 A with back to page 150
LSI-release (Q2) and downstream branch circuits, e.g. with LV HRC fuse 160 A (F1), in a transformer branch circuit supplying 630 kVA
Intro
duction
1
1,000
TIP04_13_087_EN
Q3
10 kV
2
t
I> 66 A/500 ms
60/1 A
3
min
10
Isd 1,260 A
tsd 200 ms
6
3NA
s
F1
160 A
7
Ik < 16.4 kA Ik < 16.4 kA
8
Q3
1 I> / t>
9
tsd2
10
tsd1
0.1
11
ms
Q3
I>> / t>>
12
0.01
13
1,000 10,000 I in A at 0.4 kV 100,000
Fig. 7/39: Example of grading a circuit-breaker with DMT protection (Q3), 3WL circuit-breaker, 1,000 A with LSI-release back to page 150 17
(Q2) and downstream branch circuits with 3WL circuit-breaker, 630 A, LSI-release (Q1), in a transformer branch circuit supplying 630 kVA
Intro
duction
1
1,000
TIP04_13_088_EN
2 Q3
Ith Q3
10 kV
0 % Preload
t
100 % Preload 42 A
3
Ith
60/1 A
min
3WL 1,000 A
Q2 Isd 4,000 A
5 F1
3NA 315 A
tsd 300 ms
0.4 kV
Q1 3WL 630 A
6 10
Isd 2,560 A
tsd 200 ms
3NA
s
F1
315 A
7
Ik < 16.4 kA Ik < 16.4 kA
8
Q3
1
I> / t>
9
10 tsd2
11 0.1 Q3
ms
I>> / t>>
12
13
0.01
1,000 10,000 I in A at 0.4 kV 100,000
14 A at 0.4 kV 1,000 2,000 3,000 5,000 7,500 10,000 20,000 50,000
A at 10 kV 40 80 120 200 400 800 2,000
15 ts Prearcing time of fuses
I
17 Fig. 7/40: Example of grading a circuit-breaker with DMT protection and overload protection (Q3), 3WL circuit-breaker, back to page 151
1,000 A with LSI-release (Q2) and downstream branch circuits with LV HRC fuse 315 A (F1), in a transformer branch circuit supplying 630 kVA
Intro
duction
1
1,000
TIP04_13_089_EN
Q3
Ith Q3
10 kV
2
0 % Preload
t
100 % Preload 42 A
3
Ith
60/1 A
min
10
Isd 2,560 A
tsd 200 ms
6
3NA
s
F1
315 A
7
Ik < 16.4 kA Ik < 16.4 kA
8
Q3
1
I> / t>
9
tsd2
10
tsd1
0.1 Q3
11
ms
I>> / t>>
12
0.01
13
1,000 10,000 I in A at 0.4 kV 100,000
Fig. 7/41: Example of grading a circuit-breaker with DMT protection (Q3), 3WL circuit-breaker, 1,000 A with LSI-release back to page 150 17
(Q2) and downstream branch circuits with 3WL circuit-breaker, 630 A, LSI-release (Q1), in a transformer branch circuit supplying 630 kVA
Intro
duction
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
Intro 8 M
edium-Voltage Switching Devices and
duction
Switchgear
1 According to international rules, there are only two voltage Most operating voltages in medium-voltage grids are in the
levels: 3 kV AC to 40.5 kV AC range.
• Low voltage (LV): up to and including 1 kV AC
2 (or 1.5 kV DC) The electrical transmission and distribution systems not
• High voltage (HV): above 1 kV AC only connect power stations and electricity consumers, but
(or 1.5 kV DC) also, with their “meshed systems”, form a nationwide
3 Most electrical appliances used in household, commercial
backbone with reserves for reliable supply and for the
compensation of load differences. High operating voltages
and industrial applications work with low voltage. High (and therefore low currents) are preferred for power trans-
10
11
12 TIP04_13_090_EN
13
14
220 kV
15 High voltage
52 kV
16 Medium voltage
Medium
voltage
1 kV
Low voltage
17
Fig. 8/1: Voltage levels between the power plant and the consumer
Intro
duction
Intro
duction
5
Selection parameter Determinants
8 • Altitude
Primary rated values
9 Ip Peak current
IK Short-time current
• Consumers and power quality
• Grid protection, response times
tK Short-circuit duration • Selectivity criteria
17 • Contactor
• HV HRC fuse
• Switching frequency
• Grid protection, selectivity requirements
Intro
duction
• Type of construction
– Extendable panels
• Operating current, switching capacity
• Grid protection
2
– Block type • Numerical ratio of switch panels to circuit-breaker panels
• Operational workflows and handling 3
• Conditions of installation
• Transportation and mounting
• Expandability, electrical / mechanical reserves 4
Selection parameter Determinants
• Air (AIS)
• Room climate: temperature cycling, humidity,
pollution, salt, aggressive gases 5
Insulation medium
• Operational requirements
(access to cable terminations, e.g. for cable test)
9
Selection parameter Determinants
Degree of protection
(IP in accordance with IEC 60529, VDE 0470-1)
• Environmental conditions
10
Encapsulation
12
• Pressure relief duct
– LSC 2A • Servicing / Maintenance 14
– LSC 2B (Service life of components)
• Accessibility and access control using • Operating company instructions
– Interlocking • Personnel qualification 15
– Work instruction + locking • Shock-hazard protection during work in progress
– Tools • Switchgear space requirements
• Non-accessible switchgear compartment
16
• Partition class
– PM (partition of metal)
– PI (partition of insulating material)
17
Intro
duction
6
Selection parameter Determinants
• Measuring transducer • Grid protection and measurement
components
7 – Class E0, E1 or E2
• Surge arrester
12
8.1.3 Medium-Voltage Switchgear Design
13 Gas-insulated switchgear should be used for the medium- Operator protection
voltage consumer substation. The advantages of gas-insu-
lated switchgear are: • The gas-insulated switchgear is safe to touch thanks to its
14 • Lower space requirements (up to approx. 70 % savings earthed metal enclosure
with 30 kV) compared to air-insulated switchgear • HV HRC fuses and cable terminations are only accessible
• Smaller transportation size and consequently easier if branch circuits are earthed
15 shipping • Operation is only possible if the enclosure is fully sealed
• Increased reliability of operation due to hermetically (and any doors closed)
sealed primary switchgear section (adverse impact such • A maintenance-free pressure absorption system, laid out
16 as from contamination, small animals, contact, condensa-
tion are excluded due to the encapsulation)
as “special cooling system” reduces pressure-related and
thermal impacts of an arc fault so that personnel and
• Maintenance-free primary section (no lubrication and Fig. 8/3).
building will be safe (Fig. 8/3
readjustment necessary)
17 • Better eco balance than air-insulated switchgear referred
to the entire system life cycle
Intro
duction
1 Low-voltage cubicle
1
Switchgear room Switchgear room
1 – Standard for
circuit-breaker panels
2
≥ 2,400
1 2 2
≥ 1,000 – Option for every
3 9 other panel type
≥ 1,000
4 10 2 Pressure-relief opening
890
3 Room height 3
≥ 2,400
775 ≥ 1,000 5
2,300
2,000
4 Panel depth
828
5 Operator aisle
6
6 Cable space cover
4
7 Cables
7 300 11
8 Height of cable basement
corresponding to cable 5
115 ~200 bending radius
2 > 600 8 12
834 9 Direction of pressure relief
Cable basement 9 Cable basement 10 Pressure absorption duct 6
Side view 11 Height of pressure
Side view
absorption canal base
≥ 15 ≥ 15
beneath the switchgear panel 7
12 Depth of pressure
absorption canal behind
switchgear panel
8
≥ 200
≥ 200
620
10
620
11
≥ 50
≥ 50
TIP04_13_092_EN
Top view Top view
Switchgear arrangement with standard panels Switchgear arrangement with rear pressure absorption canal (option) 12
Fig. 8/3: Room layout for switchgear with pressure relief downward (left) and with pressure absorption duct back to page 168
13
Expandability Installation site
14
The switchgear should be extendible with a minimum time The switchgear shall be usable as indoor installation in
expense. A modular system with ordering options for accordance with IEC 61936-1 (VDE 0101-1). A distinction is
busbar extensions on the right, left or both sides provides
the best prerequisite for this:
made between: 15
• Switchgear types in locations with no access from the
• Individual panels and panel blocks can be mounted public, outside closed off electrical operating areas.
side-by-side and extended as desired – no gas work
required on site
Switchgear enclosures can only be removed with the aid
of tools and operation by ordinary persons must be
16
• Low-voltage compartment (cubicle) is available in two prevented
heights, wired to the switchgear panel by means of plug • Closed electrical operating areas: A closed electrical
connectors operating area is a room or location used solely for the 17
• All panels can be replaced at any time operation of electrical switchgear and is kept locked.
Intro
duction
TIP04_13_093_EN
electrically instructed persons; for ordinary persons only
≥ 800 mm
≥ 500 mm
when accompanied by electrically skilled or instructed
2 persons.
Operator aisle
nents
• Corridors must have a minimum width of 800 mm Fig. 8/4: Installation of switchgear in acc. with IEC 61936-1
5 • Corridor width must not be obstructed by equipment (VDE 0101-1)
protruding into the corridor, such as permanently
installed drives or switchgear trucks in disconnected
6 position
• The width of the escape route must be at least 500 mm,
• Interlock-controlled accessible compartment
an interlock in the the panel grants access when live parts
even if removable parts or fully open doors protrude into are isolated and earthed. Opening the switchgear under
enclosed switchgear distinguishes between accessibility Fig. 8/5 shows some examples for the different categories
level A for authorized personnel and accessibility level B for of service continuity.
14 unlimited access (also for the general public). In addition to
this, the opening possibilities of a compartment are distin- Busbar systems
guished, which influences the accessibility, and thus the
15 availability, of a switchgear. The following aspects play a part when choosing a single or
double busbar:
A gas-insulated switchgear is also available as a type with • The number of outgoing and incoming feeders
16 • Non-accessible compartment
It must not be opened. Opening such a compartment
• Separate operation of parts of the installation required
• Operability of certain installation parts required during
could destroy it and impair functioning of the switchgear maintenance work in progress
• Switch-over of consumers to different feed-in sections
17 Medium-voltage switchgear are further differentiated • Non-interruptible switch-over required
according to three opening types:
Intro
duction
5
Busbar space Busbar space Busbar space
Disconnector
space
6
7
Switch space
Busbars, switches
and termination
space
Switch and
termination space
Switch and
termination space 8
Termination space
11
Switch space
Switch space
Switch space
12
Switch and
TIP04_13_094_EN
Termination space
termination space
Termination space Termination 13
space
Intro
duction
1 once or several times, with its own feed-in in every section. Note: Medium-voltage switchgear are generally tested for
Disconnectors or switch-disconnectors at the interruption accessibility of Type A. Only complete, factory-assembled
points create bus sectionalizers, whereas circuit-breakers stations (transformer / load-centre substations) are tested
2 create longitudinal busbar couplers (BCL). A BCL makes for Type B. Testing normal switchgear for conformance
sense if the busbar sections are to be operated as alter- with Type B doesn't make sense, since they will always be
nately separated or coupled. built into an additional station housing in public spaces.
3 Considering the hazards involved in the occurrence of an
Double busbar
arc fault, the following aspects should be noted when
7 grids
• Limited short-circuit strength of already installed equip-
2. Keep operating aisles as short, high and wide as possible
ment requires a subdivision into two subsystems with 3. Use sealed encapsulations or covers instead of encapsu-
switch-overs for load balancing in case of varying power lations with openings or meshed wire
8 demand
4. Deploy installations which are arc-fault-tested instead of
Apart from the first example, examples two to four allow installations in open design (e.g. installations in accord-
9 the use of a transversal busbar coupler (BCT), which per-
mits changing busbars without interrupting the energy
ance with IEC 62271-200; VDE 0671-200)
Fig. 8/6).
flow (Fig. 8/6 5. Bleed off arc gases into a direction away from the opera-
Intro
duction
1
Busbar 1
Busbar 2
2
Bus sectionalizer
TIP04_13_095_EN
BCT 5
Fig. 8/6: Duplicate busbar with bus sectionalizer and busbar coupler, transversal (BCT) back to page 172
6
Pressure calculation according to Pigler for the 8DJ/H switchgear type without absorber
12 7
TIP04_13_096_EN
10
Excess pressure p (in hPa)
8
8
6
9
4
2 10
0 100
Room volume VR (in
200
m3):
300 400
50
500 600 700 800 900
Time t (in ms)
1,000
11
Free relief cross section Aent (in m2): 1
Short-circuit current IK“ (in kA): 16 Maximum pressure Pmax: 10,9 hPa after 99 ms
Fig. 8/7: Example of stationary excess pressures resulting from internal arc faults
12
14
Estimation of pressure effects according to Pigler
Intro
duction
1 Finite-elements-simulation of pressure load under for specific switchgear types, short-circuit currents, and
conditions of arcing installation sites. Thus the customer benefits from ex-
tended planning security and a cost-optimised solution.
2 Although the incidence of an internal fault (arc fault) is
very unlikely in type tested air- or gas-insulated switchgear, The flow conditions are defined as boundary conditions.
the consequences of such an arc fault may be severe for Firstly, these are the switchgear steel sheets and secondly,
3 the operating personnel as much as for the room itself. For
this reason, appropriate measures in relation to the room
the absorber sheets to be penetrated. At last, the pressure
relief openings in the switchgear room are defined. But the
situation must be provided for pressure relief, such as model also allows to calculate a fully enclosed room, or
8
1 For any information or requests in this matter, please turn to your TIP contact:
siemens.com/tip-cs/contact
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
Fig. 8/8: Contour plotting of a simulation at the point 0.1 s
Intro
duction
Intro
duction
11 Disconnector × × ×
Earthing switch × ×
Make-proof earthing
× × ×
12 switch
Contactor × × × × × 1) × 1)
Fuse link × × ×
13 Fuse base × ×
Surge arrester* × 2) × 3) × 4) × 5)
Current limiting reactor × × ×
14 Bushing × × × 6)
Post insulator (insulator) × × 6)
15 × Selection parameter
1) Limited short-circuit breaking capacity
2) Applicable as selection parameter in special cases only, e.g. for exceptional pollution layer
3) For surge arresters with spark gap = rated voltage
4) Rated discharge current for surge arresters
16 5) For surge arresters short-circuit strength when there is an overload
6) For bushings and insulators: minimum failing loads for tension, bending, and torsion
* Further selection criteria for surge arresters may also be: Residual voltage, rated discharge current, energy absorption capability, short-circuit strength (general),
rated and continuous voltage (metal-oxide arrester), rated and response voltage (arrester with spark gap)
17 (Parameters of the secondary equipment for drives, control and monitoring are not taken into consideration in this table.)
Intro
duction
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
Intro
duction
1 Selection according to switching tasks The following abbreviations and identifying characters are
used in the tables:
For a useful selection of switching devices, the switching Ima rated short-circuit making current
2 tasks occurring during normal operation must be known,
Isc rated short-circuit breaking current
so that the optimal device can be selected in each individ-
ual case. It must be distinguished between Ir rated operating current
3 • undisturbed operation (Tab. 8/4 to Tab. 8/6
8/6) and
Ik“ initial short-circuit alternating current
Ian motor starting current
7
Switching Load case cos φ Current Main problem Comments
operation
Switch-disconnector
9
Earthing switch
Circuit-breaker
Disconnector
Contactor
Switch
10
Fuse
Transformers Non-loaded < 0.3 ≤ 0.03 Ir – – × × × – × – – –
16 Generators
0.8 – 1.0 ≤ Ir Transient recovery
voltage with steep
Overvoltage protection is
common × – – – – – – –
edge
Power converter 0.1 – 1.0 ≤ Ir – Overvoltage protection is
17 transformer common
× – – – – – – –
Tab. 8/4: Switching tasks in inductive circuits during undisturbed operation back to page 176
Intro
duction
Switching operations during undisturbed operation contact gap even when the switching device is 1
disconnected
The precise meaning of the columns in Tab. 8/4 to –– With compensating coils, a steep edge of the transient
Tab. 8/6 is: recovery voltage can be expected owing to the high 2
• “cos φ” natural frequency
Guide values for the power factors present in the –– With frequently switched motors, it is more
individual switching operations
• “Main problem”
economically efficient to use contactors instead of
circuit-breakers or switches
3
If nothing is specified, this switching condition is –– Generators generally behave like an inductance,
non-critical for the switching devices to be used
• “Current”
independent of the fact whether they are operated in
an over- or under-exitated state 4
Currents to be made or broken in the worst case: –– Filter circuits also include capacitors with current-
–– the overloaded or stressed transformers do not include limiting reactors
transformers with special loads such as motors, –– Please note in Tab. 8/7 to Tab. 8/9 that the specified 5
generators, power converters, and arc furnaces currents must be made or broken in the worst case in
–– In case of an earth fault, earth-fault windings may be the event of a transformer-fed short circuit.
faced with the full operating voltage at the open 6
7
Switching operation cos φ Current Main problem Comments
Switch-disconnector
9
Earthing switch
Circuit-breakers
Disconnector
Contactor
Switch
10
Fuse
Capacitor banks capacitive ≤ 1.4 Ir High recovery voltage – × × × – × – – ×
Filter circuits capacitive ≤ 1,000 A High recovery voltage –
Permissible making
× × – – – – – –
11
current:
High amplitude and ≤ 5 kA: for NXACT
Paralleling of capacitor banks capacitive ≤ 100 Ir steep edge of the mak- vacuum circuit-breaker
ing current ≤ 10 kA: for 3AH vacuum
× × – – – – – –
12
circuit-breaker
> 10 kA: Reactor required
Unloaded cables capacitive ≤ 100 A High recovery voltage – × × – – × – – – 13
Unloaded overhead lines capacitive ≤ 10 A High recovery voltage – × × – – × – – –
Ripple control systems capacitive ≤ 20 A High recovery voltage – × × – – – – – –
15
16
17
Intro
duction
Switch-disconnector
Earthing switch
3
Circuit-breaker
Disconnector
Contactor
Switch
Fuse
4 Ring separations 0.3 inductive ≤ Ir – – × × × – × – – –
Switch-over to differently loaded 0.7 – 1.0 inductive ≤ Ir – –
× × × – × – – –
5 busbars
Unloaded cables – – – – × – – × × × × –
Unloaded overhead lines – – – – × – – – – – – –
Tab. 8/6: Switching tasks in other operational cases back to page 178
7
Switching cos φ Current Main problem Comments
operation
8
Earthing switch
Circuit-breaker
Disconnector
10 Contactor
Switch
Fuse
Activation 0.15 Ima – –
× × – – × – × –
11 Terminal short
inductive
0.15 Isc – –
× – – – – – – ×
circuit inductive
Generator-fed short 0.15 Isc Transient recovery Overvoltage protection for
12 circuit inductive voltage with steep edge
≤ 6 kV / ms
generators with Ik“ ≤ 600 A × – – – – – – –
14 Short circuit
current limiting
0.15
inductive
Isc Transient recovery
voltage with steep edge
–
× – – – – – – –
coils ≤ 10 kV / ms
Double earth fault 0.15 ≤ 0.87 Isc – –
× – – – – – – ×
15 Stalling motors
inductive
0.2 ≤ 6 Ir Current breaking For motors with Ian ≤ 600 A
inductive up to 6 Ir with cos φ ≤ 0.3 suitable as protection circuitry:
3EF overvoltage limiter. × × – – – – – –
16 Single-compensated motors do
not need protection circuitry.
Phase opposition 0.15 0.25 Isc – –
× – – – – – – –
inductive
17 Tab. 8/7: Switching tasks in case of short circuit back to page 178
Intro
duction
Switch-disconnector
Earthing switch
Circuit-breakers
3
Disconnector
Contactor
Switch
Fuse
Unloaded cables / overhead lines capacitive ≤ 5 A High recovery voltage –
4
× × × – – – – –
(supply-side fault)
Loaded cables / overhead lines variable ≤ Ir High recovery voltage –
(supply-side fault)
× × × – – – – –
5
Switching of the earth-fault current variable ≤ Ir – –
× × × – – – – –
(load-side fault)
Tab. 8/8: Switching tasks under earth-fault conditions
6
Switching operation cos φ Current Main problem Comments
7
Switch-disconnector
Earthing switch
Circuit-breaker
Disconnector
9
Contactor
Switch
Fuse
Protection disconnecting
circuitry
0.7 – 1.0 inductive ≤ Ir High recovery voltage –
– – – – × – – – 10
(disconnecting under load)
Rapid switch-over 0.7 – 1.0 inductive ≤ Ir Switch-over in < 150 ms – × – – – – – – –
12
13
14
15
16
17
Intro
duction
for example. A switch for example can have both: mechani- The respective number of switching operations with the
cal class M1 and electrical class E3. rated short-circuit breaking current Isc in Tab. 8/10 corre-
5 sponds to the respective number of switching sequences in
Class C describes the capacitive switching behaviour, which accordance with the type tests. Modern vacuum circuit-
summarizes switch behaviour during the switching of breakers can usually make and break the rated operating
6 overhead lines, cables, and capacitors (single and parallel
switching). C1 is sufficient for the switching of cables and
current with the number of mechanical switching cycles.
12 M
M1 2,000 switching cycles Normal mechanical endurance
M2 10,000 switching cycles Extended mechanical endurance, low maintenance
2 × C and 3 × O with 10 %,
13 E1
30 %, 60 % and 100 % Isc
Normal electrical endurance (switch which is not covered by E2)
16 C2
128 × O every 10 … 40 % Ilc, Icc, Ibc probability
S1 Circuit-breaker for use in a cable network
S Circuit-breaker for use in overhead line networks, or in a cable network with direct overhead line connection (without
17 S2
a cable between overhead line and breaker)
Intro
duction
Class Description 7
M1 1,000 switching cycles Mechanical endurance
M
M2 5,000 switching cycles
10 × Iload
Increased mechanical endurance
8
E1 10 × Iloop 20 × 0.05 Iload
2 × Ima Test currents:
30 × Iload
10 × Icc
Iload rated network load breaking current 9
10 × 0.02 to 0.04 Icc Iloop rated ring breaking current
E E2 20 × Iloop
10 × IIc Icc rated cable breaking current
5 × Ima
100 × Iload
10 × Ief1 Ilc rated overhead line breaking current
Isb rated capacitor breaking current
10
E3 20 × Iloop 10 × Ief2
Ibb rated parallel capacitor breaking
5 × Ima
current
C1
10 × Icc Low probability of restrikes Ief1 rated earth-fault breaking current 11
10 × Ilc (frequency not defined) Ief2 rated cable and overhead line breaking
10 × Isc current under earth-fault conditions
C
C2
10 × Ibb
Additionally 10 times each
Very low probability of restrikes
Ima rated short-circuit making current
12
0.1 … 0.4 × Icc, Isb, Ibb
Intro
duction
3 Contactors
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
Intro
duction
9
PC interface, control system interface
10
Measuring Input V.24 Fibre- I/O ports Binary
inputs filter Serial optics
interfaces
inputs 11
Fault 12
Current Amplifier signalling relay
inputs
(100 · IN, 1 s)
13
Command relay
14
Voltage A / D signal Processor Storage:
inputs transducer system RAM
I/O devices Displays
(140 V EEPROM
15
TIP04_13_073_EN
0001
continuous) 0101 EPROM
0011
17
Fig. 8/9: Block diagram for a digital protection device
Intro
duction
Holistic workflow
3 • Integrated system and device engineering – from the
single line to device parameterisation
Intro
duction
In order to attain selective short-circuit protection in the Time-overcurrent protection devices detect a fault on 11
medium-voltage grid, the value for phase current excitation account of its amperage and clear the fault after a certain
I> of the digital protection device should be set in such a delay time has elapsed. Time-overcurrent protection
way that the minimum short-circuit current trips a circuit-
breaker, the maximum operating current, however, is
devices either work with current-independent current
thresholds (DMT – definite time overcurrent protection) or
12
carried without tripping. with a current-dependent tripping characteristic (IDMTL –
inverse definite minimum time leakage). The following
should be taken into account for the selection of an
13
Ik,min
fB · IB,max ≤ I> ≤ appropriate protection device as main protection:
fLB • Network configuration
• Neutral-point connection 14
Where • Type and size of the item of equipment to be protected
IB,max = Maximum operating current
fB,max = Safety factor to allow for influences caused by
operational changes and variations such as load
15
changes, operation under faulted loads, transducer
faults, relay resetting ratio; for example fB,max = 1.7
for cables, fB,max = 2.0 for transformers1)
16
1) When determining the safety factor, the coordination with the subordinate
low-voltage grid must be kept in mind. This may result in higher fB,maxvalues
17
(see chapter 7.7)
Intro
duction
1 Normally, time-overcurrent protection devices acting as Both the high-current level I>> and the overcurrent level I>
main protection should only be used for high-voltage motor always work with a current-independent tripping delay
ratings up to 2 MW and for transformer ratings up to time (DMT). Different tripping characteristics can be set for
2 10 MVA. Above this, directional comparison protection Fig. 8/13
the IDMTL function (Ip level). The characteristics (Fig. 8/13)
devices should be used as main protection and time- are described by characteristic formulas (Tab. 8/14). The
overcurrent protection as standby protection. Both DMT characteristic curve types for relay tripping times required
3 (Fig. 8/11a) and IDMTL can be used for the protection of
spur cables and normally open cable rings. With motors,
in IEC 60255-151 (VDE 0435-3151) are identified by the
letters A, B, C, D, E, and F.
DMT is used for short-circuit protection (Fig. 8/11b). Mod-
0.14
10 t=
Dependent time response fort overcurrent (I / I
0.14
0.14
)
0.02 1
= (I / Ip)0.02 –relays
– 1
· Tp
· Tp
t= p · Tp
a) b) c) A: Inverse (I / I 0.14
0.14 )0.02 – 1
ttt== · Tp
p
0.14
= (I/ /13.5 0.02
IIIpp)))0.02 –11· T
· Tpp
t =(I 0.02 –
11 (I / 13.5 p
t = (I / Ip) – 1 · Tp
13.5
– ·1T p
t = (I / Ip) – 1 · Tp
B: Greatly inverse /13.5
(I 13.5 I p) – 1 · T
t = 13.5
DMT DMT DMT tt =
= (I/ /I80 Ip)) ––11·· T Tpp
t = (I · Tpp
12 t = 600 ms
(I / I80 p)2 – 1
p
t = (I / Ip)2 – 1 · Tp
80
t = (I / Ip)2 – 1 · Tp
C: Extremely inverse
t = (I / 80 I80
p) – 1 · T
tt = 80
= (I(I/ /IIp))222––11·· T Tpp
–1 p
13 M (I / Ipp)0.0515
t= + 0.114 · Tp
DMT 0.0515 0.02
D: IEEE moderately inverse t = (I / Ip)0.02 – 1 + 0.114 · Tp
0.0515
t = 300 ms t = (I / Ip)0.02 – 1 + 0.114 · Tp
= (I 0.0515/0.0515
I p) – 1 + 0.114 · T
ttt= 0.0515
= (I(I/ /IIp))0.02 0.02 – 1+ 0.114 ·· T
+ 0.114 Tppp
14 E: IEEE very inverse t=
Ipp)
(I / 19.61 0.02 –
–1 1
+ 0.491 · Tp
TIP04_13_169_EN
19.61 2
t = (I / Ip)2 – 1 + 0.491 · Tp
(I /19.61
I ) – 1
DMT t= p + 0.491 · T
= (I 19.61 Ip)2 – 1 + 0.491 · Tp
/19.61
ttt=
15 t = 0 ms F: IEEE extremely inverse
t=
19.61
= (I(I/ /IIp))22 ––11+ 0.491
(I / Ipp28.2
2
) –1
+ 0.491 ·· T
Tppp
+ 0.1217 · Tp
28.2 2
t = (I / Ip)2 – 1 + 0.1217 · Tp
(I / I28.2) – 1
t= p + 0.1217 · T
)2 – 1 + 0.1217 · Tp
16 Fig. 8/11: Main applications for DMT:
a) Line protection
t tripping time
Tp set value of time multiplicator ttt= = II (I faultI28.2
/28.2pcurrent
28.2
= (I(I/ /IIp))22 ––11+ 0.1217
p current
(I / Ipp) – 1
2 +
set value
0.1217 ·· TTppp
Intro
duction
8
t in s
t in s
TIP04_13_171_EN
TIP04_13_170_EN
5
500 9
2
100
10
200
5
100
2 IDMTL
Ip
10 I> tp 50
11
5
20
2
1
DMT T>
I >> 10
12
5
5
2
I >>
T >>
13
Inverse
0.1 2
5
2
1
IEEE moderately
inverse
Greatly inverse
14
T >> IEEE very inverse
0.01 0.5
5
0.2
Extremely inverse 15
2 IEEE extremely
inverse
0.1
0.001
102 2 5 103 2 5
I in A
104 1 2 5 10 20 50 100 16
I / Ip
Fig. 8/12: Typical characteristics of DMT back to page 188 Fig. 8/13: Tripping characteristics back to page 188 17
and IDMTL protection devices acc. to IEC 60255-151 (VDE 0435‑3151)
Intro
duction
1 The line differential protection function (ANSI 87L) of the (Fig. 8/14 b). As the feeding line lengths of the current
7SD6 (SIPROTEC 4) or 7SD8 relays (SIPROTEC 5 or SIPROTEC transformers at the high- and low-voltage sides are usually
Compact) detects short circuits – even weak-current or not too long, the summated current can be formed in one
2 high-ohmic ones – in the section to be protected by means device, and not in separate devices as in line differential
of a phase-selective comparison of current values meas- protection. To this end, secondary-side adaptive circuits are
ured separately at the two ends of the line by separate no longer required to map current influences caused by the
3 devices (Fig. 8/14 a). Owing to the strictly local selectivity
– the protection zone is limited by the current transformers
transformer, since the digital protection device does this by
computation:
at the two ends of the line section – network topology and • Transmission ratio of transformer –
10
11 a) b) c) d)
12 87L
ΔI
13
Communication 87M/
ΔI 87T M/G ΔI
link 87G
14 ΔI 87G
ΔI G
15 87L
TIP04_13_172_EN
16
Fig. 8/14: Block diagrams for a) line differential protection
Intro
duction
at the busbar result in long tripping times of the XDMT In case of a complex topology, the busbar protection device 1
protection devices. Faults present too long can easily must also detect the disconnector situation in addition to the
cause damage in the primary distribution system. For this currents of each branch circuit and determine the selective
reason must important busbars be protected quickly – zones from this, which makes protection very intricate. 2
independent of their voltage level.
Distance protection
In the face of the complexity of the busbar system (rang-
ing from single to 5-fold busbars), busbar protection can The short-circuit impedance is a measured quantity which
3
get very complex. The principle of reverse interlocking (see is proportional to the distance between the mounting
chapter 4) is suitable for simpler configurations. Here, the
DMT protection function of the feed-in trips quickly inde-
location of the protection device and the fault location. For
this reason, the impedances of the six possible fault loops 4
pendent of the grading time, unless its quick-trip unit is established from all of the detected current and voltage
not blocked by the short-circuit or earth-fault excitation in values (Fig. 8/16) are compared to the line impedance in
a feeder. In the feeder units, this excitation is parametrized order to provide distance protection. After the delay time 5
to a special contact and all excitation contacts are con- defined for each zone has elapsed, the distance protection
nected in parallel. function trips and clears the fault.
A protection excitation in a feeder panel (fault F1 in Distance protection is a universal short-circuit protection
6
Fig. 8/15) means that the fault present is not within the which is preferrably used for cable and line monitoring. The
busbar area. Owing to the excitation of the feeder protec-
tion function, the (almost) instantaneous tripping I>> of
distance protection function can be used in combination
with various excitation methods: 7
the feed-in protection (t>> = 50 ms in Fig. 8/15) can be • Overcurrent excitation
blocked by the binary input. Here, feed-in protection acts as • Voltage- and current-dependent excitation
standby protection which trips with t>. If only the protec- • Voltage, current- and phase-angle-dependent excitation 8
tion device for the feed-in is excited during a busbar fault • Impedance excitation
(fault F2) with t> and t>>, this blocking is suppressed and a
trip is effected quickly on account of a busbar fault. This
quick trip reduces the load applied by the fault.
The communication possibilities are identical for distance
and line differential protection.
9
10
Feed-in
Earth L1 L2 L3
11
Distance protection
12
I> t > = 0.9 s
Blocking
I >> t >> = 0.05 s L1 – Earth
F2 13
L2 – Earth
L3 – Earth
14
L1 – L2
I> I> I>
t > = 0.3 s t > = 0.3 s t > = 0.3 s L2 – L3
15
F1
L3 / L1
Fig. 8/15: Busbar protection by reverse interlocking for the single Fig. 8/16: Fault loops checked by the distance protection device 17
busbar
Intro
duction
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
Intro 9 Transformers
duction
1 Transformers are an essential component for power trans- 9.1 Electrical Design
mission and distribution. Their ratings originate from their
area of application, their construction, the nominal power Nominal power and cooling
2 and the transformation ratio. Transformer types range from
generator transformers to distribution transformers. All information about the rating of transformers in this
manual results from the product of the rated voltage
3 The IEC 60076 (VDE 0532-76) series of standards describes
power transformers with the exception of the following
(no-load voltage multiplied by the phase factor √3 for
three-phase systems) and the rated current of the line-side
transformers: winding (for a multi-winding transformer at the middle tap,
• Transformer without a winding with a rated EN 50541-1 (VDE 0532-241) specifies the following ratings
voltage > 1 kV in kVA for GEAFOL transformers (preferred types are under-
5 • Measuring transducers lined):
• Transformers for static inverters
• Vehicle transformers 100 – 160 – 200 – 250 – 315 – 400 – 500 – 630 – 800 –
6 • Autotransformer starters
• Testing transformers
1,000 – 1,250 – 1,600 – 2,000 – 2,500 – 3,150
17
Intro
duction
9
Ur
3 Ur /3
10
Ur
3 11
Ur Ur Ur
Ir Ir Ir
13
Ir
w/3 14
w Ir w
3 3 3
Ir
w/3
15
Ir
Ur
Rated current
Rated voltage
16
w Number of windings TIP04_13_113_EN
17
Fig. 9/1: Connections of three-phase current transformers with vector diagrams
Intro
duction
I
3 Typical vector groups are (see Fig. 9/2):
i
Yy0 (Yy6), Yz5 (Yz11), Dy5 (Dy11) iii
4 In transformers with these vector groups, a star point
ii II
III
connected at the output side permits the connection of a
neutral conductor in the three-phase distribution network.
5 In this case, the vector group designations are as follows:
15
16
17
Intro
duction
Intro
duction
4 B = 100 °C
F = 120 °C A. Niederpreis- B. Verlustoptimierter
transformator Transformator
H = 145 °C
14
15
16
17
Intro
duction
7
12
2N 2U 2V 2W
13
H
1U 1V 1W
4
6 14
5
3
1 E E A 15
TIP04_13_115_EN
17
Fig. 9/3: Hermetically sealed oil-immersed distribution transformers
Intro
duction
1 In a TUNORMA transformer (Fig. 9/4), the oil level in the also provides a high level of safety against fires and is
tank and in the top-mounted bushing insulators is kept con- also classified as K liquid according to EN 61100
stant by means of an oil conservator tank, which is (VDE 0389‑2)
2 mounted at the highest point of the transformer. Changes
in the oil level caused by varying thermal conditions only Accessories and protection devices
affect the oil conservator tank.
3 The design of the transformers depends on the require-
For special applications and the enhancement of opera-
tional safety, oil-immersed transformers can be equipped
ments. For example, double-tank versions are available for with additional components such as:
11 4
1 5
3 8
12 10
2N 2U 2V 2W
H
13 1U 1V 1W
B
14 8 9
2 6
E E A
15
1 Oil level indicator 6 Adjuster for off-circuit tap changer
TIP04_13_116_EN
16 3 Thermometer well
4 Buchholz relays (on request)
8
9
Earth connections
Pulling lug, Ø 30 mm
5 Desiccant breather (on request) 10 Lashing lug
17
Fig. 9/4: Oil-immersed distribution transformer with conservator
Intro
duction
9.4 GEAFOL Cast-resin Dry-type Requirements for the site of installation in accordance with 1
Transformers IEC 61936-1 (VDE 0101-1) (fire protection see Tab. 9/3; for
leakage no special measures are required, because there is
Cast-resin transformers are the solution wherever distribu- no insulating and/or cooling liquid used) suggest the use of 2
tion transformers in the immediate proximity to people cast-resin dry-type transformers (for example GEAFOL).
must guarantee the greatest possible safety. The restric- Compared to transformers using mineral oil, silicone oil or
tions of liquid-filled transformers have been avoided with
cast-resin transformers, but their proven characteristics
diester oil, these transformers place the lowest demands on
the site of installation while fulfilling higher requirements
3
such as operational safety and durability have been re- in terms of personal safety and low fire load.
tained.
4
Type of
transformer
Installation Liquid volume V Clearance 2)
G1: to other transformers or building G2: to building surface
5
surface of non-combustible material of combustible material
1,000 l < V < 2,000 l
2,000 l ≤ V < 20,000 l
3m
5m
7.5 m
10 m
6
Outdoor
20,000 l ≤ V < 45,000 l 10 m 20 m
Oil insulated
transformers
V ≥ 45,000 l 15 m 30 m 7
Liquid volume V Safety measures
(O)1)
V ≤ 1,000 l EI 60 resp. REI 60 3)
Liquid volume V
Clearance 2)
G1 G2
9
Outdoor, without 1,000 l < V < 3,800 l 1.5 m 7.5 m
enhanced protection 4) V ≥ 3,800 l 4.5 m 15 m 10
Fire resistant Clearance G1 2) to building surface or adjacent transformers
liquid insulated
Outdoor, with
transformers
(K) 1)
enhanced protection 4)
all horizontal 0.9 m, vertical 1.5 m
11
Operating data Safety measures
Indoor, without EI 60 resp. REI 60 3)
enhanced protection 4) or automatic fire-extinguishing appliance
12
Indoor, with enhanced for nom. power ≤ 10 MVA, EI 60 resp. REI 60 3)
protection 4) max. voltage Um ≤ 38 kV or distances horizontal 1.5 m and vertical 3.0 m
Fire behaviour class 5)
F0
Clearance G1 2) to building surface or adjacent transformers
horizontal 1.5 m, vertical 3.0 m
13
Outdoor
F1 No additional fire protection measures required
Dry-type
transformers
Fire behaviour class 5) Safety measures 14
EI 60 resp. REI 60 3)
(A) 1) F0
Indoor or distance horizontal 0.9 m and vertical 1.5 m
F1 Non combustible walls 15
Note: Sufficient space should be allowed for periodic cleaning of resin-encapsulated transformer windings, in order to
prevent possible electrical faults and fire hazard caused by deposited atmospheric pollution.
1)
2)
Cooling medium identification (K, O) according to IEC 60076-2 (VDE 0532-76-2) resp. (A) according to IEC 60076-11 (VDE 053-76-11)
To visualise G1 and G2 see IEC 61936-1 (VDE 0101-1) 16
3) REI represents the bearing system (wall) whereas EI represents the non-load bearing system (wall) where R is the load bearing capacity,
E is the fire integrity, I is the thermal insulation and 60/90 refers to fire resistance time (EN 13501-2) in minutes
4) Enhanced protection means: • tank rupture strength, • tank pressure relief, • low-current fault protection, • high-current fault protection
5) Fire behaviour class according to IEC 60076-11 (VDE 0532-76-11)
17
Tab. 9/3: Fire protection measures for transformers in accordance with IEC 61936-1 (VDE 0101-1)
Intro
duction
11 Climate category
15
16
17
Intro
duction
9.5 Power Converter Transformer If consumers are connected which generate harmonics of 1
a load current THDi > 5 % – referred to the rated current –
The operation of variable-speed three-phase motors using IEC 60076-1 (VDE 0532-76-1) recommends the use of a
current converter connections requires the use of specially power converter transformer instead of a standard trans- 2
customized GEAFOL transformers. The power converter former.
transformer is the link between network and drive system,
and shall ensure an adaptation to the network configu
ration on the one hand and decoupling from system per
The use of 12-pulse rectifiers with diodes and thyristors
allows the low-frequency harmonic load (especially the 5th
3
turbations of the converter connections on the other and 7th harmonic) to be reduced. Besides the use of two
(Fig. 9/5). Particular attention must be given to the impact
of harmonics produced by the converter, the surge opera-
separate transformers for a 6-pulse rectifier bridge each,
special three-windings transformers can be sized as power 4
tion and a possible DC current pre-magnetisation, and converter transformers. To attain the desired phase shift of
unbalanced load in the event of a fault. The 6-pulse or 30° in the commutation between the two 6-pulse rectifiers,
12-pulse bridge connections for rectifying generate a star connection and a delta connection is connected to a 5
harmonics in the range of the 5th, 7th, 11th and 13th 6-pulse bridge each at the low-voltage side.
harmonic.
10
+
11
R
L1
L1
Unetwork U
C S 12
L2 U= 3~ AC
L2
L3
L3
T
13
TIP04_13_117_EN
N ‒ 14
Power converter transformer Frequency converter Three-phase motor
15
Fig. 9/5: Block diagram for a three-phase drive with power converter transformer and 6-pulse bridge connection
16
17
Intro
duction
1 9.6 FITformer® REG – Regulated “producers” at the same time), play an important part,
Distribution Transformer because their load purchases, their electricity feed-in, and
their storage capacities vary greatly sometimes.
2 Distributed power generation from regenerative energy
sources is more than a trend of the time and results in the The regulated FITformer® REG distribution transformer
fact that the load flow in the power supply system is (Fig. 9/6) is capable of changing its transformation ratio
3 becoming increasingly complex in the future. The more
profitable wind power stations and photovoltaic systems
under load. Thus it ensures distributed feed-in of small
power stations and helps the power supplier keep within
are becoming, the more attractive they will be in rural the permissible voltage range and meet the requirements
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
Fig. 9/6: FITformer® REG
Intro
duction
14
15
16
17
Intro
duction
1 9.7 Transformer Operation kept in mind here that the short-circuit losses can also more
than double compared to the short-circuit losses at nominal
Overtemperatures load. Therefore, additional ventilation is a proven means for
2 covering peak loads as well as providing a reserve in case of
Transformers are designed in such a manner that overtem- a transformer failure when transformers are operated in
peratures as permitted by regulations are not exceeded parallel.
3 during rated operation. The overtemperature in the wind-
ing, and in liquid-filled transformers also the cooling and Notes for planning the low-voltage main distribution
insulating liquid, is the difference between the part under system (LVMD) and transformers under overload:
16 to –273.15 °C)
17
Intro
duction
7
1L1
1L2
8
1L3
High voltage:
1W 1V 1U 1W 1V 1U 1W 1V 1U 1W 1V 1U 1L1, 1L2, 1L3 9
Low voltage:
5 11 11 11 2L1, 2L2, 2L3
Required code number 5
2W 2V 2U 2W 2V 2U 2W 2V 2U 2W 2V 2U 10
2L1
2L2 11
2L3
Possible connections
12
1L1
1L2
1L3 13
High voltage:
1W 1V 1U 1W 1V 1U 1W 1V 1U 1W 1V 1U 1L1, 1L2, 1L3
11 5 5 5
Low voltage: 14
2L1, 2L2, 2L3
Required code number 11
2W 2V 2U 2W 2V 2U 2W 2V 2U 2W 2V 2U
15
2L1
2L2
2L3 16
Possible connections TIP04_13_119_EN
17
Fig. 9/8: Possible connections for transformers operated in parallel with vector groups of code numbers 5 and 11
Intro
duction
1 In Example 1 (Tab. 9/5), the smaller transformer unfortu- Example 1: Transformers with different secondary no-load
nately happens to carry the higher secondary voltage and voltages
must therefore carry the higher total current. This means
2 for this example that with a compensating current of
Output voltage
at no load
Rated power Rated short-
circuit voltage
25.6 % only a load current of 74.4 % is permitted in order in V in kVA in %
not to exceed the rated current of the smaller transformer 1 Trans-
400 630 6
3 (corresponding to 100 %). Consequently, the whole set of
transformers can only be operated at 74.4 % of its cumu-
former 1
Trans-
390 1,000 6
lated power of 630 + 1,000 = 1,630 kVA, which is former 2
4 about 1,213 kVA.
Δu =
400 – 390
· 100 = 2.5 %
400
With a power factor for the load below 0.9, this estimate
Sr1 630
suggests a sufficiently precise guide value. With a power = = 0.63
5 factor greater than 0.9, the permissible cumulated power Sr2 1,000
rises due to the then growing vectorial difference value. 2.5
Icomp. tr. 1 ≈ ≈ 25.6 %
6 + 6 · 0.63
possible to set a higher tapping at the high-voltage side in Example 2: Transformer 2 with a 5 % lower transformation and
correspondingly higher secondary no-load voltage
7 the 630-kVA transformer in our example (for instance 5 %
more windings), this would result in a reduction at the low Output voltage Rated power Rated short-
voltage side by a factor of 1 / 1.05 for the smaller trans- at no load circuit voltage
in V in kVA in %
former 2 due to the induction decrease, when connected to
8 the same high voltage, meaning 381 V instead of 400 V. Trans-
former 1
400 630 6
Thus, the larger transformer with the higher voltage
(390 V) would be leading. Trans- 5.7
411 1,000
9 If the low voltage of 381 V gained by this measure was too
former 2 (≈ 95 % of 6)
400 – 411
Δu = · 100 = 2.75 %
low, a lower tapping could be set at the high-voltage side 400
determines the permitted total load of the two parallel Tab. 9/5: Exemplary calculations for the cumulated power of
17
Intro
duction
In case of equal transformer ratings, the partial loads are in- 9.8 Transformer Room 1
versely proportional to the short-circuit voltages. The
transformer with the lower short-circuit voltage is loaded Essential spatial requirements are described in IEC 61936-1
more than the one with the higher short-circuit voltage. (VDE 0101-1). The propagation of fires, the noise level, 2
ventilation, water pollution, and protection against indirect
In case of a transformer load varying over time for a group contact must be taken into account. Furthermore, the
of several transformers connected in parallel considering a
defined period of time, a minimum of total losses can be
standard refers to the relevant national, regional, and local
provisions and regulations. In addition, product-specific
3
attained by connecting individual transformers into or characteristics as described in the IEC 60076 (VDE 0532‑76)
disconnecting them from supply. Short-circuit losses are a
square function of the load. This means, the sum of short-
series of standards play a role for room planning.
4
circuit losses plus no-load losses may in certain circum- Conditions for installation and room layout
stances be lower when the load is split between several
transformers than if fewer transformers are used. To avoid Extreme local conditions must be taken into account when 5
a cumbersome loss comparison of the transformers oper- planning the system:
ated in parallel, the partial load where a connection of an • The paint finish and prevailing temperatures are relevant
additional, identical transformer (the k-th transformer) is
economically efficient can be determined as follows using a
for use in tropical climates
• For use in altitudes of more than 1,000 m above sea level
6
partial load factor n: a special configuration with regard to heating and insula-
Partial load
tion level is required, see IEC 60076-11 (VDE 0532-76-11)
• With increased mechanical demands being made – use in 7
n=
Rated power a ship, excavator, earthquake region, etc. – additional
constructive measures may be required, e.g. supporting
SGroup = n · Sr
the upper yoke 8
Sgroup Output of the group
Sr Rating of an individual transformer GEAFOL cast-resin transformers can be installed in the
n Partial load factor same room as medium- and low-voltage switchgear with-
Fig. 9/9
out any extra precautions (Fig. 9/9). This helps save consid-
9
The partial load factor n for efficient connection of a fur- erable costs for transformer cells. In cotrast to a room for
ther identical transformer into supply (the k-th transformer)
can be determined according to the following formula:
oil-immersed transformers, this room can be provided at m
below ground surface or at the top floor of buildings. 10
k · (k – 1) · P0 With regard to fire protection of facilities, national or local
n=
Pk
regulations must usually be observed. For example, in 11
Germany the EltBauVO (Ordinance on the construction of
k Number of transformers to be connected in parallel electrical operating areas) governs that doors in fire resist-
Intro
duction
1
A-A
3,000
4
Guard rail
1U 1V 1W
5
Cable
800
basement
6
Intake air
7
9 Trans-
former 3
Cable 1
Transformer 3 630
10 Cable 2
Trans-
11 former 2
Metering
Transfer
6,000
Transformer 2 630
Trans-
12 former 3
Trans-
Trans-
former 2
13 Transformer 1 630
former 1
Trans-
A former 1 A
14
15 7,500
TIP04_13_120_EN
17 Fig. 9/9: Example of how to arrange GEAFOL transformers and switchgear back to page 209
in an electrical operating area
Intro
duction
10
11
KD
QD
AD, KD Qv Total dissipated losses [kW]
12
Pv Transformer power loss [kW]
v Air velocity [m/s]
AW
A1, 2 Air inlet/outlet cross section [m2] 13
Air temperature rise [K], = 2− 1
A2 VL Qv = ∑ Pv H Thermally effective height [m]
V2 KW
Q W,D Losses dissipated via walls and ceilings [kW]
14
H
Intro
duction
1 Calculation of the heat dissipation These simple examples show that the heat dissipation
through walls and ceilings quickly reaches the limits of
The following methods are available for the dissipation of the room and that for large transformer outputs, a
2 the entire power loss Qv in the room: detailed configuration of the forced ventilation may be
Qv1 dissipation with the natural air flow necessary (also refer to the Siemens publication
Qv2 dissipation via walls and ceilings “GEAFOL Cast-Resin Transformers”; Planning Guidelines,
3 Qv3 dissipation with the forced air flow order no. E50001-G640-A109-V3-7600). Our Siemens
TIP contact persons can support electrical designers in
Qv = Pv = Qv1 + Qv2+ Qv3 estimating ventilation conditions in a defined room size
7 Qv1 = approx. 13 kW / m2 ∙ A1,2 m2
(Example: Qv1 = 8 kW for a cross section of approx. 0.62 m2)
9 Qv3 = approx. 44 kW / m2 ∙ A1,2 m2
(Example: Qv3 = 8 kW for a cross section of approx. 0.18 m2)
10
11
Project name: Demo Entry fields
Edited by: John Q Public Pressure rise estimate under arc fault conditions
Room height incl. double floor: 3.00 m
12 Room width:
Room depth:
3.00 m
3.00 m
A1= 0.56 m²
B1= 1.00 m²
2 : 50 °C
B2: 40 °C
Date:
Manufacturer:
01.01.2016
SIEMENS
Max. short-circuit power:
10
MVA
kV
13
feeder for this ring) t>> (between 0 and 0.8 s)
Effective height H = 2.00 m
Calculation of transformer power loss PV
Wall thickness = th Transformer - no-load loss P0: 1,100 W Transformer protection w. circuit-breaker:
0.175 m
Transformer - short-circuit loss PK120: 7,500 W Protective setting t>> (between 0 and 1 s) 0.050 s
Max. transformer load (%): 120% Pressure rise without air inlet/outlet: 270 hPa
14
Transformer - total loss QV: 12,980 W Pressure rise with air inlet/outlet: 17.5 hPa
Calculation of air intake/discharge
cross section A1,2 Transformer protection w. HV HRC fuse:
Effective height H: (see picture) 2m applies to short-circuit currents > 40 × IN of HV HRC fuse!
P v= Pv= 12,980 W
Cooling air temp., air discharge 2: 50 °C Pressure rise without air inlet/outlet: 201 hPa
15 A2= 0.56 m²
B2= 1.00 m²
1 20 °C
Fan Fan Fan
Required vent aperture (A1/A2):
1.000 m²
Create documentation
Operating instruction
16 TIP04_13_195_EN
17 Fig. 9/11: Ventilation of transformer room and approximated pressure rise under arc fault conditions
14 Switchgear /
distribution board
15
16
Consumers
17 1 In the associated standards, the term 'power switchgear and controlgear,
PSC assembly' is used Fig. 10/1: Schematic diagram of a point-to-point distribution board
Intro
duction
1
Depending on the type of power distribution, a differentia- density can be used. In these cases, mainly fuse-protected
tion is made between point-to-point distribution boards equipment in fixed-mounted design is used.
and line distribution boards. In point-to-point distribution 2
boards, the electric power is distributed radially from a In a power distribution system or motor control centre for
spatially limited system (see Fig. 10/1). Whereas in line a production plant, however, replaceability and reliability
distribution boards – today mostly busbar trunking sys-
tems – the individual power tappings take place via spa-
of supply are the most important criteria in order to keep
downtimes as short as possible. A vital basis here is deploy-
3
tially separated equipment and the power is transmitted ing withdrawable-unit systems both in circuit-breaker-
to these tap-off units by means of encapsulated busbars
(see Fig. 10/2).
protected and in fuse-protected design.
4
In point-to-point distribution boards, one transformer per
busbar section supplies the main switchgear. The down- 5
stream motor distributors, control units, distributors for
lighting, heating, air conditioning, workshops, etc. – that
is, those fed by the main switchgear in turn – are referred
to as sub-distribution boards. The combination of a main
6
switchgear with feed-in transformer is referred to as trans-
former load-centre substation and provides – due to its
compactness – a secure and economic option of distributed 7
power supply in compliance with the factory-assembled
stations described in IEC 62271-202 (VDE 0671-202).
8
When planning low-voltage switchgear, the prerequisite for
efficient dimensioning is the knowledge of the local condi-
tions, the switching duty, and the demands on availability.
For power distribution systems in functional buildings,
9
no large switching frequencies have to be considered and
no major extensions are to be expected. Therefore,
performance-optimised technology with high component 10
11
Consumers
12
13
14
Busbar trunking system
15
16
Consumers
17
Fig. 10/2: Schematic diagram of a line distribution board
Intro
duction
6 2b
between
terminals and
busbars
7
No separation
between
8 3a
Separation terminals and
busbars
between
busbars and
functional units
9 +
Separation
between
3b Separation
10 between
functional units
terminals and
busbars
+
11 Separation Terminals in the
between same compart-
4a terminals and ment as the
13 Terminals not in
the same com-
4b partment as the
connected func-
14 tional unit
Busbar
15
Functional unit
Legend:
16 Connection
for conductors lead
from the outside
Enclosure Internal separation
Intro
duction
5
1 2 3 4 5 6
6
1 Circuit-breaker cubicle
2 Fixed-mounted or plug-in
universal mounting design
7
3 Plug-in in-line switch-disconnector design
4 Fixed-mounted cubicle with front cover 8
5 Fixed-mounted in-line
switch-disconnector design
Fig. 10/3: Mounting designs for SIVACON S8 low-voltage switchgear back to page 216
10
Connection
Front and rear
Front and rear side Front side Front side Front side Front side
15
side
400 / 600 / 800 /
Cubicle width in mm 600 / 1,000 / 1,200 1,000 / 1,200 1,000 / 1,200 600 / 800 / 1,000 800
1,000 / 1,400
Form 1, 2b, 3a, Form 3b, 4a, 4b, Form 1, 2b, 3b,
16
Internal separation Form 3b, 4b Form 1, 2b Form 1, 2b
4b, 4 type 7 (BS) 4 type 7 (BS) 4a, 4b
Busbars Rear / top Rear / top Rear / top Rear / top Rear Rear / top / without
17
Tab. 10/2: Various mounting designs according to cubicle types back to page 216
Intro
duction
3 back-to-back
Connection in the cubicle Front
4 500
PE
7 PE
800
PE
10 800
PE PE
1,200
13
Device / functional compartment Busbar compartment Cable / busbar connection compartment Cross-wiring compartment Operating cubicles
14 Tab. 10/3: Cubicle types and arrangement of the busbars on the cubicles back to page 216
15
16
17
Intro
duction
L3
back-to-back
3
L2
the top
Connection in the cubicle Front
N
L3
L2
4
L1
PE
600
back-to-back
6
L2 L2
the top L1 L1
L3 L3
7
L2 L2
L1 L1
PE
800
L2
L1
9
bottom
Connection in the cubicle Front
N
10
L3
L2
L1
PE PE
1,000
12
N N
L2
L3
L2
the top L1 L1
13
L3 L3
L2 L2
L1 L1
PE PE
1,200
14
Device / functional compartment Busbar compartment Cable / busbar connection compartment Cross-wiring compartment Operating cubicles
Tab. 10/3: Cubicle types and arrangement of the busbars on the cubicles back to page 216
15
16
17
Intro
duction
14
2,000 mm 1)
Switchgear
17 Fig. 10/4: Clearances to obstacles Fig. 10/5: Maintenance gangway widths and passage heights
Intro
duction
Altitude 1
The altitude of installation must not be above 2,000 m
above sea level. 2
Minimum
Switchgears and equipment which are to be used in higher Escape direction
maintenance 600 mm
altitudes require that the reduction of dielectric strength,
the equipment switching capacity and the cooling effect of
gangway width 3
1) 2)
the ambient air be considered. Further information is
available from your Siemens contact.
4
Environmental conditions for switchgear
Intro
duction
1 Single-front and double-front systems One or more double-front units can be combined into a
transport unit. Cubicles within a transport unit have a
In the single-front system, the switchboard cubicles stand horizontal through-busbar. Cubicles cannot be separated.
2 next to each other in a row (Fig. 10/7 top). One or more
cubicles can be combined into a transport unit. Cubicles Apart from the following exceptions, a cubicle composition
within a transport unit have a horizontal through-busbar. within a double-front unit is possible for all designs.
3 Cubicles cannot be separated. The following cubicles determine the width of the dou-
ble-front unit as cubicle (1) and should only be combined
In the double-front system, the cubicles stand in a row next with a cubicle for customized solutions without cubicle bus-
9 Singlefront installations
10 Front
connection
With main busbar
11 position at the top
Rear
connection
12
With main busbar
position at the rear
13
Doublefront installations
14 (1)
16
Doublefront units
Rear panel Door
17
Fig. 10/7: Cubicle arrangement for double-front installations
Intro
duction
14
15
16
17
Intro
duction
1 Reducing the occurrence probability of an arc fault Monitoring of the outgoing feeder areas of the switchgear
is not recommended for active systems for reasons of
In the intensive discussion about arc fault detection or reliability of supply, as arc faults in these areas should be in-
2 interruption, technically elaborate and expensive solutions terrupted by the upstream protection device. Otherwise,
are readily propagated. Siemens, however, has for a long such a fault would lead to a complete shutdown of the
time preferred the prevention of arc faults by means of installation.
3 complete insulation (see Fig. 10/9) of all conductive parts
inside the installation (busbars, connections, transfers, For feed-in monitoring (terminal compartment), the system
etc.). Such passive precautions ensure that no arc is gener- must act on the upstream protection device. Thus, the
4 ated that would have to be detected and quenched. advantage of a fast interruption by the active system is lost
in the case of such a fault. Although Siemens offers an
Active systems for the detection and interruption of an active system for arc fault detection and interruption, it
internal arc as a consequence of a fault need maintenance favours the passive system (complete insulation of busbars
5 and do not provide any advantages with regard to the and connections) which is more advantageous for the
installation availability. The impacts of an arc fault (pollu- customer for the following reasons:
tion, metal splashes, etc.) might be minor, but they usually • Economic aspects such as investment and service costs;
6 have to be cleared nevertheless. Moreover, the interruption
device of the active system has to be replaced. This work
they are much more favourable
• Increased installation availability; downtimes next to zero
can be laborious and time-consuming. In 80 % of the cases, • Improved safety of persons
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17 Fig. 10/9: Passive system to prevent arcing faults with insulated busbar, panel connector, incoming and outgoing feeder
Intro
duction
14
Number of outgoing circuits Rated diversity factor (RDF)
2 and 3 0.8
4 and 5 0.7 15
6 to 9 includingly 0.6
10 and more 0.5
16
Tab. 10/4: Rated diversity factors (RDF) for DBO in acc. with
IEC 61439-3 (VDE 0660-600-3)
17
Intro
duction
1 The following aspects are particularly important for the Selection of the electrical equipment
configuration:
The following has to be considered for the equipment to be
2 Environmental and installation conditions, mechanical installed in switchgear assemblies:
stress • The applicable device specifications
• The suitability with regard to nominal data, in particular
3 • Degree of protection in acc. with EN 60529 (VDE 0470-1)
protection against contact, dust and water protection
short-circuit strength and breaking capacity
• The installation of current-limiting protection equipment
• Ambient temperature and climatic conditions might be necessary
4 • Corrosion
• Type of installation and fastening Protection measures
(for example, stand-alone, on the wall)
• Cover or doors (as appropriate transparent or non- • Protection against direct contact in the distribution board
5 transparent) when the door is open by means of contact protection
• Dimensions, weight covers, degree of protection IP30
–– Maximum permissible outer dimensions of the • Protection against indirect contact at all frame and clad-
6 switchgear
–– Maximum permissible dimensions and weight of the
ding parts by means of
–– Safety class I (protection conductor connection)
switchgear for transport and erection at the site of Encapsulations and parts of the supporting structure
7 installation
• Cable duct (base panelling, if required)
made of metal are protected against corrosion by
means of an high-quality surface protection. Metal
• Cable glands parts of switchgear and distribution boards are to be
• Type of cable laying (cable duct, cable racks, etc.) included in the protection measure by means of a
8 • Device installation (fixed or plug-in / withdrawable units protection conductor
for quick replacement) –– Safety class II (protection insulation)
• Accessibility of devices: If switchgear or distribution boards of safety class II are
9 Parts that can be operated during operation (such as
fuses or miniature circuit-breakers) are to be combined
used, it has to be ensured that the factory-provided
protection insulation is by no means punctuated by
and arranged within the switchgear assembly in such a conductive metal parts such as switch axes, metal line
10 way that they are separately accessible (via a quick-re-
lease cover, for example). Contactors and fuses are to be
adapters, screws, etc. The inactive metal parts within
the protection insulation such as base plates and
placed in separate boxes device enclosures must never be connected with the PE
or PEN conductor, even if they provide a PE terminal
11 Type of installation, accessibility screw. If covers or doors can be opened without any
tool or key, all internal accessible conductive parts
To ensure that the most economical design can always be must be arranged behind a cover made of insulating
12 selected, the main features of the switchgear and distribu-
tion boards should be weighed against each other and a
material in degree of protection IP2X. These covers
must only be removable with the help of a tool.
decision be made before defining the structural measures. Looping in PE conductors is permitted
13 Such features are:
• Open or closed design (kind of operating site)
• Self-supporting installation:
stand-alone in the room, at a wall or in a wall recess
14 • Not self-supporting installation:
for mounting to the wall, to a supporting frame or in a
wall recess
15 • Kind of accessibility for installation, maintenance, and
operation
• Dimensions
16 (installation height, depth, width)
• Notes regarding structural measures
17
Intro
duction
13
14
15
16
17
Intro
duction
1 10.5 Busbar Trunking Systems Planning is based on the incoming power (for example,
rated and short-circuit currents of the feeding transform-
As line distribution boards (see Fig. 10/11), busbar trunking ers) and connection values of the BTS and additionally on
2 systems (BTS) also belong to the group of switchgear the following data:
assemblies documented in IEC 61439 (VDE 0660-600). • Permissible voltage drop
Apart from the general requirements of IEC 61439-1 • Required degree of protection
3 (VDE 0660-600-1), the required product features of BTS are
described in IEC 61439-6 (VDE 0660-600-6) in particular.
• Power system configuration
• Weighing of the supply concepts as cable system or
The rated voltage must not exceed 1,000 V for alternating busbar trunking system
4 voltage and 1,500 V for direct voltage. BTS can not only be
operated in combination with the other components of the
• Short-circuit strength
• Overload and short-circuit protection
electric power distribution system, but they can also be
linked with the generation, transmission and conversion of Configuration
5 electric power and with the control of power consumers.
Excluded from IEC 61439-6 (VDE 0660-600-6) are, among Depending on the project conditions, different busbar
others, electrical busbar systems for luminaires (in accord- trunking systems can be selected:
6 ance with IEC 60570; VDE 0711-300). However, lighting
systems can be connected to BTS and communication-ca-
• Sandwich design for compact dimensions
• Ventilated busbar design for excellent heat dissipation
pable tap-off units can be used to control consumers and to (Attention: In the case of rising mains, the stack-effect of
7 switch luminaires (see Fig. 10/11). a closed box-type system may provide advantages)
• Moulded busbar trunking system if highest demands are
made on the degree of protection in critical environments
9
Profibus AS-Interface Industrial Ethernet BACnet KNX DALI ...
10
System LI System LD
11
System BD2
12
13 System BD2
14 System LI
System LR
15 System BD2
16
TIP04_13_136
17
Fig. 10/11: SIVACON 8PS busbar trunking systems for different requirements and loads
Intro
duction
Intro
duction
7
of testing, calculation, and construction verification (see
Tab. 10/5
10/5).
11
Compared to the conventional cable installation, BTS Functional endurance with 2-sided compartmentalisation
provide many advantages with regard to network and
12 installation technology, as depicted in Tab. 10/6.
1
For demonstration purposes, Fig. 10/13 shows wirings for 6
13 simple electric power distribution systems. Modification
and retrofitting of an electric power distribution system
3
usually mean significantly higher expenditures of time and 2
money for cable installations than for BTS.
14
1 Busbar system
15 2
3
Compartmentalisation
Strengthened compartmentalisation at the edges
4 Load distribution plate
5 Threaded rod (M12/M16)
16
Bracket in compliance with the statics
TIP04_13_137_EN
6
7 Carrier profile in compliance with the statics
1) 4-sided compartmentalisation
only possible in horizontal installation
17
Fig. 10/12: Functional endurance through compartmentalisation
Intro
duction
Resistance to extraordinary heat and fire due to internal electrical effects Yes No Yes 4
Resistance to UV radiation Yes No Yes
Continuity of the connection between bodies of the BTS and the protection
8
Yes No No
circuit
Installation of equipment
Yes
No
No
No
No
Yes
9
Internal electric circuits and connections No No Yes
Fire resistance time of busbar trunking units with fire walls Yes No No
Tab. 10/5: Design verification for BTS in acc. with IEC 61439-6 (VDE 0660-6)
14
back to page 230
15
16
17
Intro
duction
5
Current carrying Type of installation, accumulation, and operating conditions
High current carrying capacity
capacity determine limit values
Freedom from Standard cables are not halogen / PVC-free; halogen-free
Busbar trunking units are always halogen-free
halogen / PVC cables are expensive
6 Space Compact design due to high current carrying capacity; Large space requirements due to bending radii, type of
requirements standard angle and offset elements installation, accumulation, and current carrying capacity
Compared to cable, weight reduction to the half or even one
Weight Weight up to 3 times higher than that of a comparable BTS
7 third
Uncomplicated installation possible with simple auxiliary Laborious installation only possible with numerous auxiliary
Installation
tools and short installation times tools; considerably longer installation times
8 Tab. 10/6: Comparison of characteristics of BTS and conventional cable installation back to page 229
9
Distributed power distribution
10 with busbar
11
12
13
Central power distribution
with cable
14
15
TIP04_13_138_EN
16
17
Fig. 10/13: Comparison of wirings for cable installation and BTS back to page 230
4 –– Overload protection
• Overtemperature protection
predominant aspect. In the 'open' position, they meet the
requirements defined for the disconnect function
• Well-matched combinations of circuit-breakers, fuses,
Device selection must correspond to the widely varying miniature circuit-breakers, and residual current devices
5 protection tasks the devices have to fulfil, such as cable and ensure comprehensive system protection in terms of
line protection, personal safety, fire protection, lightning short-circuit, overload, and fire protection. Above that,
current and overvoltage protection, as well as equipment the electrical installation can be protected against over-
6 and system protection (Fig. Fig. 11/1
11/1):
• Circuit-breakers protect systems, motors, generators, and
voltages as a result of electrostatic discharges, switching
overvoltages, and strikes of lightning by the coordinated
transformers against overload and short circuit in the use of lightning current and surge arresters. Optimal
16
17
Intro
duction
1
Siemens switching and protection devices (portfolio excerpt)
Circuit-breakers 2
3WL air circuit-breakers
3
3VL, 3VA moulded-case circuit-breakers
4
3RV circuit-breaker for motor protection
7
5SD7 surge arrester
Fuse systems 11
NEOZED fuse system
12
DIAZED fuse system
16
TIP04_13_123_EN
17
Fig. 11/1: Overview of switching devices and protection devices back to page 234
Intro
duction
device selection are: Tab. 11/1: Circuit matrix for protection and switching devices in the
• Type of application low-voltage power distribution system
5 for example system, motor, disconnector
• 3- or 4-phase design
• Mounting,
6 for example fixed mounting, plug-in or withdrawable-unit
design
• Type of trip unit
for example L, S or I (see chapter 6); electronic or thermo-
• Nominal current In magnetic; this influences selectivity and protection
9
ACB
Supply circuit
10
11
ACB MCCB Si-LT LT-Si
12 Distribution circuit
13
MCCB Si-LT MSP
14
15 Final circuit
TIP04_13_124_EN
16
M M M
17
Fig. 11/2: Protection device matrix according to circuit type
Intro
duction
11.2 R
equirements on the Protection tained therein, until the circuit-breaker is tripped. This 1
Devices in the Three Circuit requirement is met by circuit-breakers of utilisation cate-
gory B according to IEC 60947-2 (VDE 0660-101) (for
Types example air circuit-breakers, ACB). Current-limiting circuit 2
breakers (moulded-case circuit breakers, MCCB) trip during
11.2.1 Use in the Supply Circuit the current rise. They can therefore be constructed more
The short-circuit strength of the supply circuit-breaker is Very critical supply circuits, in particular, increasingly
9
determined as follows for transformers with identical require the transmission of data concerning current operat-
electrical characteristics: ing states, maintenance information, fault indication, and
analyses, etc. Flexibility may also be required with regard to 10
(n – 1) ∙ Ik max of transformer(s) (n = number of transformers) subsequent expansion or modification to the desired type
of data transmission.
This means, the maximum short-circuit current that occurs 11
at the installation position must be known in order to
11.2.2 Use in Couplings of a Switchgear
specify the appropriate short-circuit strength of the protec-
Substation
tion device (Icu). Exact short-circuit current calculations
including attenuations of the medium-voltage levels or If a coupling (connection of busbar sections) is operated in
12
the laid cables can be made, for example, with the aid open state, the circuit-breaker merely functions as discon-
of the SIMARIS design dimensioning software (see
chapter 15). SIMARIS design determines the maximum
nector or main switch. A protection function (trip unit) is
not necessarily required. The following considerations
13
and minimum short-circuit currents and automatically apply to closed operation.
dimensions the correct protection devices.
Rated current 14
Utilisation category
Must be dimensioned for the maximum possible operating
When dimensioning a selective network, time grading of current (load compensation). 15
the protection devices is often essential. When using time
grading up to 500 ms, the selected circuit-breaker must be Short-circuit strength
able to carry the short-circuit current that occurs for the set
time. Close to the transformer, the currents are very high. The short-circuit strength of the coupling switch is deter-
16
This current carrying capacity is specified by the Icw value mined by the sum of the short-circuit components that
(rated short-time withstand current) of the circuit-breaker; flow through the coupling. This depends on the configura-
this means the contact system must be able to carry the tion of the component busbars and their supply. 17
maximum short-circuit current, meaning the energy con-
Intro
duction
1 Utilisation category
Trip units
3 Partial shutdown with the couplings must be taken into
consideration for the supply reliability. As the coupling and
16
17
Intro
duction
Nominal current In Max. Max. 1,600 A Max. 630 A Max. 630 A Max. 125 A Operating
6,300 A current IB 5
Short-circuit Icu Max. Max. 150 kA Max. 120 kA Max. 120 kA Max. 25 kA Max. short-
breaking capacity 150 kA circuit current
Ikmax
6
No. of phases 3-phase Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Power supply
system
4-phase Yes Yes – Partly –
G Yes Yes – – –
9
Characteristics Fixed – Yes Yes Yes Yes Power supply
system
Adjustable Yes Yes – – – 10
Optional Yes Yes – – –
Tab. 11/2: Selection criteria for switching and protection devices back to page 238
17
Intro
duction
1 11.3 R
esidual Current and Arc-fault risk of hazardous physiological effects on the human
Detection Devices body. In dependency of the different requirements of
IEC 60364 4-41 (VDE 0100-410) for TN and TT systems,
2 Protection systems for the electrical installations of building appropriate protection devices must be selected
must also provide for fault and fire protection to ensure 11/3
(see Tab. 11/3).
personal safety and system protection. Protection against
3 electric shock under single-fault conditions is referred to as
fault protection (previously: protection against indirect
In everday practice, residual current protection devices of
type A (alternating current and pulsating direct currents)
contact). To protect a person who is in contact with a live are mainly used. Owing to the increased use of equipment
TIP04_13_125_EN
t in ms
cable bending radii, etc.) and improper handling and lack
9 of maintenance. The use of residual current devices and the
recently developed arc-fault detection units by Siemens
2,000
1,000
500
considerably increase personal as well as building safety. AC-1 AC-2 AC-3 AC-4.3
10 200
100
AC-4.2
11.3.1 Residual Current Devices 50 AC-4.1
13
but generally no shock reaction.
against direct contact) besides mere fault protection (pro-
tection against indirect contact) if they are used with a Range AC-2:
Perception and involuntary muscle contractions probable,
characteristic of IΔn ≤ 30 mA, and they also effectively but generally no harmful physiological effects.
prevent electrically ignited fires caused by earth-fault
14 currents through IΔn ≤ 300 mA.
Range AC-3:
Strong involuntary muscle contractions.
Breathing difficulties. Reversible impairment of the heart function.
Immobilisation (muscle spasm) may occur.
Fig. 11/3 demonstrates the physiological reactions of the Effects increasing with amperage and duration of current flow.
15 human body to current flow subsumed in amperage levels Generally, organic damage needn't be expected.
17 In the IT system, a disconnection upon the first fault is not Fig. 11/3: Scope of effects of alternating current (50 / 60 Hz) on the
required. But precautions have to be made that prevent the human body
Intro
duction
TN system TT system
1
Max. permissible disconnect time acc. to 0.4 s (120 V < U0 ≤ 230 V) 0.2 s (120 V < U0 ≤ 230 V)
IEC 60364-4-41 (VDE 0100-410)
2
Ia ≤ U0 / Zs Ia ≤ U0 / Zs
RCD general
Ia
> 5 IΔn
ta1)
≤ 0.04 s
Type
RCD general
Ia
> 2 IΔn
ta1)
≤ 0.15 s
6
RCD selective > 5 IΔn ≤ 0.15 s RCD selective > 2 IΔn ≤ 0.2 s
1) The values for ta refer to the specifications in the relevant product standards.
IΔn Rated residual current of residual current device in A
7
RA Sum of resistances of the earth electrode and the protection conductor of the exposed conductive parts
U0 Nominal AC voltage of phase to earth
Zs Fault loop impedance
Tab. 11/3: Protection device selection in the TN and TT system with rated voltages of 230 / 400 V AC
8
back to page 240
10
Type Type
Current type Current AC A F B B+ Tripping
form current
11
Alternating current 0.5 … 1.0 IΔn
17
Tab. 11/4: Types of residual current devices and their tripping ranges back to page 240
Intro
duction
1
Suitable RCD type Circuit Load current Fault current
2
iL iL iF1
B F A AC
iF1 t t
3
iL iL iF1
B+ iF1 t t
α α
4 iL iL iF1
iF1 t t
5 iL iL iF1
iF1 t t
6 iL iL iF1
iF1
7
t t
α α
iL iL iF1
8 iF1
t t
iL iF1 iF2
iL
9 iF1 iF2
M
t t t
iL iL
10
iF1
iF1
t t
11 iL iL iF1
iF1 t t
12 iL
iL iF1
iF1 t t
13
iL iL iF1 iF2
M
11
14 iF1 iF2
t t t
iL iL iF1
15 12 iF1
t t
iF2
16 iL iL iF1
TIP04_13_127_EN
13 M
iF1 iF2 t
t t
17
Tab. 11/5: Residual current device types and possible forms of fault currents back to page 240
Intro
duction
9
RCD Residual current device
In connection with circuit-breakers
(usually for rated currents > 125 A) 10
MRCD CBR RCCB RCBO
Modular residual Circuit-breakers Residual current Residual current PRCD SRCD 11
current device incorporating residual operated circuit operated circuit
(without integral current protection breaker without breaker with over- Portable residual Socket-outlet
current protection residual current
12
current breaking integrated overcurrent current protector1)
device) protector1) device, e.g. integrated protection device
in plugs and power (stationary,
strips i.e. wall socket)
Residual current units
(RCU) with integrated
overcurrent
13
protection1)
IEC 60947-2
Appendix M
IEC 60947-2
Appendix B
IEC 61008-1
(VDE 0664-10)
IEC 61009-1
(VDE 0664-20)
HD 639 S1/A2
(VDE 0661-10/A2)
Draft VDE 0662
14
(VDE 0660-101 (VDE 0660-101
Appendix M) Appendix B)
15
According to the above standards
TIP04_13_151_EN
17
1) Line-voltage-independent fault detection and tripping
Intro
duction
current detection (using current transformers), evalua- The arc-fault detection unit responds to the following
Europe. The shocking outcome: many casualties and in- According to the German implementation VDE 0100-420 of
jured and material damage amounting to billions of euros. the international standard IEC 60364-4-42, the usage of
11 More than one fourth of these fires can be attributed to arc AFDD must be provided for such applications.
faults – frequently caused by defects in the electrical instal-
lation. An arc fault can, among other things, be caused by More information: siemens.com/sentron
12 damaged cable insulation, squeezed leads, kinked plugs or
loose contact points in the electrical installation. The result
is heavy heating which may eventually result in a cable fire
13 and finally a fire of the whole building.
Intro
duction
1
Covering the protection gap in the IEC market by using
well proven technology from the UL scope of standards
Fault condition Protection acc. to IEC standard
2
Serial
L New
Load AFDD 3
N
Parallel
Phase-Neutral/
L
Load MCB AFDD
New
4
Phase-Phase
N
Parallel
Phase-
L New 5
Load RCD AFDD
Protection
Conductor N
AFDD Arc-fault detection device
MCB Miniature circuit-breaker
6
RCD Residual current device
TIP04_13_128_EN
7
Fig. 11/6: Protection concept with back to page 244
arc-fault detection device
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
Fig. 11/7: 5SM6 arc-fault detection unit back to page 244
Intro
duction
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
1 When planning and selecting the control and protection of The trip classes of the motor protection (IEC 60947‑4‑1;
motors, the relevant standards and regulations must be VDE 0660-102) are based on the tripping times at
taken into account. Essentially, these are the standards 7.2 times the current setting Ie in the cold state. The
2 IEC 60947-4-1 (VDE 0660-102) and IEC 60947-4-2 tripping times are:
(VDE 0660-117) as well as the IEC 60364 (VDE 0100) series • CLASS 5 between 0.5 and 5 s
of standards and the EMC-relevant IEC 61000 (VDE 0839) • CLASS 10A between 2 and 10 s
3 series of standards. The protection devices must ensure the
protection of the cable and the motor in a motor feeder.
• CLASS 10 between 4 and 10 s
• CLASS 20 between 6 and 20 s
This can be achieved with separate devices or through a • CLASS 30 between 9 and 30 s
16
17
Intro
duction
12.2 Switching Electric Motors • Continuous duty S1 and duty with separate constant 1
loads S10
The start-up and operating behaviour of the three-phase • S2, S3, S6 are operating modes that permit an increase in
induction motor is determined by two physical variables, output compared to continuous duty S1; the result is that 2
the torque and the consumed current. To switch electric the motor is not overloaded
motors, there are electromechanical solutions (direct start, • S4, S5, S7, S8, S9 are operating modes that require a
star-delta) and electronic solutions (soft starter, frequency
converter, semiconductor switching devices).
decrease in output compared to continuous duty S1; the
result is that the motor will probably be overloaded and
3
therefore, a more powerful motor must be configured
Ten operating modes according to IEC 60034‑1
(VDE 0530‑1) determine the main uses of the respective 4
electric motors (see Tab. 12/1). They can be divided into
three groups:
5
S1 – continuous duty P 6
• Constant load state with rated power
t
• Thermal steady state is reached Pv
7
t
Θ
t 8
S2 – short-time duty P
• Constant load state
t
9
• Thermal steady state is not reached Pv
• Pause long enough for the system cooling until (Θ – Θ0) < 2K
• Temperature limit of the components is not reached p tB, is
Θ
t
10
selected accordingly for only a short time
• (Load current i ≥ load time s) t
11
S3 – intermittent periodic duty P
• Constant load state
TC t
• Sequence of identical switching cycles (load and pause times can
vary)
Pv 12
• Thermal steady state is not reached t
Θ
• Thermal balance of the plant components is not achieved during
heating or cooling
13
t
t
15
Θ
t
16
P load PV electrical losses Θ temperature t time TC cycle time
Intro
duction
t
Θ
3 t
TC t
• Constant load Pv
5 • Idle time tL
• No pause
t
Θ
• Thermal steady state is not reached
6 t
Pv
• No pause
8 Θ
t
t
16 Θ
Intro
duction
Direct and reversing starters malfunctions may occur during switching in certain circum- 1
stances. In this case, contactors may not make or break.
These devices are a cost-effective solution for switching
motors. They ensure a short acceleration time and a high Switching on: 2
start-up torque.
Because of the large voltage drop in long control cables,
There are two variants:
• Electromechanical switching devices (IEC 60947-4-1;
the control voltage applied at the contactor may fall below
the threshold value required to switch on the contactor.
3
VDE 0660-102) This affects both DC- and AC-actuated contactors. The
• Electronic (semiconductor) switching devices
(IEC 60947‑4-2; VDE 0660-117)
following countermeasures can be implemented here:
• Change the switching topology so that shorter control 4
cables can be used
With electromechanical switches, the operating mode (see • Increase the cable cross section
Tab. 12/1) must be taken into account during the selection • Increase the control voltage 5
because loads vary dependent on the type and operating • Use a contactor with less closing power for the solenoid
mode. If the ON time of the motor is short compared to the
start-up time, there is a higher load and the switching
device must be dimensioned larger. Since the service life
Switching off: 6
depends on the number of switching cycles for electrome- When switching off AC-actuated contactors, the contactor
chanical switching devices, it is recommended that elec-
tronic switching devices be used for a large number of
may no longer switch off when the control circuit is inter-
rupted because of a control cable capacitance that is too 7
switching cycles (constant switching frequency > 200 large. The following countermeasures can be implemented
switching cycles per hour). Since the inrush currents are here:
high for these devices (electromechanical as well as elec- • Change the switching topology so that shorter control 8
tronic switches) at the start-up of larger motors, star-delta cables can be used
start-ups are also used for three-phase motors. The motor is • Use DC-actuated contactors
first operated in star connection during start-up and then
switched to delta connection. The start-up current is lim-
• Reduce the control voltage
• Use a contactor with greater holding power for the
9
ited to 1 / 3 compared to a direct switch-on. It is important solenoid
that the motor has the required electric strength for the
delta connection.
• Connect an ohmic resistance in parallel to increase the
holding power (additional load unit) 10
Direct start with contactor Star-delta start
11
In contrast to the motor, rather than the total energy The star-delta start-up is still used to switch on three-phase
(heating) it is the inrush and the breaking currents that induction motors particularly in order to limit system
must be considered for the contactor. The different switch-
ing cycles for each utilisation category are usually specified
perturbations through current surges that suddenly occur.
In this connection method, the start-up current is reduced
12
in the catalogues. The dimensioning of the contactors in to a 1 / 3 of the current for the direct switch-on, which also
the main circuit or the utilisation category can be deter-
mined from IEC 60947-1 (VDE 0660-100). The associated
results in a corresponding reduction of the start-up torque.
Because of this reduction in torque during a star-delta start,
13
device standards are also listed there. usually only one start-up operation is possible with con-
stantly low load torque (for example, when starting ma-
Note: With regard to the dimensioning in the control chine tools under no load). The motor overload protection 14
circuit, attention should be paid to the overvoltage must be effective in both the star and the delta connection.
damping when shutting down the contactor coils. Voltage
peaks with large steep edge up to 4 kV for approximately Note: Due to an unfavourable constellation of system 15
250 μs (shower discharges) occur particularly during frequency and rotor field, compensation processes may
shut-down. This may result in signal errors in the electronic occur increasingly in the motor when switching from star
control units or a defect, or a strong erosion of the contacts
that switch the coil.
to delta (rotor field induces a residual voltage), which
results in higher current peaks than during the direct
16
connection of the motor in standstill in star connection.
Long control cables also influence the switching behaviour
of contactors when switching on. If long control cables are 17
required for the control circuits of contactors or relays,
Intro
duction
1 In the worst case, this results in the following problems: Tab. 12/2 lists typical settings and device dimensions; they
• Short-circuit devices trip are for information purposes only and are not binding. The
• The delta contactor is welded or is subject to high contact settings are application-dependent and must be optimised
2 erosion during commissioning. The load torque (the curve could be
• The motor is subject to a high dynamic stress constant, linear, square or inversely proportional like for
mills) and the motor torque curve influences selection and
3 Current peaks can be minimised through a preferred con-
nection during the switchover.
parameterisation of the soft starter. These tasks are simpli-
fied by the software “STS”.
12 The motor feeder between the soft starter and the motor
must not contain any capacitive elements (e.g. no reactive
power compensation unit). In order to avoid faults in the
13 compensation unit and / or soft starter, neither static sys-
tems for reactive power compensation not a dynamic
power factor correction (PFC) may be operated during the
starting and stopping of the soft starter.
14
When selecting a soft starter, it is important that the appli-
cation and the start-up time of the motor are considered
15 closely. Long start-up times mean a thermal load on the
soft starter. The software “STS” (Simulation Tool for Soft
Starters) can be used to simulate and select Siemens soft
16 starters taking into account various parameters such as the
power system conditions, motor data, load data, and
special application requirements.
17
Intro
duction
Application Conveyor belt Roller conveyor Compressor Small ventilator Pump Hydraulic pump
2
Start-up parameters
• Torque ramp 4
– Starting torque % 60 50 40 20 10 10
– Final torque % 150 150 150 150 150 150
– Start-up time s 10 10 10 10 10 10
6
Stopping method Soft stopping Soft stopping Free stopping Free stopping Free stopping Free stopping
Start-up parameters
Start-up parameters 13
• Voltage ramp and current
limiting
– Start voltage % 30
– Start-up time s 60
50
60
50
60
30
60
14
– Current limiting value ·
4 IM ·
4 IM ·
4 IM ·
4 IM
• Torque ramp
– Starting torque % 20
– Final torque % 150
50
150
50
150
20
150
15
– Start-up time s 60 60 60 60
• Break-away pulse Deactivated (0 ms) 80 %, 300 ms 80 %, 300 ms Deactivated (0 ms)
16
Stopping method Free stopping Free stopping Free stopping Free stopping
Tab. 12/2: Examples of starting methods and settings for different applications back to page 252
17
Intro
duction
1 As the soft starter has a reduced starting torque, it is not Because of the increasing use of variable-speed drives, the
suitable for all applications. The starting torque of the load assessment of system perturbations is also increasingly
must be less than or at the most equal to the starting important. Not only the operators of supply networks, but
2 torque of the motor. Typical applications are: also the operators of variable-speed drives are demanding
• Conveyor belts, transport systems: more information from the manufacturers about the re-
–– Jerk-free starting sponse of the drives to harmonic effects so that they can
3 –– Jerk-free braking already check during the planning and configuration
phases, whether the limit values of the standards will be
• Rotary pumps, piston pumps
–– Avoidance of pressure surges adhered to. Line reactors or active filters must be provided
10 Frequency converter
power reserves. If the AFE is equipped with an input filter,
operation on the supply system is possible with almost
no harmonics.
Frequency converters are used to adapt the speed in order
11 to protect the mechanical system or reduce current peaks, According to the definition of the German EMC regula-
as with the soft starter. Frequency converters are better tion (EMCR from 2008 based on the EMC Directive
than soft starters for dynamic processes. The speed of the 2004 / 108 / EC) the electromagnetic compatibility of a
12 connected motor can be changed continuously, and with- device describes the “ability of equipment to function
satisfactorily in its electromagnetic environment without
out almost any losses, by varying the voltage and the
frequency. A motor can also be operated above the rated introducing intolerable electromagnetic disturbances to
13 speed with a frequency converter, without the torque
dropping off. A further advantage of frequency converters
other equipment in that environment”. In order to comply
with the relevant EMC regulations, the devices must have
is the power feedback to the supply system. a sufficiently high interference immunity and the inter
ference emission must be limited to acceptable values.
14 Note: Frequency converters are also available for 1- and
2-phase alternating current motors. The IEC 61800-3 (VDE 0160-103) standard “Adjustable
speed electrical power drive systems – Part 3: EMC require-
15 Particularities of frequency converters are system perturba- ments and specific test methods” defines the EMC require-
tions and the effect on the EMC. As described in chapter 5, ments for variable-speed electric drives. A variable-speed
converters produce harmonic currents and voltages. As the electric drive system (PDS, power drive system) as defined
16 other equipment in the supply system is designed for
sinusoidal voltages, a distortion of the voltage can have
in this standard comprises a drive converter and the electric
motor including the connection cables. The driven machine
negative effects or even destroy the equipment and electri- is not part of the drive system.
cal utilities.
17
Intro
duction
Voltage ramp
The terminal voltage of the motor is increased within a settable start-up time from a parametrisable starting voltage 2
to the line voltage.
With the torque control, the torque generated in the motor is increased linearly from a parametrisable starting
Torque control
torque to parametrisable final torque within a settable torque starting time.
In combination with the "Voltage ramp" starting method, the starter constantly measures the phase current during
3
Voltage ramp + current the current limiting via an integrated current transformer. A current limiting value (IB) can be set on the soft starter
limiting during the motor start-up. When this value is reached, the soft starter regulates the motor voltage so that the
current does not exceed the set value. The current limiting is superimposed on the "Voltage ramp" starting method.
In combination with the "Torque control" starting method, the starter constantly measures the phase current during
4
Torque ramp + current the current limiting via an integrated current transformer. A current limiting value can be set on the soft starter
limiting during the motor start-up. When this value is reached, the soft starter regulates the motor voltage so that the
current does not exceed the set value. The current limiting is superimposed on the "Torque control" starting method.
If IP54 motors are used outdoors, condensation can form when the motor cools down (for example, over night or in
5
Motor heating (supporting
winter). This can cause leakage currents or short circuits when the motor is switched on. A "pulsing" direct current is
function)
fed in to heat up the motor winding, which does not turn the motor.
Tab. 12/3: Starting methods for soft starters and their meaning back to page 254 6
Torque ramp
The free stopping is extended by the torque ramp. This function is used to prevent the load stopping suddenly. This
is typical of applications with a small moment of inertia or high counter torque (for example, conveyor belts).
8
Pump stop is used to prevent water hammer when the pump is switched off. This reduces noise and the stressing of
Pump stop
the pipes and any flaps contained therein.
Free stopping is shortened by DC braking. DC braking should be used for applications with large moments of inertia. 9
DC braking The moments of inertia of the load shouldn’t be more than 5 times the moments of inertia of the motor:
·
JLoad ≤ 5 JMotor
Dynamic DC braking /
Compound braking
Free stopping is shortened by DC braking. Compound braking could be used for applications with small moments of
inertia. The moments of inertia of the load shouldn’t be more than the moments of inertia of the motor: 10
JLoad ≤ JMotor
Tab. 12/4: Stopping methods for soft starters and their meaning back to page 254
11
12
13
Line filters are used to reduce the radiation. These also limit • Pulse frequency fP of the inverter
the system perturbations. An electromagnetic-compatible • Converter output with or without motor reactor of motor
installation is required so that the line filters can achieve filter 14
their maximum effect. A shielded cable is required between • Impedance ZW (cable impedance) or capacitance C of the
the converter and the motor so that the parasitic currents motor cable
can flow back to the converter along a low-inductance
path. The motor cables should have a symmetric conductor
• Inductance of the earthing system and all earthing and
shield connections
15
structure.
Intro
duction
• Lay the cables close to the earthed plates and not freely With a direct starter, the motors are stressed thermally and
4 in the cabinet
• Always install RFI suppression filters close to the sources
mechanically by the high current that is applied immedi-
ately. Voltage changes are also induced in the supply
of interference network. In order to limit these disturbances in the supply
• Connect the shields of the digital signal leads at both network, apparent power limit values are specified for the
5 ends and with good conductivity over a large area to direct start in the technical supply conditions [14] of the
earth (if required, several times) German distribution system operators. The following are
• Connect the shields of the analogue signal leads with permitted for motors that start occasionally (twice a day):
6 good equal potential bonding at both ends to earth. If
low-frequency interference occurs, connect the shield at
• Alternating current motors with an apparent power of not
more than 1.7 kVA or
one end to the converter. The other end of the shield • Three-phase motors with an apparent power of not more
16
17
Intro
duction
1
Direct Stardelta Soft starter Frequency converter
U
100 %
U
100 %
U
100 %
U
100 % 2
Terminal 70 % UBoost
58 %
voltage
30 % 3
Time Time Time Time
4
I I I I
Starting
current
5
TIP04_13_139_EN
8
Motor speed Motor speed Motor speed Motor speed
Fig. 12/1: Characteristic behaviour of the various connections during motor start-up
9
back to page 256
10
11
L1 L1
L2 L2
L3
N
L3
N
12
PE PE
13
U2 L2
U1
T1 T2 14
V1
L1 V2
W2 W1 T3 L3 15
TIP04_13_140_EN
17
Fig. 12/2: Comparison of connections for soft starters between standard connection and root-3 connection back to page 256
Intro
duction
1 12.4 Safety of Machines • Better chances in the worldwide market through compli-
ance with the required approvals and conformance with
Manufacturers and operators of machines are legally the EU directives
2 obligated to guarantee the safety of personnel and the • Simplified maintenance and plant expansion thanks to
environment. In other words: machines that are manufac- long-term product and system availability
tured or operated in Europe must be safe – irrespective of
3 whether they are new or used. Also for economic reasons,
any risk that may emanate from a machine, should be
In Europe, machine manufacturers (product safety) and
machine operators are legally obligated to guarantee the
avoided from the start. The safety of machines and plants safety of personnel and the environment. Lots of other
10 Greater standardisation
and documentation work
Intro
duction
9
Basic safety requirements Basics standards
in the manufacturing industry for safetyrelated control functions
11
Functional and safetyrelevant requirements
Article 114 EU Treaty Article 153 EU Treaty for safetyrelated control units
(free movement of goods) (occupational safety and health)
"Occupational Safety and Health" Design and implementation of safetyrelated control units
12
e.g. machines Framework Directive
(89/391/EEC) IEC 62061 (VDE 011350) ISO 138491
Harmonised standards
Safety of machines
Functional safety of safety-related
Safety of machines
Safety-related components 13
(presumption of
conformity)
(2014/35/EU) (2006/42/EU)
Work Equipment"
(2009/104/EC)
14
General architectures, Intended architectures (categories)
safety integrity level (SIL) Performance level (PL)
SIL 1, SIL 2, SIL 3 PL a, PL b, PL c, PL d, PL e
15
Harmonised European National statutory provisions
standards
TIP04_13_122_EN
Intro
duction
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
1
In the guidelines for the connection of embedded or dis- The VDEW guideline "Emergency generators – Guideline for
tributed generation systems, emergency generators are the planning, installation and operation of systems with
2 considered as such and a distinction is made according to emergency generators" (2004 edition) describes the con-
the connection to the power supply system. The following nection conditions for UPS installations and explains the
are defined as power sources for safety purposes according methods of operation of emergency generators in different
3 to IEC 60364-5-56 (VDE 0100-560):
• Rechargeable batteries
system configurations (for further information on standby
generating sets and uninterruptible power systems, refer to
• Primary cells section 13.1 and 13.2).
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
Intro
duction
1
13.1 UPS Systems
Dynamic UPS systems
The use of a UPS system is for the protection of sensitive 2
consumers in the normal power supply system (NPS) and to Dynamic UPS systems Dynamic UPS systems
ensure their safe, continual operation during power failures as machine unit as machine unit with
TIP02_12_019_EN
(see Fig. 2/6). The proper integration of the UPS system
into the power supply concept is of vital importance for the
additional reciprocating
internal combustion
engine
3
availability of the entire power supply system. The follow-
ing general aspects concerning UPS should be considered
in the planning:
Dynamic UPS
systems with
Dynamic UPS
systems with
Dynamic UPS
systems as
Dynamic UPS
systems as 4
directly coupled storage battery or no-break standby quick-starting
• Selectivity for the switching and protection function in kinetic storage cell equivalent kinetic generating set standby generating
storage cell (without set (with short-time
conjunction with the UPS system
• Disconnect conditions (personal safety in accordance
interruption time) interruption)
5
with IEC 60364-4-41, VDE 0100-410) in conjunction with Fig. 13/1: Overview of possible dynamic UPS systems in accordance
the UPS system with DIN 6280-12
• Factoring in the short-circuit energy I2t as well as the
short-circuit current Ik“ for the static bypass
6
• Simple, clearly structured network topology (short-circuit
behaviour see Appendix 17.1)
• Protection of the UPS main distribution (possible single
Manual bypass
7
Electronic bypass
point of failure SPOF) at the UPS output; in particular in
Reactor Loads
case of a UPS being connected in parallel
Supply
network
Outer rotor
approx.
approx. 8
Basically, we distinguish between dynamic and static UPS Inner rotor 2,600
1,500 rev/min
systems. rev/min
TIP02_12_020_EN
a static UPS system.
Diesel
engine
Electro-
magnetic
Flywheel Synchro-
nisation
10
coupling machine
13.1.1 Dynamic UPS Systems
DIN 6280-12 describes the different types of dynamic UPS Fig. 13/2: Schematic view of a dynamic UPS system using
a combination of diesel engine, flywheel, and generator power
11
systems (Fig. 13/1). The two main components of a dynamic
UPS system are the electric motor and the generator,
synchronised as a machine unit. Following the standard,
the critical consumers are supplied by the generator.
12
The operating modes of dynamic UPS systems in accord-
However, the machine unit has a low kinetic energy for
bridging voltage failures in the millisecond range. This very
ance with DIN 6280-12 permit further distinctions to be
made:
13
short period can be extended to a limited time, mostly in • Stand-by active mode (quick-starting – short break: 2 to
the range of seconds or minutes, by using flywheel energy 500 ms interruption time)
storage and / or battery systems. The bridging time can be • Continuous operation mode (electrically isolated load 14
extended by connecting a diesel engine. Then, the interme- supply through UPS: no break readiness)
diate storage systems must supply the generator with • Active following mode (uninterruptible transfers between
energy for so long until the diesel engine has run up to load supply from the normal network and load supply 15
speed (Fig. 13/2). from the synchronised UPS: no break readiness)
16
17
Intro
duction
1 Please note that this classification does not correlate with independent) provides an independent supply quality for
the classification of static UPS systems (see Fig. 13/3
13/3). the consumers. In the voltage independent (VI)-UPS, the
Even in the continuous mode, the dynamic UPS may be voltage is set independent of the UPS input voltage,
2 frequency-dependent if the line voltage is not transformed whereas in an off-line circuit (VFD, voltage and frequency
into a so-to-speak independent supply voltage for the dependent) both the voltage and the frequency at the UPS
motor using a converter. output depend on the conditions at the input. In any case,
3 An active stand-by mode, for example, is not feasible for
planning must take into account that grid perturbations
and the consumers' load requirements have an influence
the IT components in the data centre, since manufacturers on the supply at the UPS input.
10
For
Line faults Time IEC 62040-3 UPS solution Supplier solution
example
11 1. Power failures > 10 ms –
VFD
Classification 3
Voltage
12 2. Voltage fluctuations > 16 ms
+ Frequency
Dependent
Passive standby
mode (off-line)
–
Intro
duction
A current trend which may be important for the planning In this context, it must be kept in mind that initially an 1
of reliable power supply is the extendibility and redesign investment must be made in oversizing parts of the modu-
capability gained from modular UPS systems. a modular lar system, which is often worthwhile only if the factual
UPS system allows the integration of extension modules extension corresponds to the planned scope of extension. 2
into an existing system when performance demands are Above that, the plant operator binds himself to a specific
rising. To this end, a possible final brown field scenario UPS model so that the framework parameters for subse-
should already be on hand when operation starts. It is
frequently argued that although the initial cost of invest-
quent purchases of modules may best be considered prior
to the first purchase. Model changes make subsequent
3
ment is somewhat higher, the investment total can be purchases much more difficult and expensive in most
reduced by the lower cost for the extension modules.
Moreover, easy extendibility and fast swapping of modules
cases.
4
shall reduce the UPS failure period in case of a fault – thus
increasing availability as against a conventional UPS solu-
tion. 5
7
a) 1
Supply
network
Load
Normal mode
1 Switch
8
without influencing
2 Rectifier/
charger
2 3 4
3 Battery 9
4 Inverter
5 4-quadrant
inverter 10
b) 7
6 Static bypass
switch
Normal mode
Supply
network using 4-quadrant inv. (5) 7 Manual bypass
switch
11
Load
12
3 5
13
c) 7
14
TIP02_12_021_EN
Normal mode
using rect. (2) and inv. (4)
Supply Load
network
15
2 3 4 6
Fig. 13/3: UPS systems with energy flow during normal operation: back to page 264
16
a) Off-line UPS system (VFD)
b) Line-interactive UPS system (VI)
c) On-line UPS system (VFI) 17
Intro
duction
Intro
duction
a complete standby power supply system. The purpose of • Better power quality in extensive networks (voltage drop) 1
use and the design have not been taken into account yet. • More favourable energy purchase price for power
consumption (clue: approx. 20 % advantage over low
Integration into the power supply concept voltage) 2
• The required short-circuit current is attained much easier
The following selection criteria for the standby generating in the TN-S system for the "Protection through
set must be taken into account because of the consumer-
dependent boundary conditions of the SPS such as power
disconnection" measure. 3
requirements, power distribution concept, simultaneity Medium voltage has the following disadvantages:
factor, and reserves for expansions:
• Supply at the medium-voltage or low-voltage level
• Cost effectiveness should be checked when the power
requirement is less than approximately 400 kVA 4
• Distribution of the SPS load over several standby power • Expenses for the protection concept rise with the size of
generating sets connected in parallel or supply via one the networks
large standby generating set • (Additional) transformers with the associated switchgear 5
• Central installation or distribution of the individual power and appropriate protection are also required in the
supplies close to the SPS consumers network for the safety power supply
Medium voltage has the following advantages: The start-up or turn-on behaviour of electric motors, trans-
9
• Larger loads can be transmitted more easily over longer formers, large lighting systems with incandescent or similar
distances lamps has a major effect on the generator unit output.
10
A
AA
11
Exhaust system
24-hour tank 12
with oil sump
13
14
Exhaust air Supply air
Muffler Muffler
15
TIP04_13_141_EN
Switchgear
16
A
17
Fig. 13/4: Typical arrangement of a stationary standby power generating set
Intro
duction
1 Especially when there is a large proportion of critical con- • Short cable routes to the supply point (low-voltage main
sumers in relation to the generator unit output, an individ- distribution board)
ual test must be performed. The possibility of staggering • The room should be located as far away as possible from
2 the connection of loads or load groups significantly reduces residential rooms, offices, or similar (offending noise)
the required generator unit output. If turbocharger motors • Problem-free intake and discharge routing of the required
are used, the load must be connected in steps. air flow rates
3 All the available possibilities of reducing the start-up loads
• Arrangement of the air inlets / outlets taking into account
the main wind direction
of installed consumers should be fully exploited. The • Problem-free routing of the required exhaust pipe
Dynamic response
6 The dynamic response of the generator unit at full-load
connection and for the load changes to be expected must
TIP01_11_015_EN
relevant regulations concerning voltage and frequency 140
8 conditions. Fulfilling the required values can result in an
Spatial volume in in m3
120
oversizing of the engine, generator or both components.
100
11 Short-circuit behaviour
Power output in kVA
14 power when a short circuit occurs, the diesel engine may 300
also have to be oversized in this case. 250
200
15 Room layout and system components 150
100
When planning the generator unit room, the local building 50
16 regulations must be taken into account. The planning of
the generator unit room can also have a significant influ-
0
0 400 800 1,200 1,600 2,000
ence on the acquisition costs of a standby power supply Power output in kVA
system. The installation room should be selected according
17 to the following criteria: Fig. 13/6: Hourly fuel consumption in back to page 269
relation to the rated power
Intro
duction
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
Intro
duction
1 13.2.2 Wind Turbine • The phase asymmetry (ratio of the voltage's negative-
sequence component to the positive-sequence compo-
A wind turbine basically consists of the rotor system, the nent) shall not exceed 2 % (15 % for small wind turbines
2 nacelle with the generator (directly driven or geared), the in extreme conditions)
frequency converter, and the tower. a certified monitoring • Automatic reconnection period(s) must be within 0.1 s
and control system is crucial for the continuous adjustment and 0.5 s for the first reconnection (between 0.2 s and
3 of operating parameters to the actual wind conditions.
Every wind turbine requires reliable auxiliary power supply
0.5 s for small wind turbines) and for a second reconnec-
tion between 10 s and 90 s
in order to supply the many auxiliary circuits (for example
Fig. 13/8).
nues (Fig. 13/8 It must be possible to disconnect the electrical installation
17 Fig. 13/7: Circuit diagram for connecting the wind turbine into the
supply grid
Intro
duction
1
Increasing performance and cost – higher risk
2
Rotor diameter
3
5
Rotor hub height
TIP04_13_143_EN
7
1990 2012
Rating
Rotor diameter
250 kW
30 m
1,500 kW
70 m
3,000 kW
90 m
6,000 kW
126 m
8
Rotor hub height 50 m 100 m 105 m 135 m
Annual output 400,000 kWh 3,500,000 kWh 6,900,000 kWh approx. 20,000,000 kWh
9
Fig. 13/8: Technical development of wind turbines from 1990 until 2012 back to page 270
10
1 Wind turbine Wind farm
– Automation / SCADA / HMI
– Busbar trunking systems
11
– Circuit protection systems
– Electric drives
– Generator / inverter
– Video surveillance
4
12
2 Medium-voltage
transformer
3 Medium-voltage switchgear 5 13
– Circuit-breaker
– Switchboards 7
– Busbar trunking systems
4 Control centre 14
– Automation 3
– Monitoring
5
– Control
Supply meter 2
15
6 Operation and servicing
– Preventive maintenance
16
TIP04_13_144_EN
– Repair 6
7 Main substation and 1
high-voltage lines
17
Fig. 13/9: Embedding wind turbines into the electric power distribution grid back to page 270
Intro
duction
1 13.2.3 SIESTORAGE Energy Storage System plete failure of production plants. Such a failure means an
enormous loss of quality and time, along with noticeable
Electric power generation based on renewable energies is financial damage.
2 a key element for restructuring a strongly fuel-oriented
energy business towards more sustainability. Besides Storage characteristics
water power, wind and solar energy play the crucial part
3 in this context. The use of renewables on a large scale,
however, leads to new challenges for grid stability: Pro-
Traditional energy storage systems (Fig. 13/10) cannot
necessarily ensure stable grid operation in the lower distri-
ducers of wind and solar energy are usually not capable of bution grid levels today. a storage solution is called for
10
Service time
11
Days/Months
Technology
Chemical storage systems
Li-ion
NaS
batteries SIESTORAGE Electro-chemical storage systems
14
Minutes
15 Electrical double
Maturity
TIP04_13_145_EN
Power
1) CAES: Compressed Air Energy Storage
Source: Study by DNK/WEC: "Energie für Deutschland 2011"; Bloomberg technologies Q2 2011
17
Fig. 13/10: Comparison of the service times of energy storage technologies
Intro
duction
10
12
Transformer System control
13
Filters
AC/DC
Inverter control 14
=
Data logging 15
TIP04_13_146_EN
Liion
Series
connection
battery
module
Battery management
16
17
Fig. 13/11: Schematic design of SIESTORAGE
Intro
duction
1 If the customer takes over the risk of such fluctuations, this Two vital factors which are to be observed when planning
will become noticeable in a better pricing. This energy de- a combined system are the size relations between power
mand forecast, known as schedule clause in ¼-h electricity generation and storage plus the so-called C factor for the
2 supply contracts, is gaining increasingly more importance charging / discharging characteristic of the storage system.
in this context (Fig. 13/12). The customer submits to his The C factor is defined as the quotient from the current and
distribution system operator (DSO) a forecast of his energy capacity of an accumulator.
3 demand (EU-wide always on Thursdays), in which optimisa-
tions at 24-h notice are permitted. The procurement of C factor = current / charge
these forecast energy quantities is up to the electricity = 1 / time (output / accumulator capacity in h-1)
9
Customer with ¼ h contract Electricity supplier
10 Forecast optimisation
150
kWh
11 100
50
Energy purchase
Dependencies 0
between
12
-50
power generation, use, 0:15 6:15 0:15
13
7,000
6,000
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
14
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday
Smart meter
15 Forecast management
kWh
2,000
Schedule
800 1,800
700
600 Limit
Controlling/ 1,600
regulating
1,400
500
16
1,200
TIP04_13_147_EN
400
Schedule
300 - Consumption 1,000
800
200
100 Consumption - Generation 600
0 400
11:00 11:05 11:10 11:15 - Storage 200
0
17
Fig. 13/12: Transparency of the energy flows
Intro
duction
sun radiation. The difference between power generation PV curve thus varies in amplitude (Fig. 13/14), the energy 1
from the PV system and the feed-in curve of the scenario Fig. 13/15).
balance at midnight is always equalized (Fig. 13/15
defines the sizing of the SIESTORAGE energy storage sys-
tem. We expect that the storage system is completely In this case, the storage capacity needed amounts to about 2
discharged at the beginning of the assessment period 900 kWh, so that two standard storage containers with
(storage content 0 kWh). a total capacity of 1 MWh will be sufficient. The maximum
9
PV system SIESTORAGE
10
11
1,200 kW 600 kW
1,000 kW 400 kW
800 kW 200 kW
600 kW 0 kW
400 kW
200 kW
-200 kW
-400 kW
12
0 kW -600 kW
08/02 08/03 08/04 08/05 08/06 08/07 08/08 08/09 08/02 08/03 08/04 08/05 08/06 08/07 08/08 08/09
13
1,000 kW
Power distribution 14
800 kW
600 kW
400 kW
200 kW
15
0 kW
08/02 08/03 08/04 08/05 08/06 08/07 08/08 08/09
16
TIP04_13_148_EN
Consumers
17
Fig. 13/13: Power supply concept integrating photovoltaics and a SIESTORAGE energy storage system back to page 274
Intro
duction
7 1,000 kW PV system
Feed-in curve
800 kW
8 600 kW
400 kW
9
TIP04_13_149_EN
200 kW
10 0 kW
08/02 08/03 08/04 08/05 08/06 08/07 08/08 08/09
11 Fig. 13/14: Weekly curve of PV power and the desired feed-in power according to the forecast about sun radiation back to page 274
provided the day before
12
600 kWh
13 Storage load
min
400 kWh max
0.9 MWh
14 200 kWh
0 kWh
08/02 08/03 08/04 08/05 08/06 08/07 08/08 08/09
15 -200 kWh
TIP04_13_150_EN
-400 kWh
16
-600 kWh
17 Fig. 13/15: Weekly curve of the energy required which a storage system is to supply, respectively take in, based back to page 275
on the power ratios from Fig. 13/14
Energy efficiency Even during the planning process, electrical designers are
9 Energy efficiency specifies the relationship of use to outlay.
increasingly expected to consider the life cycle costs.
However, the limits established when dimensioning the
Differing efficiency considerations are possible such as electrical energy distribution are unsuitable for determining
Intro
duction
7
Distribution
Electricity Supplier
System Operator
8
Power Management Power Distribution
9
- Coordination of purchase
activities Feed-in
- Covering application
requirements
10
- Following economic/ Transformer Generator
ecological goals G
(in-plant power generation)
11
Energy Transparency
- Documentation and
evaluation of energy flows
12
UPS
Distribution
13
14
Intro
duction
1 To ensure transparency of plant operation, it is useful to Leased or tenant areas are billed on the basis of electricity
measure voltage U in V, current I in A, the power factor, consumption W in kWh. An electricity meter records the
and total harmonic distortion THD (recorded separately consumption. Here it must already be clarified in the plan-
2 for the voltage and current) as the sum of all harmonics ning stage, whether this meter must be a calibrated meter
in addition to the above-mentioned apparent power for billing purposes. a non-certificated electricity meter is
(Fig. 14/2), a generator is treated like a transformer, but quite adequate given that cost-centres are internally in-
3 in addition, the produced energy W must be measured
in kWh.
voiced. For billing purposes it is essential that an MID-con-
forming instrument is used in accordance with the Euro-
pean 2004 / 22 / EG Measurements Instrument Directive
4 (MID).
6 Recommended Measurements
8 Transformer G Generator U
I
U, I, S of all 3 phases –
Power factor
G U
I
U, I, P, W of all
3 phases –
S P
cos of all 3 phases – W Power factor
Distribution THD THD of all 3 phases cos of all 3 phases
9
I I of all 3 phases –
I or
10 cos cos φ of all 3 phases
I I, P of all 3 phases – I
I of all 3 phases –
11 M P P
M
P Power factor
cos of all 3 phases
P
cos Power factor
of all 3 phases
Drives Consumers
12 P
Leased equipment P
W Billing meter
Wtotal over all 3 phases
TIP04_14_153_EN
14
Permissible voltage drop for lighting for other electrical equipment
Low-voltage installation supplied directly from the public 3 % 5 %
15 grid
Low-voltage network supplied from a private power 6 % 8 %
supply network*)
16 *) The voltage drop is preferably not to exceed the values for public grids
Tab. 14/1: Permitted voltage drop in accordance with IEC 60364-5-52 (VDE 0100-520) from the distribution network / consumer installation
interface to the connection point of an item of equipment (mains equipment up to 100 m in length)
17
Intro
duction
14.2 G
raphic Representations in 1
Energy Management 8,000 kW
TIP04_13_154_EN
7,000 kW
The measured values as rows of figures constitute the basis 6,000 kW 2
for various graphics in an energy management system. 5,000 kW
Normally, users can only understand the response of
3
4,000 kW
individual system components and the interconnection
3,000 kW
between energy usage and corresponding energy demand
2,000 kW
by analysing the graphs of the measured values.
4
1,000 kW
TIP04_13_155_EN
at 15-minute intervals
5,000 kW
Mean active power P = E / 0.25 h
4,000 kW
Load curve
Maximum
–5%
7
– 10 %
Load curves 3,000 kW
17
Intro
duction
1 The weekly load curve (Fig. 14/5) brings out clear day- 6,000 kW
TIP04_13_156_EN
specific differences:
• Daily demand 5,000 kW
2 • Daily variations
4,000 kW
• Typical work-shift patterns
• Demand peaks 3,000 kW
curve (Fig. 14/6) so that, for instance, the following points 1,000 kW
4 can be recognized:
• Precise representation of the daily demand and moments
1 kW
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday
of change
• Breaks Fig. 14/5: Weekly load curves for a measuring point
5 • Work-shift changes
TIP04_13_157_EN
6 Even during building planning phases, statements as to the
5,000 kWh
Early Shift Late Shift
life cycle costs – lying from the planning viewpoint well 4,000 kWh
13
Office building with ventilation Office building with air-conditioning system
2.40 2.20
14
2.23 2.03
2.20 2.00
2.00 1.80
1.80 1.60
Mon - Thurs
Factor
Factor
Mon - Thurs
1.60 Fr 1.40 Fr
15 1.40
1.20
Sat + Sun
Mean value
Peak factor
1.20
1.00
Sat + Sun
Mean value
Peak factor
1.00 0.80
0.80 0.60
16 0.60 0.40
1:00
2:00
3:00
4:00
5:00
6:00
7:00
8:00
9:00
0:00
1:00
2:00
3:00
4:00
5:00
6:00
7:00
8:00
9:00
0:00
10:00
11:00
12:00
13:00
14:00
15:00
16:00
17:00
18:00
19:00
20:00
21:00
22:00
23:00
10:00
11:00
12:00
13:00
14:00
15:00
16:00
17:00
18:00
19:00
20:00
21:00
22:00
23:00
Time Time
17
TIP04_13_158_EN
Fig. 14/7: Examples of synthetic load curves for specifying the power consumption in offices back to page 283
Intro
duction
Note: For the life cycle costs it is also a matter of and costs with the Siemens portfolio products. To illustrate 1
scheduling the depreciation or reinvestments for the matter, the power losses of selected GEAFOL transform-
replacement of components as well as service and ers are entered in Fig. 14/8. This permits a direct compari-
maintenance. This is where both technical and economic son to be made between different capacities. The synthetic 2
aspects have a major role to play. load profiles (with the number of operating hours shown at
a certain power demand above the related load value, see
To estimate energy losses in the planning process, the loss
can be integrated across the service life through the syn-
section 14.3) for an identical power range resulting from
the synthetic load curves for the various building types
3
thetic load curves. The requirement here is for the course serve to make it clear that raising the power by forced
of the curve to be cyclically repeated, for instance, for a day
during the planned operating behaviour. Conditional upon
ventilation of the transformer is sometimes appropriate or
that selecting a larger transformer involving a greater 4
the use patterns, consideration can, of course, be given to investment provides for benefits in operation. This kind of
different, day-specific load curves as, for instance, the comparison is calculated in the SIMARIS tool available to
differences between office working days and weekends the TIP Consultant Support contact partner. 5
and public holidays as well as possibly the vacation period.
Note: If on establishing a larger transformer in SIMARIS
The modelling for building use can, of course, also be
elaborated upon. For instance, the synthetic day load
design a renewed calculation comes about, then other,
usually larger appliances can be dimensioned.
6
curves of an office with air-conditioning differ from those
14/7 At the same
of a natural-ventilated office (see Fig. 14/7).
time, various curves can be drawn and evaluated for rooms
The use of synthetic load curves for the sub-sections of an
electric power distribution system allows separate simulta- 7
of different uses in the building, such as those solely fitted neity factors to be established in SIMARIS design by adding
out with desks and for canteens and kitchens in office the subordinate synthetic load curves. These factors are
buildings. Process-specific cycles such as shift, charge or then subsumed in one simultaneity factor for rating. This 8
batch operation periods can be chosen for industrial pro- has the added advantage that with a single factor the
cesses. rating is better suited for subsequent utilisation.
Intro
duction
4 Load profile
Evaluation of maxima
Fig. 14/11),
In the maxima representation (Fig. 14/11 the highest
In terms of the load profile, the power values are shown on measured power values including the time stamp are
5 the X-axis and the number of hours in which the respective entered in a descending order. Two reference lines are
value was measured are shown on the Y-axis. The power frequently drawn to mark a peak load reduction by 5 % or
profile, which is based on the power values measured every 10 % respectively. a maxima power view clearly shows in
6 15 minutes, starts with the base load and ends with the
maximum purchased power. The load profile allows you to
how many 15-minute intervals a load management system
should have intervened and with which power reductions
identify power core areas, meaning the most frequently in order not to exceed a defined peak value. Variants of the
7 required power values of a plant or system (Fig. 14/9). maxima view map a daytime-specific distribution of load
peaks, or show monthly maxima to enable the identifica-
Frequency distribution tion of leverage for load management improvements or an
altered plant management.
8 The frequency distribution is a statistical complement of
the load profile by depicting cumulated values. It can be
read from the frequency distribution (Fig. 14/10) as to how
9 many operating hours a power range has been drawn. The
number of hours is shown on the X-axis with the curve
14.4 Characteristic Values
reflecting the power range from 0 up to the respectively The point of characteristic values is to provide an overview
13
300 h 8,000 kW
TIP04_13_160_EN
TIP04_13_161_EN
14
7,000 kW
250 h
Frequency distribution
6,000 kW
200 h Mean curve progression
5,000 kW
15
150 h 4,000 kW
100 h 3,000 kW
2,000 kW
5h
16 1,000 kW
0 kW
0 kW 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 0h 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000 9,000
17 Fig. 14/9: Load profile of a measuring point over one year Fig. 14/10: Frequency distribution over one year and mean curve
progression
Intro
duction
9
4,000 kW
10
TIP04_13_162_EN
3,900 kW
3,800 kW 11
3,700 kW
3,600 kW 12
3,500 kW
3,400 kW
13
3,300 kW
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 14
15min. value Date/Time 15min. value Date/Time 15min. value Date/Time Peak cutting • by 5 % 3,709 kW
3,904 kW
3,856 kW
12.1.10 9:00
12.1.10 10:30
3,816 kW
3,816 kW
12.1.10 8:45
12.1.10 8:45
3,792 kW
3,792 kW
11.1.10 10:45
11.1.10 10:45
• by 10 % 3,514 kW
15
3,848 kW 13.1.10 8:30 3,808 kW 12.1.10 9:00 3,784 kW 11.1.10 8:15
3,848 kW 13.1.10 8:30 3,800 kW 12.1.10 11:45 3,784 kW 11.1.10 8:15 Difference between highest
3,832 kW 12.1.10 11:00 3,792 kW 11.1.10 10:45 3,776 kW 13.1.10 8:15 and 20th value: 3 %
3,824 kW 12.1.10 9:15 3,792 kW 11.1.10 10:45 3,776 kW 13.1.10 8:15 16
17
Fig. 14/11: Maxima view as a ranking of peak load values back to page 284
Intro
duction
1 14.5 Electricity Market Observations (n is an agreed number of maximum values) and the
demand charge in € / kW. Taxes and duties are to be paid
Alongside safety and availability, a further main planning to the national government. These taxes include the val-
2 criterion rests with efficiency of the electrical power distri- ue-added tax, eco tax, a duty on renewable energies and,
bution. The framework is provided by the electricity market if applicable, one for combined heat and power generation.
complete with supply / consumption control. Firstly to be The concession fee is raised for usage of the public sphere
3 presented are those factors influencing the electricity price
to be followed by the general setting affecting both the
and benefits the local authorities. Taxes and duties are
calculated as a percentage of the energy charge and
smart grid and the liberalised energy market. demand charge.
9
Lower Consumption Present Lower Power Peak
10 –10 %
21,160,000 kWh
AEP
23,511,492 kWh
–10 %
23,511,492 kWh
15.5 7,086 kW 7,086 kW 6,400 kW
3,178,000 € 3,436,500 € 3,351,500 €
11 Ct
15.02 kWh Ct
14.62 kWh Ct
14.25 kWh
AEP in Ct/kWh
15.0
12 14.5
13 14.0 Price
Negotations
13.5 Reduced energy charge
14 Ct
13.52 kWh
–10 % to 9.9 Ct/kWh
Lower demand charge
13.0 –10 % to 108 €/kW
15 Ct
12.83 kWh
TIP04_13_163_EN
12.5
2,800 2,900 3,000 3,100 3,200 3,300 3,400 3,500 3,600 3,700 3,800
16 Usage period in h
17
Fig. 14/12: Example of an "optimisation window" for the average price of electricity back to page 287
Intro
duction
The development of the electricity price as a function of the generation in small units within the distribution grid. The 1
usage period can be graphically represented. The different flow of energy may even be reversed with it being fed from
options for optimisation as a result of energy charge and the distribution grid into the transmission grid. In Germany,
demand charge variations as well as specific time limits can 97 % of the regenerative energy generated in a distributed 2
thus be illustrated. fashion was fed into the distribution grids at the end of
2012. The capacity installed was 83 GW. The capacity
Shown in Fig. 14/12 on the X-axis is the usage period as
a quotient from kW / h consumed per year and maximum
generated in a distributed fashion is likely to rise substan-
tially as the energy turnaround gathers pace.
3
15-minute purchased power within the year and on the
Y-axis the AEP. In so doing, the following key points are
definable:
Within the smart grid, consideration is being given to
directly controlling consumer equipment and guiding 4
• Current AEP consumer attitudes by applying special tariffs so as to
• Possible energy savings while maintaining the maximum match consumption to power generation. a considerable
power purchase planning outlay is required for generating power in a host 5
• Possible saving of purchased power while keeping to the of small to medium-sized plants, most of which are sup-
same amount of energy consumption plied from regenerative energy sources. The vital regenera-
• Possible revised kilowatt-per-hour rate
• Possible revised demand charge
tive power generators are weather-dependent (PV systems
from solar radiation which, in turn, is conditional upon
6
locality and time, wind turbines from wind conditions
The assumption for the dashed curve in the view is a price
reduction of energy charge and demand charge of 10 %
dependent on locality and time). No generating forecasts
are possible here without a detailed weather forecast. In 7
each. In the three tabs above the “optimisation window”, addition, one needs to have forecasts of the consumption
the demand charge (120 € / kW) and energy charge of the many electricity customers within the distribution
(11 cent / kWh) are fixed prices. Variations of the consump- grid. Without them, a balance between generation and 8
tion or required power peak result in changes to the usage consumption is impossible. What is absolutely needed is
period and AEP respectively. Please note that it is not effective communication between the parties involved.
the absolute cost of electricity that can be read from the
“optimisation window” but a mean electricity price per
• Load and storage management
To ensure maximum grid stability, the need is to use
9
kilowatt-hour consumed. specialised load management solutions to reduce or shift
Intro
duction
1
Biomass power station
2
system Billing
5 Communication Network
CHP
Weather service
6
Concentrator
7
Wind power Influenceable
8 PV system station
Remote meter reading loads
9 Communications
unit
TIP04_13_164_EN
10 Distributed
mini-CHPs and
Fuel cell PV systems Distributed loads
11
Fig. 14/13: Energy management in the smart grid through communication effected across all energy networks back to page 287
12
13
14
15
16
17
Intro
duction
Intro
duction
1 • Electricity traders • The DSO provides the connection to the supply grid and
Only authorized traders are allowed to operate at the expects a statement of the maximum power which he is
exchange. They implement the orders of the power to provide at the interface to the consumer. Cost is allo-
2 suppliers at the exchange cated on the basis of the negotiated demand charge
• Power supplier multiplied by the highest 15-minute power value within
The power supplier is the bridge between power genera- the period under consideration (month or year). a con-
3 tors and electricity consumers. He forecasts his electricity
demand and covers this directly with the power genera-
trolling role will increasingly be assigned to the DSO in
the smart grid as well as possibly the responsibility for its
tors and the electricity exchange. The power supplier operation
16
17
Intro
duction
14.6 Operational Management The following reasons are strong arguments in favour of 1
a technical operation management system:
Technical operation management for a building uses the • Quick and simple online overview of states and the power
energy management system as a basis for its own plan- flow / consumption in the building (Fig. 14/15) 2
ning. Under the power supply aspect, efficient monitoring • Validity check of the recorded values, avoidance of read-
of operations and energy consumption using status dis- ing errors
plays and signalling equipment must be planned in line
with the envisaged building usage possibilities. Even at the
• Optimisation of the purchasing contracts adjusted to the
individual consumption shares
3
building concept stage, the associated measuring and • More precise specification and more efficient power
control systems for building automation are to be provided.
They should provide the following functional layers:
consumption from exact knowledge of the demand
profile 4
• Acquisition of status and measurements; processing level • Transparency of costs in the energy sector
for data acquisition • Benchmarking (comparison of orientation values)
• Operator control and monitoring with visualisation, 5
archiving, reports, control of switchgear, status monitor-
ing / measuring points
6
7
G Distribution:
Current
• Switching
• Protecting
8
P
• Measuring
M P P
9
4.000 kW
8,000 kW 300 h Maximum value
3.500 kW
7,000 kW 250 h Mean value
3.000 kW
6,000 kW
200 h Minimum value
5,000 kW 2.500 kW
Controlling:
3,000 kW
10
100 h 1.500 kW
2,000 kW
6,000 kW 5h 8.000 kW 1.000 kW
1,000 kW
7.000 kW 500 kW
1 kW 5,000 kW
1 5 10 15 20 25Lastgang
30 35 40 45 50 KW 0 kW 1.000 6.000 kW
2.000 3.000 4.000 5.000 6.000 7.000
Maximum 0 kW
4,000 kW –5% 5.000 kW 0:15 3:15 6:15 9:15 12:15 15:15 18:15 21:15
Current
6,000 kW Monday
3.000 kW 3.500 kW
2,000 kW Tuesday
2.000 kW 3.000 kW
5,000 kW Wednesday
1,000 kW 2.500 kW
1.000 kW Thursday
4,000 kW 2.000 kW
1 kW 0 kW 1.500 kW Friday
• ISO 50001
KW 53 KW 1 KW 2 KW 3 KW 4 0 1.000 2.000 3.000 4.000 5.000 6.000 7.000 8.000 9.000 h 1.000 kW
3,000 kW
500 kW 20 %
Maximum value
2,000 kW 12. Januar 2010 0 kW 15 %
6,000 kWh 0:15 3:15 6:15 9:15 12:15 15:15 18:15 21:15
Frühschicht Spätschicht Mean value
1,000 kW 10 %
5,000 kWh Minimum value
5%
1 kW
Monday
4,000 kWh
Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday
0%
0:15 3:15 6:15 9:15 12:15 15:15 18:15 21:15
11
-5 %
3,000 kWh
-10 %
2,000 kWh
-15 %
1,000 kWh -20 %
-25 %
1 kWh
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 -30 %
6,000 kW
5,000 kW
4,000 kW
Forecast: 12
3,000 kW Current • Power purchase forecasts
2,000 kW • Power consumption forecasts
1,000 kW
13
1 kW
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday
Energy
supplier
Current
Heat
14
Primary energy
District
Operational management:
Current Gas, oil, coal
heating Current • Purchase forecasts
15
Emission CO2
Biomass
kWh
CO2
kWh
CO2
m3
CO2
Biogas m3
CO2 Heat • Generating forecasts
Own power generation
Power transformation
Boiler
Fossil
CHP
Fossil
Solar
Thermal, photovoltaics
Wind Geothermy
Heat pump
• Consumption forecasts
Regenerative Regenerative
Cold
• Horizontally integrated optimisation
Storage cell
Storage cell
Absorber Compressor
Gas • Deployment optimisation 16
Energy application Current Heat Cold
17
Consumption TIP04_13_196_EN
Fig. 14/15: Operational view of electric power distribution and incorporation into the operational management
Intro
duction
1 14.7 N
ormative Basis for an Energy application. In the standard, the term “organisation” is used
Management System generally to include undertakings, companies, and institu-
tions. As early as 2008, the US Office for Standardizing
2 To remain commercially competitive, companies need to Industrial Operations in conjunction with Brazilian associate
continually subject their competitive position and thus their ABNT was involved in developing ISO 50001:2011. Experts
energy consumption to critical examination and optimisa- from over 40 countries were rendering assistance. Thanks
3 tion. a further incentive here comes from governments
which increasingly have and want to ensure a cut in the
to close cooperation with the European ISO member states,
a lot of subjects and contents was transferred from prede-
greenhouse gas emissions of their country. The result is an cessor standard EN 16001.
Intro
duction
14.7.3 Management Process aids, training courses and information are to be provided. 1
A documentation on the key EnMS elements and their
ISO 50001 describes a continuous improvement process for interaction must be present. Controlling documents and
a more efficient use, monitoring and analysis of energy. processes is oriented to the corresponding specifications 2
The principal setup follows the PDCA cycle as applied, for for other management processes, such as that of quality or
instance, to the ISO 9001 standard and which is to be environment management, and needs to conform to
adapted to the daily operation of an organisation: Plan, Do,
Check, Act. Proceeding on the basis of this cycle, a model
management standards. 3
for the EnMS is described (Fig. 14/16) followed by specifica- Demanded by ISO 50001 is the monitoring, testing and
tion of the requirements. In particular, the responsibility of
the manager of an organisation is gone into.
analysis of the main energy-relevant operations of an
organisation at scheduled intervals. The improvement of 4
energy-related performance needs to be taken into account
The energy policy specifies the energy framework and when designing new, modified or renovated buildings,
establishes the strategic goals to be aspired to by the systems, plants, facilities, and processes. This also applies 5
organisation regarding energy utilisation. a description is to energy metering and the attendant scope for evaluation
also given of the communication on this and the reaction and analysis.
to be expected of those employed in the organisation. The
obvious goal of the energy policy must be towards continu- A supplier assessment can be carried out when purchasing
6
ously improving energy handling. energy and energy services as well as products and facili-
10
Energy policy 11
Energy planning
Management
review Introduction and 12
implementation
D
an 13
Pl
o
Monitoring,
metering, and
Management
systems Checking
analysis
14
ct Ch
ec
k
ISO 50001 15
A
TIP04_13_167_EN
Internal auditing of
the EnMS
Non-conformities,
corrections, corrective and
16
preventive actions
17
Fig. 14/16: Implementation of the PDCA management cycle for EnMS in ISO 50001
Intro
duction
12
13
14
15
16
17
siemens.com/simaris/help
6
10
11
12 Fig. 15/1: Power losses of the network configured with back to page 297
SIMARIS design professional
13
14
15
16
17 Fig. 15/2: Defining the longest fire section for a busbar trunking system in back to page 297
SIMARIS design
296 Totally Integrated Power – SIMARIS Planning Tools for the Efficient Planning of Power Distribution
Con
tents
Intro
duction
15.1 Dimensioning with Prior to dimensioning, the electrical designer defines the 1
SIMARIS design operating modes required for the project. This definition
can be more or less complex, depending on the project size
Based on specifications resulting from the project require- and the type and amount of system infeeds and couplings 2
ments, SIMARIS design can be used to dimension the equip- used. However, with SIMARIS design this definition is quite
ment according to the accepted rules of good installation simple, since the relevant devices and their switching
practice and all applicable standards (VDE, IEC), from medi-
um-voltage supply to the power consumers. SIMARIS design
conditions required for the respective operating modes are
presented graphically in a clear and well structured man-
3
supports the calculation of short-circuit currents, load flow ner. All common switching modes can be mapped and
and distribution, voltage drop, and energy report. Moreover,
SIMARIS design assists in the selection of actually required
calculated thanks to the option of representing directional
and non-directional couplings and infeeds at the sub- 4
equipment, for example medium-voltage switching and distribution level and isolated networks. Sizing of the com-
protection devices, transformers, generators, low-voltage plete network or subnetworks is done automatically accord-
switching and protection devices, and in conductor sizing, ing to the dimensioning target of “selectivity” or “backup 5
meaning the sizing of cables, wires, and busbar trunking protection” and the calculation results can be documented
systems. In addition, the lightning and overvoltage protection with various output options. With the “professional” version
can be included in the dimensioning process. The “profes-
sional” version of SIMARIS design also allows determining the
of the software, it is possible, among other things, to per-
form a selectivity evaluation of the complete network.
6
power losses of equipment during network calculations. To
this end, an overview is created in SIMARIS which shows
where the greatest losses occur in the network. Suitable
From experience, planning an electric power distribution
system is always subject to considerable changes and adapta- 7
adjustments in equipment selection then allow reducing such tions both in the planning and in the implementation stage, for
power losses, thus the energy efficiency of the network can example also due to concept changes on part of the customer
Fig. 15/1).
be optimised (Fig. 15/1 The power supply system to be forwarded at short notice. With the help of the software, adapta- 8
planned can be designed graphically in a quick, easy, and tions of the voltage level, load capacities, or the technical
clear way with the help of the elements stored in the library. settings for medium or low voltage can be quickly and reliably
12
13
14
15
16
17
Fig. 15/3: Network design with SIMARIS design
Totally Integrated Power – SIMARIS Planning Tools for the Efficient Planning of Power Distribution 297
Con
tents
Intro
duction
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
Fig. 15/4: System planning with SIMARIS project
298 Totally Integrated Power – SIMARIS Planning Tools for the Efficient Planning of Power Distribution
Con
tents
Intro
duction
siemens.com/simariscurves
6
10
11
12
Fig. 15/5: Characteristic curves (fuse, moulded-case circuit-breaker, air circuit-breaker) in SIMARIS curves
13
14
15
16
17
Totally Integrated Power – SIMARIS Planning Tools for the Efficient Planning of Power Distribution 299
Con
tents
Intro
duction
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
300 Totally Integrated Power – SIMARIS Planning Tools for the Efficient Planning of Power Distribution
Chapter 16
Lighting Inside Buildings
1 People stay in buildings and perform various activities illuminances. Numerous brochures state typical characteris-
there. Visual perception is the most frequently used human tic values that refer specifically to this standard.
sensory impression inside buildings. Therefore, specific
2 lighting is required which reflects the correlations between The data for the illuminance maintenance value (Em), the
architecture, daylight, visual task, biological effect, energy maximum unified glare rating limit value (UGRL) for dis-
efficiency, illuminant, and luminaire in buildings. In the comfort glare assessment, the minimum uniformity ratio of
3 end, light is the form of energy that brings together people
and building including the equipment. The planner faces
illuminance (U0) and the minimum value of the colour
rendering index (Ra) should be agreed with the client. In
a versatile organisational task that goes far beyond consid- view of an increasing consideration of the biological effect
4 ering lighting merely as part of the architecture. of light, these parameters have to be regarded more in-
tensely in the planning phase.
data establishment as the first planning step: To find optimal lighting solutions, interdependencies
• Clarification of the task with the client and important between lighting and work task, workflows, working appli-
8 electrical planning engineers involved ances and tools, furnishing, workplace layout, interior and
• Clarification of the user's needs and requirements as to building design have to be considered (see Fig. 16/2
16/2). This
the use and room function (wishes, assessment criteria, becomes noticeable in energy and economic efficiency as
9 experiences, standards)
• Consideration of the operating conditions (dust,
well as in “soft” factors such as orientation, well-being and
naturalness.
humidity)
Intro
duction
1
16.1 Basic data • Creation of the users' requirements specification
establishment • Creation of the architect's requirements specification 2
3
16.2 Building • Project analysis
analysis • Zoning in detail 4
• First technology concept for technical building
equipment is available (control system, bus systems etc.)
• Façade details are known (daylight factor) 5
• Ceiling system is known
6
16.3 Normative specifications
7
Lighting of Biological
Energy efficiency 8
workplaces effect
17
Fig. 16/1: Flow diagram for lighting planning back to page 302
Intro
duction
2
Furnishings:
Tables, desks
Chairs
3 Building:
Climate
Cabinets
Shelves
Building orientation High desks
Surroundings Accessories:
4 Lighting management
Room: Light:
Pictures, boards, calendars
Curtains
Windows / doors Luminaires Plants
Walls / ceilings / floors Illuminants
5 Sun protection
Colours
Mounting position
Reflections
8
People
Safety: Light colour Working appliances:
9 Personal safety
Occupational health and safety
Light distribution
Daylight utilisation
Monitor, computer,
Keyboard
Orientation ability Energy efficiency Writing materials
Feeling: Projector / screen
10 Well-being
Natural vision
Control panel
Working equipment:
Work task Treatment chair
Workflows Workbench
12
14
15
16
17
Intro
duction
Intro
duction
1 parking sites and footways, lighting requirements in rooms, workplaces or activities from the data in ASR A3.4,
compliance with the applicable standards for the lighting for example.
of outdoor workplaces in accordance with EN 12464-2 or
2 the standard series EN 13201 for road lighting are to be EN 12464-1 identifies visual comfort, visual performance
observed) and security as basic human needs. The purpose of lighting
• EN 15193 is to influence these criteria with daylight and artificial
3 Energy performance of buildings – Energy requirements
for lighting
lighting. The following lighting factors are considered:
• Luminance distribution
In the national annex for Germany, reference is made to • Illuminance
7 • DIN SPEC 67600
Biologically effective illumination – Design guidelines
The illuminance on the immediate surroundings depends
on the illuminance on the visual task area. The mainte-
nance value for the illuminance of the immediate surround-
Based on the flow diagram depicted in Fig. 16/2, the nor- ings may be lower, but it must not drop below certain
8 mative bases with regard to technology, energy consump- levels (Tab. 16/1). For the background area, the illuminance
tion and the biological effect of lighting inside buildings must correspond to a maintenance value of 1 / 3 of the
will be touched in the following. value for the immediate surroundings.
9 EN 12464-1 specifies the illuminances as maintenance
16.3.1 Lighting of Indoor Workplaces –
values, that is, as minimum values that must not be under-
EN 12464-1
10 The normative specifications for the requirements imposed
shot. The maintenance factor (MF) takes into account
operational influences such as ageing and pollution. When
on the state of the art that have to be met at the minimum these minimum values are reached, the lighting has to be
are described in EN 12464-1 on the European level. For the maintained (Fig. 16/4). The planner must state the main
11 first time, uniform characteristic values apply for the spe- tenance factor and assumptions for value determination,
cific requirements imposed on the lighting of different
buildings, rooms and usages.
12 The standard on the lighting of indoor workplaces is Background
regarded as a recommendation for the technical implemen-
13 tation of good lighting and does not impose any require-
ments on the lighting of workplaces with regard to the Immediate surroundings
safety and health of the people working at the workplaces.
In Germany, specific ordinances and associated guidelines
14 apply to that, such as the Workplace Ordinance and ASR Visual task
A3.4 or specifically for monitor and office workplaces
BGI 650.
15
When planning lighting systems, the state of the art as
described in EN 12464-1 is to be applied in consultation
16 with the clients. It is reasonable, however, to mind the
compliance with specific requirements (occupational safety
TIP04_13_177_EN
and health, workplace-specific requirements such as for Fig. 16/3: The visual task area with immediate surroundings (strip
a display workstation etc.) already in the planning phase, as
17 the data on illuminance or colour rendering index in sec-
of 0.5 m beyond the visual field) and background area (within the
room limits at least 3 m wide)
tion 5 of EN 12464-1 may differ for individual working
Intro
duction
13
Illuminance Power demand
in lx in W
14
TIP04_13_178_EN
Maintenance value
Maintenance factor
Maintenance
Maintenance
Maintenance
Maintenance
Maintenance
Maintenance
ΔE ΔE ΔE
15
Maintenance
value Em
Controlled lighting Controlled lighting
16
Time Time
Intro
duction
1 behaviour of LED modules is described in the standard EnEV 2009 has been revised to EnEV 2014 for two reasons:
IEC / PAS 62717. 1. Transposition of Directive 2012 / 27 / EU with higher
requirements into German law
2 If the system will presumably be in operation for less than 2. Reference to the new pre-standard series DIN V18599.
50,000 h, a correspondingly lower luminous flux decline For the lighting, DIN V18599-4:2011-12 replaces
value has to be assessed! The luminaire manufacturers are DIN 18599-4:2007-02 to which EnEV 2009 refers.
3 obliged to publish information on their luminaires. For
detailed explanations and planning notes, specifically for Publication of EnEV 2014 was in May 2014.
LED lighting, refer to the ZVEI Guide “Reliable Planning
4 with LED Lighting” [22] and to LiTG publications. This also results in a change to the current
DIN V18599‑4:2011-12 and for lighting control a daylight-
dependent control is considered in the constant light
16.3.2 Normative Specifications as to Energy
Tab. 16/3
control (Tab. 16/3).
5 Efficiency
The European Parliament and the Council of the European For the planning of energy-efficient lighting in compliance
Union stated in Directive 2006 / 32 / EC that 78 % of the with EnEV, DIN V18599-4 is applied. In that, the different
6 greenhouse gas emissions of the European Community are
caused by human activities that are referable to the energy
utilisation zones of the building, the specific electrical
efficiency of artificial light, the consideration of the day-
field. The directive's objective is to increase the efficiency light utilisation and the influence of presence detection
17
Intro
duction
Tab. 16/2: Lighting control in accordance with EnEV 2009 back to page 308
5
Lighting control for types of use in accordance with DIN V18599-10:2011-12
6
Presence control effected by presence detector Cellular office and group office, meeting, conference, seminar, class
room (school), group room (kindergarten), lecture hall, auditorium,
hotel room, kitchen (preparation, storage), lavatories and sanitary
facilities in non-residential buildings, other common rooms, circulation
areas, server room, data centre, sports hall / gym (without grandstand),
7
car parks (office or private use), laboratory, examination and treatment
rooms, doctor's surgeries and therapeutic surgeries
effected manually otherwise 8
Constant light control / daylight- Constant light control effected Counter area, lecture hall, auditorium, wards, kitchens in non-residential
dependent control in accordance with buildings, commercial and industrial halls, library – open access section,
DIN V18599-4:2011-12
Section 5.4.6
car parks (public use), fitness room, examination and treatment rooms,
special nursing areas, corridors of the general nursing area, doctor's 9
surgeries and therapeutic surgeries
Daylight-dependent control in
combination with constant light
Cellular office, group office (two to six workplaces), open-plan office
(from seven workplaces on), conference room, meeting room, seminar,
10
control is effected in accordance class room (school), group room (kindergarten), cafeteria, library –
with DIN V18599-4:2011-12 reading room, sports hall / gym (without grandstand), laboratory
Section 5.5.4
effected manually otherwise
11
Tab. 16/3: Lighting control in accordance with EnEV 2014 back to page 308
12
13
14
15
16
17
Intro
duction
1 16.3.3 Design Guidelines for the Biological biological factors connected with the “human photo
Effect of Lighting receiver” – thus, not only the visual factors, but also the
non-visual factors (Fig. 16/5). That is, for artificial light,
2 For a long time, the biological effect of light on the human energy in different spectral ranges is used, which are not
being had been regarded as a mainly medical topic. This required for the actual visual process. Therefore, it may
changed when another photoreceptor was discovered in happen that the biological effect of light theoretically
3 the human eye (in 2001). Light is perceived with light-
sensitive sensory cells and passed on to the body in biologi-
opposes an efficient energy use, but in a holistic view, it is
reasonable also in an efficient energy use approach.
cal signals. For example, the production of melatonin is
8 Lighting
9
10
11
Visual path Nonvisual path
12
Recognition of pictures Circadian rhythm
Brightness, lighting Internal clock
13 Contrast Attention, fatigue
Shapes Hormone production
Movement Vitality, relaxation
14 Perception Blood circulation
Information Metabolism
Moods, impressions
15 Relaxation, tension
Concentration, unrest
Well-being, discomfort
16
TIP04_13_179_EN
Activity, restraint
Security, unease
Confidence, caution
17
Fig. 16/5: Effects of light
Intro
duction
• Visual requirements on the lighting planning are values of the reflectance coefficients specified in 1
described in EN12464-1 and for workplaces in ASR A3.4 EN 12464-1 should be reached
(binding for Germany) • Geometrical arrangement of the light:
• Integrated planning taking into account the biological Beyond the requirements of EN 12464-1, the following 2
effect of light is structured according to the HOAI phases has to be observed with regard to the geometrical
(German Fees Ordinance for Architects and Engineers): arrangement for biologically effective lighting:
requirements planning – basic evaluation – preliminary
planning etc.
–– Area and solid angles (for example, small light sources
do not contribute to the biological effect, bright areas
3
are to be aimed at)
As criteria for biologically effective lighting,
DIN SPEC 67600 explicitly describes the following aspects:
–– Light direction (for example, the wide-area lighting of
bright areas should be visible in the upper part of the 4
• Spectral composition of the light: visual field)
The natural circadian rhythm of the human body (chrono- • Light dynamics:
biological effect of the so-called “internal clock”) is The adaptation of the light to the time of day and time of 5
determined by the increased red component at sunrise year or even to the weather plays an important part. The
or sunset on the one hand, and the lower illuminance circadian rhythm can be stabilised with biologically
before and after sunrise on the other hand (despite the
increased blue component in the light spectrum). This
effective light, for example, when the melatonin pro-
duction is reduced before falling asleep. When the
6
colour effect in connection with the illuminance can also daylight has only low illuminance, it may be desirable to
be used for artificial light. To be considered for that is that
reflections and transmissions as well as the spectral
supplement it with biologically effective artificial light.
Since the human biological system responds relatively 7
properties of materials may have considerable influence slowly, the duration of the light exposure is an important
on the light. For example, wooden elements and floors or factor for the biological effect, resulting in a restriction to
walls in earthy browns can reduce the blue component in rooms with longer dwell times 8
the light. The correlation between colour temperature • Energy efficiency of biologically effective lighting:
and biological effect is shown schematically in Wide-area light from the top makes for a more distinct
DIN SPEC 67600 (Fig. 16/6)
• Illuminance:
biological effect, as the receptor cells in the eye's retina
are reached better and more uniformly. However, this
9
As reference value for a biological effect, DIN SPEC 67600 usually requires more power installed to achieve the
specifies 250 lx for the vertical illuminance at a correlated
colour temperature of 8.000 K at the viewer's eye. For
desired illuminance in the case of spatial distribution of
the light. According to experience values – as noted in
10
illuminated surfaces, the reflectance coefficients of the DIN SPEC 67600 – the installed power increases by factor
surfaces play an important part, and the upper limit 3. However, in a conversion to biologically effective
lighting, an efficient new system with modern luminaires 11
and lighting systems can at the same time make for
Biological efficiency a relative decrease of the energy consumption (see
in acc. with DIN V 5031-100
1.6
section 16.5.2 and section 16.5.3). Due to the moderni-
sation and use of lighting management systems, the
12
TIP04_13_180_EN
1.4
increase of energy consumption in a conversion to biolog-
13
17,000 K
ically effective lighting is limited to about 25 % (in
14,000 K
1.2
accordance with DIN SPEC 67600)
D75
1.0
D65 8,000 K
0.8 D55
D50 14
0.6 F10
F11
0.4
0.2
F12
15
0
16
0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000
Correlated colour
Planckian radiator Standard illuminants
temperature
Daylight spectrum Fluorescent lamps
Halogen lamps in K
LED
Intro
duction
1 16.4 Lighting Scheme Glare may considerably impair the sight. It diminishes the
visual performance (disability glare) and visual comfort
For a lighting scheme, the requirements described in (discomfort glare). A differentiation is to be made between
2 EN 12464-1 have to be implemented project-specifically. direct glare and indirect glare. Direct glare comes from
For that, the rooms are divided into the visual task area(s), luminaires or other areas with excessive luminance, for
the respective immediate surroundings and the background example, the incidence of light through windows. Glare by
3 (Fig. 16/7). reflection acts indirectly, caused by reflections on shining
surfaces.
Room structuring serves for the planning of a balanced
10
Minimum 0.5 m
11
EU EU EU
12
Minimum 3 m
13
EH = 1/3 · EU
14 EU
TIP04_13_181_EN
16 Visual task EH
EU
Mean illuminance in the background
Background
17
Fig. 16/7: Room structuring for the lighting concept
Intro
duction
• How do I want to achieve the effect? on luminaires that work efficiently and sustainably, 1
For example, through colour contrasts, different optimally comply with normative, qualitative and design
illuminances, colour temperatures, light density beam requirements, have long maintenance intervals and are easy
focusing or scattering and adjustable light effects (time-, to assemble. 2
environment-, event-dependent)
• Which design functions are to be assumed by lamps and The term “luminaire” describes the entire lighting appliance
luminaires?
Architectural integration through form language,
including all components required for fixing, operation and
protection of the illuminants – in colloquial speech often
3
arrangement, number, grid, bundling etc. referred to as “lamp”. Luminaires are differentiated by:
The selection of the light colour is a matter of taste, design Luminaires distribute, deflect and transform the light 11
and application. The light colours influence the room emitted by the illuminant. Every illuminant type has a spe-
atmosphere: warm white light is mainly perceived as cosy cific light output. This is referred to as luminous flux, stated
and comfortable, neutral white light rather as unemotional.
The light of lamps with the same light colour may have
in lumen (lm). The LDC is the basis for lighting planning in
indoor and outdoor areas. It determines the local illumi-
12
different colour rendering properties. The minimum values nance distribution and is used as a reference for glare
for the colour rendering property (colour rendering indexes
Ra) are stated in the tables of DIN EN 12464-1 dependent
assessment.
13
on the areas of activity. For a comprehensive overview of The luminaire's light output ratio describes, how effectively
the illuminants, refer to the Appendix. a luminaire distributes the light of an illuminant. The higher
it is, the less energy has to be spent to achieve the desired 14
illuminance.
16.4.3 Lighting Tools
Intro
duction
10 III
Safety class III Luminaires for operation with
safety extra-low voltage.
electrical components must comply with the relevant safety
regulations (for example, the standard series
III IEC 61347 / VDE 0712 for equipment). Moreover, also the
so-called performance requirements for the equipment's
11 Tab. 16/4: Symbols for safety classes in accordance with IEC 61140 principle of operation should be considered and observed.
(VDE 0140-1) To indicate conformity with the standards, the luminaires
should carry the ENEC approval mark.
12
First code figure Second code figure
0 Not protected 0 Not protected
13 1 Protected against solid objects with 50 mm in diameter and 1 Drip-proof against vertical drops
more
2 Protected against solid objects with 12.5 mm in diameter and 2 Drip-proof when tilted at angles of up to 15°
14 3
more
Protected against solid objects with 2.5 mm in diameter and 3 Rain / spray-proof
more
17
Tab. 16/5: Degrees of protection in accordance with IEC 60529 (VDE 0470-1)
Intro
duction
To ensure standard-compliant performance also for the • Free-standing luminaires such as Futurel® 5MS or 1
luminaires, in particular LED luminaires, the standards Futurel® LED are lighting systems that are individually
IEC / PAS 62722-1 and 62722-2-1 were published (here, dimmable and locally adjustable.
PAS stands for “publicly available specification”). These 2
standards are currently being prepared as drafts for Euro-
pean standards (EN 62722-1 and EN 62722-2-1). The
requirements are already met in the development of LED
luminaires, which is of great importance for the planning
3
of lighting systems [22].
Degrees of protection
4
The degree of protection of a luminaire indicates whether
it is suitable for the desired lighting application and can 5
be operated safely. The luminaires must be constructed
such that no foreign bodies or moisture can ingress. The
degree of protection is indicated on the luminaire; the IP
code is applied for marking. The first code figure after the
6
abbreviation “IP” (international protection) describes the
protection against the ingress of foreign bodies, the
second code figure the protection against the ingress of • Pendant luminaires such as ARKTIKA-P LED are 7
water (see Tab. 16/5). suspended from the ceiling on steel wires or threaded
rods. They are thus also design elements and optionally
Constructional properties available with direct / indirect light distribution. 8
The building's ceiling construction influences the selection
of luminaires. The luminaire design is differentiated into
free-standing luminaires, surface-mounted luminaires,
9
recessed luminaires or pendant luminaires. The mounting
and maintenance options are an additional criterion for the
luminaire construction. The luminaire design (housing 10
form, surface structure and colouring) has a significant
influence on the appearance of interiors and becomes
more and more important in the subjective decision in 11
favour of or against a luminaire. Objective distinguishing
features are reliability, economic efficiency and stability of
value. 12
13
14
15
16
17
Intro
duction
1 • Surface-mounted luminaires such as Quadrature®2 are • Downlights are special, normally round ceiling lumi-
mounted visibly on the ceiling. They are thus part of the naires fitted with reflectors and other optical elements
room impression and a means of architectural designing. (such as Lunis® 2), which can also be swivel-mounted.
2 They are available as recessed downlights for recessed
mounting in ceilings and as surface downlights for
surface mounting on ceilings.
3
12
13
14
15
16
17
Intro
duction
• Moisture-proof luminaires comply at least with degree the single facets, the so-called light point resolution 1
of protection IP X4 (such as Monsun®). They are primarily arises. Glare is minimised by that. At the same time, the
used in industry and trade as well as in garages and cellar many facets provide for very uniform lighting. Due to the
rooms. A positive side effect of the higher degree of lamp's low mounting position, maintenance is also facil- 2
protection is often a lower sensitivity to dirt and asso- itated. Under normal conditions, the mirror remains
ciated with that an extension of the maintenance maintenance-free.
intervals. 3
11
12
13
Intro
duction
1 16.5 Lighting Calculation For this equation, the following correlations apply with
regard to the luminous fluxes:
In the next step of professional lighting planning, the
2 lighting concept is reviewed on the basis of the speci ΦN
fications for the simplified efficiency factor method as ηB · ηR =
described in the standard DIN V18599-4. The electrical Φtot
3 efficiency referred to a floor area can be determined for
a calculation area with the following formula: En · A
ΦN =
MF
4 kA · Em
Φtot = n · z · Φ
pj =
MF · ηS · ηLB · ηR
5 Where
Where
12 n
z
Number of luminaires
Number of lamps per luminaire
a
b
Room depth
Room width
En Rated illuminance hN For "direct" or mainly "direct" lighting: difference
A Floor area of the room in height between luminaire plane and working plane
13 Φ Luminous flux of lamp For "indirect" or mainly "indirect" lighting: difference
in height between ceiling and working plane
ηB Total luminous efficacy
ηR Room efficiency factor
MF Maintenance factor
14 The table values for the room efficiency factor can be
interpolated. For simplification, Fig. 16/8 shows three
interpolated curves for the correlation between room index
15 and room efficiency factor.
16
17
Intro
duction
TIP04_13_182_EN
a lighting system. With the efficiency factor method, the
100 number of luminaires required for a given illuminance can
be determined. The illuminances at relevant points in the
90
room are calculated by the computer. The lighting engi-
neering result is output in various display forms (mean
3
80
value, iso-illuminance curves, value tables, diagrams).
70 Moreover, a clear picture of the lighting system is conveyed
(Fig. 16/9). 4
60
10
0 1 2 3 4
Room index k
5
7
Fig. 16/8: Room efficiency factor ηR as back to page 318
a function of the room index k 8
10
11
N
12
m 12
10
8
13
6
4 14
2
15
0
TIP04_13_183_EN
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 m
16
100 200 300 400 500
Illuminance in lx
17
Fig. 16/9: Example of a calculated spatial distribution of the illuminances in an office
Intro
duction
10
Course of daylight
11
Rated illuminance
12
13
14
Power consumption
15
Time
16 Person entering
Person leaving
17
TIP04_13_184_EN
Fig. 16/10: Daylight- and presence-dependent lighting requirements for an assembly facility back to page 321
Intro
duction
By using a LMS for offices and industrial buildings, consid- –– Switching of the luminaires can be effected through 1
erable energy savings can be achieved if a daylight- and the control line
presence-dependent lighting control complements the –– A relay is not required
Fig. 16/10).
available daylight (Fig. 16/10 Light sensors detect the –– The inrush currents are very low 2
existing light level and automatically control the additional –– Feedbacks like “Lamp status” and “EB status” are
light input. The user can manually control the desired possible
illuminance any time. If a motion / presence sensor is used
in addition, the lighting only switches on automatically if
–– Synchronous scene transitions, all relevant light values 3
are saved in the EB
people are in or enter the room. This again increases the –– Group allocation can be changed without rewiring
savings potential considerably.
• DMX for effect lighting: 4
As an additional application, LMS allow for dynamic colour DMX stands for “digital multiplex” and is another digital
solutions which are easy to integrate and operate. Lumi- communication protocol for lighting control. DMX allows
nous intensity and colour for effect light can then be for the simultaneous control of up to 512 light channels. 5
selected dynamically or at the push of a button. Application The data rate is rapid 250 kB / s. Especially lighting
examples for so-called ambience lighting are: shops, show- scenarios in which a large number of RGB light points and
rooms and points of sale (PoS), fitness and wellness areas,
restaurants, bars, hotel lobbies, conference rooms, schools,
numerous dynamic, quick colour changes are required
can thus be illuminated excellently. Dimmable control
6
universities, further education institutions, façade illumina- gear with DALI interfaces are able to implement DMX
tion. For so-called scene-based lighting, moods can be
enhanced or a biological effect can be caused, for example,
dimming commands exactly and in real-time
• EnOcean – wireless in buildings: 7
activation through a high blue component in the light EnOcean is a battery-free radio technology. The sensors
spectrum with high illuminance. get their energy from the proximity – tiny changes in
movement, pressure, light, temperature, or vibration are 8
Typically, one of the following interfaces is used for LMS sufficient to transfer radio signals. The maximum reach of
control: the signals is 30 m inside buildings and 300 m in the free
• Dimming EB with 1...10 V interface:
In this standard solution, ballasts and control unit are
field. EnOcean transmits the signals on the licence-free
868 MHz frequency band. Clients benefit from EnOcean
9
connected via a poled 2-core control line. The control radio products in terms of planning flexibility and low
current intensity determines the dimming position of the
connected EB
installation costs. There is no wiring expense. This is
a significant advantage not only in the planning phase
10
• DALI for general lighting: but also in the later usage of the rooms. Adaptation of
Lighting control, sensors, operating units, electronic the wireless components to the room usage is straight-
control gear and lamps communicate via the professional forward. EnOcean light and presence sensors or wall 11
interface standard DALI (digital addressable lighting push-buttons can be relocated without disturbing opera-
interface) and respond optimally to each other. DALI is tional workflows and without causing any dirt or noise
a manufacturer-independent interface standard for
dimmable electronic ballasts and provides high func-
• 3DIM and Powerline for outdoor lighting:
3DIM can be used to implement three different
12
tionality as well as easy handling. Via a 2-core control control and dimming functions in one electronic ballast.
line, a maximum of 64 DALI control gears can be flexibly
controlled either individually or together and in up to 16
Tab. 16/6 shows a simple comparison of the different
scope of functions
13
groups. Switching and dimming of the lighting is effected
via the control line. A relay is not required. Important In DALI mode, bidirectional communication takes place
information such as the lamp status is saved in the between the EB and LMS, as described above. StepDIM is 14
control gear and forwarded to the control unit as infor- used if a special control line (switched phase) is available in
mation. Advantages as opposed to the 1…10 V interface addition to the power supply line. In contrast, AstroDIM
(see Fig. 16/11
16/11): gets by without any control line, as a dimming profile can 15
–– The selection of the mains phase is independent of the be preset in the 3DIM module.
control line
–– The DALI control line is protected against reverse
polarity; a special bus cable is not required
With the Powerline technology, existing power supply
systems can be utilised to create a network for the data
16
–– One control line is sufficient for a maximum of 64 EB in transfer, without the need for an additional data cable. As
outdoor lighting is usually supplied via an in-house power
up to 16 groups
supply system, Powerline communication is not subject to 17
Intro
duction
1
e. g. L1 L2 L3
2 1...10V
KNX/EIB
3 1...10V
1...10V
4
1...10V
5 1...10V
1...10 V
6 1...10V
1...10V
7
1...10V
9
e. g. L1 L2 L3
KNX/EIB
10
11
12
13
14
15
TIP04_13_185_EN
17
Fig. 16/11: Comparison of the system design between 1…10 V and DALI back to page 321
Intro
duction
10
11
Operating modes 12
DALI
DALI
DALI
DALI StepDIM
StepDIM
StepDIM
StepDIM AstroDIM
AstroDIM
AstroDIM
AstroDIM
13
Intro
duction
1 16.5.3 Comparison of Lighting Concepts Tab. 16/7 are selected in compliance with EN 12464-1
(in particular Table 5.11.5) for the usage profile “Industrial
In the configuration and planning of lighting systems, the activities and crafts – Electrical and electronic industry –
2 lighting costs are usually the decisive criterion. The basic rough assembly work”.
considerations deal with the question: refurbishing or
purchasing a new system? In the example, no local restriction of the visual task is
3 Since nowadays the energy costs represent more than half
assumed. Therefore, the lighting must be designed as
general lighting so that the visual conditions are equally
of the total costs of a lighting system, concepts should be good at all places in the room. For test stations and other
Tab. 16/7: System and lighting data for back to page 325
an industrial hall
13
14
15
16
17
Fig. 16/12: Lighting concept finding for the refurbishment of an industrial hall (left: 3D view; right: floor plan)
Intro
duction
For the sample calculations, lighting systems with strip Software-based solution 15
lighting on the basis of fluorescent lamps (T8 and T5) as
well as LEDs are selected: In calculation tools such as RELUX or DIALux, the room is
• SiTECO DUS strip lighting system – T26 2 × 58 W – LLB
(low-loss ballast LLB, fluorescent lamp T26)
mapped (mind the reflectance coefficients of the boundary
room areas!), the area of the visual task is defined, and the
16
Luminous flux 2 ⋅ 5,200 lm corresponding reference surfaces are inserted. The lumi-
Luminaire efficiency factor 71.9 % naire type is selected in the tool's project manager and the
• SiTECO Modario strip lighting system – T16 2 × 35 W – EB maintenance factor is defined. 17
(electronic ballast EB, fluorescent lamp T16)
Intro
duction
1 The calculation tool allows the luminaires to be distributed In the project, almost identical piece numbers have been
automatically using a quick planning feature or manually. calculated for the different lighting solutions. However,
While the simplified efficiency factor method just differenti- the maintenance time varies considerably between the
2 ates direct, partly / partly direct / indirect and indirect light- variants. Additionally, attention should be paid to the
ing, the calculation tools consider the radiation characteris- specific connected loads, which generate costs in electric
tics of the luminaires (Fig. 16/13). power distribution in proportion to the loads connected.
3 The calculations with the software tool supply the follow-
The conventional solution with T26, 2 × 58 W achieves
9.2 W / m2, the modern variant with fluorescent lamps T16,
ing piece numbers: 2 × 35 W 5.8 W / m2 and the solution with LED lighting
4.9 W / m2. Thus, the LED solution involves significantly less
4 • n (DUS, 2 × 58 W T26, LLB) = 90 pieces
• n (Modario, 2 × 35 W T16, EB) = 110 pieces maintenance expense and at the same time the most
• n (Modario, 70 W LED, EB) = 105 pieces efficient lighting technology with the same number of
pieces. Tab. 16/8 states important basic data for a system
5 A typical evaluation of the calculation with a software tool and energy cost comparison.
for the illuminances on the working plane and the associ-
ated data is given in Fig. 16/14
16/14. The data from Tab. 16/8 can be used for a calculation of
6 The very high consistency of the results of the simplified
profitability. The following manufacturer-based online tools
provide assistance:
efficiency factor method and the software tool can be
12
13
14
15
TIP04_13_186
16
DUS, T26 2 × 58 W Modario, T16 2× 35 W Modario, LED 70 W
17
Fig. 16/13: Radiation characteristics for the three sample lighting systems
Intro
duction
4
m N
30.0
27.5 5
25.0
22.5
6
20.0
17.5
15.0 7
12.5
10.0 8
7.5
5.0
2.5
9
0.0
10
TIP04_13_187_EN
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 m
User profile: Industrial activities and crafts – Electrical and electronic industry 5.11.5 (EN 12464-1, 8.2011)
Assembly work: rough, e. g. large transformers (Ra > 80.00)
13
Evaluation area 1 Reference plane 1
Em
Horizontal
313 lx (≥ 300 lx)
14
Emin 252 lx
Emin/Em (U0) 0.80 (≥ 0.60)
UGR (8.0H 13.3H)
Position
≤ 24.3
0.75 m
(< 25.00)
15
Type No. Make
1 105
SiTECO
Order no.: 5TR202D2T
16
Luminaire name: Modario®
Equipment: 1 × LED 840 / 6,200 lm
17
Fig. 16/14: Excerpt of the results of a software calculation for the LED lighting system back to page 326
Intro
duction
5 Illuminance
Uniformity
322
0.74
315
0.76
313
0.8
Costs (energy, maintenance)
Tab. 16/8: Result overview for the calculations with a software tool and basic data for energy cost considerations back to page 326
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
Intro
duction
TIP04_13_188_EN
leave a place safely, to avoid the outbreak of panic, and to
ensure the safety of potentially hazardous workplaces, 10
safety lighting has to maintain the following functions High risk task area lighting
during a failure of the normal power supply:
• Lighting or back-lighting of the safety signs for 11
emergency escape routes Fig. 16/15: Types of emergency lighting in accordance with
• Lighting of emergency escape routes EN 1838
12
Requirements Installation Devices Inspection / maintenance
National building law
ASchG / ArbStättV / ASR
ISO 23601
Standard series IEC 60364
EN 50171 (VDE 0558-508)
IEC 60896-21
ArbStättV
MPrüfVo 13
MBO / LBO (VDE 0100) IEC 60598-2-22 (VDE 0711-2-22) IEC 60364-6 (VDE 0100-600)
BGR 216 / BGR 131-1 and -2 IEC 60364-5-56 (VDE 0100-560) DIN 4844-1 and -2 IEC 60364-7-718 (VDE 0100-718)
EN 12193
EN 12464-1 and -2
IEC 60364-7-718 (VDE 0100-718)
EN 50172 (VDE 0108-100:2005)
Standard series ISO 3864
Standard series IEC 61347
EN 50172 (VDE 0108-100:2005)
VDE V 0108-100 14
BGR / GUV-R 108 VDE V 0108-100 (VDE 0712) EN 50171 (VDE 0558-508)
Standard series EN 50272 EMVG Standard series EN 50272
(VDE 0510) (VDE 0510)
EN 1838
EN 15193
Manufacturer's instructions
BetrSichV
15
MLAR BGV A3
EltBauVo
Tab. 16/9: Statutory bases, standards and guidelines around safety lighting 16
17
Intro
duction
Self-contained system
back-lit safety sign
Illuminance (lx)
limitation (LPS)
4
(≤ 0.5 s)
(≤ 15 s)
people
8 High-rise buildings b) 15 3 d) × × × × × × × –
Emergency escape routes at workplaces b) 15 × × × × × × × ×
Workplaces involving special hazards b) 0.5 c) × × × × × × – ×
10 f) 1 h is also permissible for overground areas in railway stations depending on the evacuation concept.
g) Rated operating time of 3 h if the safety lighting is continually operated together with the general lighting; it must be possible to identify at least one light switch as
local switching device from any place even if the general lighting fails. Safety lighting is automatically switched off after a settable time if it is supplied from
a power source for safety purposes.
Tab. 16/10: Safety lighting requirements of physical structures for the gathering of people based on the pre-standard VDE V 0108-
100:2010 (Note: EN 50172:2004 correlates with VDE 0108-100:2005 and deviates from the newer pre-standard VDE V 0108-100:2010 in
12 some parts)
13 VDE V 0108-100 states the requirements placed on safety The German pre-standard VDE V 0108-100, which is based
lighting for the different rooms and buildings (see also on the older European standard EN 50172 for safety light-
Tab. 16/10). Standby lighting is used to enable people to ing systems, requires the following for electrical installa-
14 continue economically and / or technically important work tions, circuits, control and bus systems among other things:
during the failure of normal lighting. For this reason, the • Along the course of emergency escape routes, two or
provisions applicable to safety lighting have to be fulfilled more lamps must be installed in every area for reasons of
15 and the wattage of standby lighting has to correspond to system integrity
that of normal lighting. At a low illuminance level, safety • If more than one safety light is required in a room, the
lighting may only be used for shutting down or terminating number of luminaires must alternate between two
16 work processes. circuits. A maximum of 20 luminaires may be connected
into one circuit. Their load may not exceed 60 % of the
rated current of the overcurrent protection device
• The following types of power sources can be
17 distinguished:
Intro
duction
Intro
duction
1 If the building layout allows for splitting the safety lighting supply. In those cases, the requirements placed on battery
into fire sections, the choice could be low power systems rooms must be observed additionally.
(LPS, previously known as group battery systems). In most
2 cases, however, a central power supply system (CPS), also When planning a safety lighting system, the spatial condi-
known as central battery system, can be recommended. tions (Fig. 16/16) and operational requirements should be
clarified early. In this context, EN 1838 sets the following
3 The final circuits from the low power and central power
systems to the luminaires are wired in compliance with the
requirements: The luminaires of a safety lighting system
should be fitted as follows:
Sample Directive on Fireproofing Requirements for Con- • At least 2 m above the floor
• Close to every exit that is to be used in an emergency 1)
4 duits and Line Systems (MLAR) in Germany. The advan-
tages of these systems are their relatively short cable paths • At stipulated emergency exits and safety signs 1)
and the fact that the energy required in case of a failure is • Close to staircases 1) so that every step is lit directly
available in the form of batteries very close to where the • Close to every level change 1)
5 energy is consumed. It is therefore not necessary to build • At every directional change of a corridor 2)
up and maintain intricate and costly switchgear and cable • At every corridor junction 2)
networks for standby power distribution. • Outside of and close to every exit 1)
6 With regard to functional endurance, rooms containing
• Close to every first aid point 1)
• Close to every fire-fighting or alarm station 1)
battery systems and distribution boards for safety power • Close to escape equipment, call systems and safety zones
for disabled persons 1)
7 supply must comply with the requirements of MLAR 2005
and the model building code EltBauVo 01 / 2009. In particu-
lar, it must be ensured that the distribution boards for For the safety zones and call systems for disabled persons,
safety power supply are kept separate from the distribution two-way communication equipment has to be provided,
8 boards for normal power supply in functional endurance
class E30. This also applies in cases where these batteries 1 Usually a horizontal distance of 2 m max.
are part of the main distribution circuit of the safety power 2 All directions must be illuminated
10
11
12
13
TIP04_13_189_EN
14
Rescue sign luminaires at escape doors
15 Rescue sign luminaires at turns and junctions
Safety luminaires for escape route lighting
17
Fig. 16/16: Safety lighting plan for a whole storey in an office building
Intro
duction
and alarm devices have to be installed in lavatories for For the subitems 'safety lighting of emergency escape 1
disabled persons. In addition to this, first aid points and routes', 'anti-panic lighting and safety lighting of work-
locations with fire fighting equipment that are not near the places involving special hazards', the requirements of
emergency escape route or inside the area of anti-panic EN 1838 have to be met. Tab. 16/11 gives a brief overview 2
lighting must be especially well lit (5 lx vertical illuminance of the most important aspects to be considered for electri-
measured on the equipment). Signs at emergency exits and cal engineering.
exits along an emergency escape route must be lit or
back-lit. For an initial power estimation of the required emergency
3
lighting system, a correlation of the installation height of
When assessing the budget for emergency lighting, you
should not only look into the pure investment costs, but
the luminaires and the required power per area can be
Fig. 16/18).
stated in the form of a straight line (Fig. 16/18 For a more 4
you should also factor in the expense for inspection, moni- detailed determination, the ratio 40 : 1 has to be adhered
toring, replacement and power consumption (Fig. 16/17). to for the uniformity between the maximum and minimum
Emergency lighting is to be installed, monitored, and illuminance (Emax / Emin) in accordance with EN 1838 along 5
maintained in accordance with VDE V 0108‑100 or the the centre line of the emergency escape route. In that,
older EN 50172. IEC 62034 (VDI 0711-400) describes the emergency escape routes broader than 2 m are to be
requirements on automatic testing options in case these
are to be provided. Safety luminaires have to comply
divided into multiple strips of 2 m or equipped with anti-
panic lighting. For workplaces involving special hazards, an
6
with IEC 60598‑2-22 (VDE 0711‑2-22) to reach the illuminance of 15 lx (or 10 % of the illuminance of the
required lighting level. For a cost estimation, the depre-
ciation period should be clarified.
general lighting) and a ratio Emax / Emin of 10 : 1 must be
adhered to. 7
10
12
BT *
13
Labour cost Luminaire Labour
Cost of Cost of Cost share
for visual and battery cost for
investment electricity
inspection
FT/BT *
replacement maintenance 14
Labour cost Maintenance
for test cost
15
Operating
cost
16
TIP04_13_190_EN
Time
* FT functional test
Cost of emergency light system
BT battery test
17
Fig. 16/17: Cost factors of emergency lighting
Intro
duction
TIP04_13_191_EN
the service life of the LED emergency lighting in continuous
9 operation and help reducing the operating costs, as LEDs
have very good dimming properties. This is because the
0.1
the service life of a controlled LED is longer than that of an Fig. 16/18: Power estimate for emergency back to page 333
LED operated with permanently high current. Moreover, lighting systems with a central battery, based on experience
11 LEDs are virtually maintenance-free, which is an additional gained with fluorescent lamps at an illuminance of 1 lx
12 Requirements Safety lighting for emergency escape Anti-panic lighting Safety lighting for workplaces
for ... routes involving special hazards
Illuminance In 2 m wide strips, the horizontal The horizontal illuminance on the free The maintenance value of the
13 illuminance along the centre line of an
emergency escape route must be 1 lx
floor area (except for 0.5 m wide border
areas) must be 0,5 lx minimum.
illuminance on the working surface
must be at least 10 % of the task-related
minimum maintenance value for the illuminance
or 15 lx minimum
14 The middle section of the emergency
escape route (at least 50 % of the route
width or a 1 m wide strip) must be lit
with 0.5 lx minimum
15 Duration Operating time 1 h min. Operating time 1 h min. Operating time corresponds at least to
the hazard duration for persons at the
workplace
Readiness 50 % of the illuminance in 5 s, 50 % of the illuminance in 5 s, The requested luminous intensity must
16 100 % of the illuminance in 60 s
(for Germany 15 s)
100 % of the illuminance in 60 s
(for Germany 15 s)
be either permanently given or reached
within 0.5 s
Other Required in lavatories for people with
disabilities
17 Tab. 16/11: Excerpt of the requirements in EN 1838 for the safety lighting of emergency escape routes, back to page 333
workplaces involving special hazards and for anti-panic lighting
Intro
duction
The small size of the LED luminaires leaves room for the The energy demand comparison of specifically planned LED 1
architectural integration of emergency lighting. However, emergency lighting from CEAG with uncontrolled, conven-
optics and reflectors for the required lighting are to be tional emergency lighting integrated into the general
considered as well as the temperature conditions in small lighting depicted in Fig. 16/19 points out the technical 2
installation spaces. development. In the example, a corridor with a length of
5
3m
100 %
6
2m
8
3m
50 %
9
2m
11
3m
10 %
12
2m
15 lx 1.5 lx 15 lx 1.5 lx
Emergency operation 13
Number of Number of Dimming Battery current Total battery
luminaires luminaires level consumption current
Emin
emergency Emin Emax
14
Control mains emergency g2 = per luminaire consumption Energy
Variant Luminaire gear operation operation operation [lx] [lx] Emax [A] [A] demand
EVG +
Louvre luminaire,
No. 1 CEAG 5 3 100 % 4 113 1:28 0.250 0.750 100 %
white, 1 × 58 W
V-CG-S
Louvre luminaire, CEAG 15
TIP04_13_192_EN
Fig. 16/19: Lighting engineering instead of battery use back to page 334 17
Intro
duction
1 30 m and a ceiling height of 3 m is considered. The re- In case of danger, they must be easily and safely accessible
quested illuminance for the general lighting is 100 lx. For from generally accessible rooms or from the outside. The
the emergency lighting, EN 1838 requests 1 lx minimum at doors to the electrical operating rooms must not lead
2 a uniformity directly into the staircase with the required (emergency)
stairs. The emergency escape route from an electrical
g2 = Emax / Emin greater than 40 / 1 operating room to the exit must not be longer than 35 m.
3 As an intermediate stage, the use of controllable electronic
The doors must be self-closing and easy to open from
inside with an emergency lever.
ballasts (CEAG E-EB in Fig. 16/19) can already reduce the
tion expense can be reduced and the costs for smaller In accordance with EN 50272-2 (VDE 0510-2), the doors
13 a) b) c)
14
MDNP MDNP MDNP
15
TIP04_13_193_EN
17 Fig. 16/20: Functional endurance for the distributors of a safety lighting system (MDSP = main distribution board back to page 337
for safety power supply; MDNP = main distribution board for normal power supply)
Electric discharge Fluorescent lamp (with 33 – 90 lm / W 500 – 6,200 lm EB, LLB 16,000 – 20,000 h
(low-pressure) external control gear) T8: (with EB up to (XXT up to 75,000 h)
Ø 26 mm 100 lm / W)
Fluorescent lamp (with 58 – 114 lm / W 140 – 7,000 lm EB, LLB 10,000 – 24,000 h
external control gear) T5: (XT up to 35,000 h)
Ø 16 mm
Light tube (e.g. “neon tube”) < 30 lm / W Irrelevant, depending Depending on colour 15,000 h
on gas filling and and tube length
length (high‑voltage)
Low-pressure sodium lamp 100 – 174 lm / W 1,800 – 32,000 lm Leak transformer 30,000 h
Electric discharge High-pressure sodium lamp 3) 72 – 150 lm / W 3,600 – 130,000 lm Reactor, CB, EB with 12,000 – 30,000 h
(high-pressure) appropriate overload
protection and usually an
additional ignitor
Metal halide lamp (quartz and 71 – 120 lm / W 1,700 – 240,000 lm Reactor, CB, EB with 6,000 – 15,000 h (up
ceramic technology) appropriate overload to 30,000 h in
protection exceptional cases)
Semiconductor High-power LED 60 – 130 lm / W (in the 75 – 300 lm Special electronic ballasts Up to 50,000 h and
technology 9) Mid-power LED future: Ø approx. Approx. 10 – 60 lm and dimmers (depending more
100 lm / W) on the LED type via (among other things
constant current: dependent on thermal
e.g. 350 / 500 / 700 mA, management and area
Multi-chip LED Variable, depending on or constant voltage: of application)
(e.g. COB: chip on board) the type, circuit board e.g. 10 / 12 / 24 V)
size and number of
LEDs (e.g. COB with
10,000 lm) 10)
OLED 25 – 40 lm / W (in the 15 – 70 lm Special electronic ballasts 5,000 h (Gen 1)
future: 75 lm / W, (as at 04 / 13, size- and dimmers (constant 10,000 h (Gen 2),
135 lm / W max.) dependent, i.e., luminous flux) increasing tendency
increasing)
100 2,700 K (ww) 11) Continuously dimmable (100 – 0 %) • Low acquisition costs (except for, e.g., special lamps)
Dimming-dependent perceived colour • Perfect colour rendering
100 2,700 – 3,000 K (ww) 11) shift: the stronger the dimming, the • Uncomplicated dimming
warmer the light colour • Brilliance through point-type light source
100 2,700 – 3,100 K (ww) 11) • Perfect colour rendering
(exception: cold reflector • Uncomplicated dimming
lamps also up to 4,500 K) • Brilliance through point-type light source
79 – 98 (the higher the CRI, the 2,700 – 8,000 K Continuously dimmable with EB • High luminous efficacy
lower the luminous efficacy) (ww, nw, dw) 11) (100 – 1 %); below 30 %, possibly • Long service life
increased perceived colour shift • Different light colours
60 greater than 90 (the higher 2,700 – 8,000 K Continuously dimmable with EB • Different lengths
the CRI, the lower the luminous (ww, nw, dw) 11) (100 – 1 %); below 30 %, possibly • Uniform light distribution
efficacy) increased perceived colour shift
80 – 89 (the higher the CRI, the 2,500 – 4,000 K Rarely dimmable • High luminous efficacy
lower the luminous efficacy) (ww, nw) 11) • Long service life
• Different light colours
80 – 99 (the higher the CRI, the 2,700 – 8,000 K Dimmable with EB (100 – 1 %); below • Great variety of sizes and forms
lower the luminous efficacy) (ww, nw, dw) 11) 30 %, possibly increased perceived colour • Special variants with partially extremely high switching
shift capacities
80 3,000 – 4,000 K Not dimmable • Very long service life; high luminous efficacy
• Flicker-free instant start
• High luminous flux over a wide range of temperatures due
to amalgam technology; low luminous flux decline
– Colour depending on gas Not dimmable • Long service life
filling • Free forming possible
• Colourfulness
– Yellow (monochrome) Not dimmable • Extremely high luminous efficacy
< 25 2,000 K (yellow) Efficiency reduction down to 50 % of the • Very high luminous efficacy
rated power possible by changing the
impedance if start-up was at rated power
< 60 3,200 – 4,200 K Efficiency reduction down to 50 % of the • Good luminous efficacy
(ww, nw) 11) rated power possible by changing the
impedance if start-up was at rated power
65 – 96 3,000 – 7,250 K Only ceramic technology dimmable (with • High luminous efficacy
(ww, nw, dw) 11) reservations) via special electronic ballast • V
ery good colour rendering
(possibly involving colour point change, • Brilliance through point-type light source
shortened service life, reduced luminous
efficacy)
70 – 95, depending on the 2,700 – 6,500 K (ww, nw, Continuously dimmable with a dimmer • Small design allows for free forming
luminescent substance (the dw) 11) (depending on the that is either integrated into the • Long service life and high switching capability
higher the CRI, the lower the luminescent substance also electronic ballast or external (100 – 0 %) • High efficiency
luminous efficacy) colder possible; observe fine via pulse width modulation or • Immediate light upon switch-on
subdivision) controlled constant current; below 30 % • Wide range of operating temperatures
Up to 99 (depending on the Continuous colour control in possibly increased colour shift • High shock and vibration resistance
composition and selection of the available spectral range 12) • No UV and IR radiation (except for UV LED)
single LEDs; with conventional • High colour saturation
RGB mixture possibly lower CRI) • Multi-LEDs allow for colour control and high CRI
80 (95 and more technically 2,700 – 6,500 K Continuously dimmable with a dimmer • Extremely thin and light
possible) (ww, nw, dw) 11) that is either integrated into the • Production variant options: flexible, transparent or
(depending on the electronic ballast or external (100 – 1 %) reflective
luminescent substance also via pulse width modulation or • Immediate light upon switch-on
colder possible; typical value controlled constant current • No UV and IR radiation and high CRI
currently 3,500 K) • Homogeneously radiating, anti-glare area light source
• Poor luminous efficacy: less than 5 % of the electrical energy is transformed into light • Domestic sector, hotel sector, gastronomy, museums, sales areas etc.
• Maintenance-intensive due to short service life – only one light colour (ww) 11) • Areas in which very good colour rendering is a priority and
• Poor luminous efficacy: less than 10 % of the electrical energy is transformed into dimmability is desired
light (approx. 20 – 30 % more efficient than general service lamps)
• • Maintenance-intensive due to short service life
• Only one light colour (ww) 11)
• Temperature-dependent brightness • Uniform light distribution, for example, for general lighting in public
buildings, offices, corridors, shops, industrial facilities, tunnels
• Few sizes available • Outdoor installations, roads, tunnels, sports venues, ships (in
particular if diffused general lighting is requested and lamp
replacement is difficult)
• Extremely low colour rendering • Outdoor installations without any colour rendering demand: roads,
• Slow start-up upon ignition (full luminous flux after about 6 – 10 min) tunnels, waterways etc.
• Usually no hot restrike ignition (only after a cooling time of 0.25 – 15 min)
• Low colour rendering • Outdoor installations with low colour rendering demand: e.g. roads,
• Slow start-up upon ignition (full luminous flux after about 5 min) industry, squares, parks, pedestrian zones, halls
• Usually no hot restrike ignition (only after a cooling time of 0.25 – 15 min)
• Slow start-up upon ignition (full luminous flux after about 1 – 5 min); usually no hot • High colour rendering demand and long burning times – in particular
restrike ignition (cooling time 0.25 – 15 min); not dimmable or only to a limited with ceramic technology: e.g. sale, halls, architectural lighting
extent; filling-dependent colour difference, in particular with quartz technology
(green / red cast)
• Manufacturer-specific and limited sizes (currently 110 × 110 mm max.) • Decorative lighting (light sculptures, design luminaires) and
• Limited availability of forms and connectors: no standards integrated into technical devices (e.g. mobile phone)
• Diffuse radiation, therefore no light deflexion possible • Medium-term: automobile integration
• High acquisition costs, high “lm / W” price • General lighting: office, sale, hospitality
• Frequent or short switch-on and • Protection against humidity because of the risk of corrosion 7) By stating defined areas, strongly
-off • Disposal as hazardous waste in acc. with WEEE 13), among other things differing colour impressions may
• Required light immediately after because of the sodium content (Internet: lightcycle.de) be effected with identical colour
switch-on specifications – in particular when
• Frequent or short switch-on and • To be handled with gloves (among other things, to prevent corrosion of mixing different illuminant types!
-off the glass)
8) Operating and disposal instructions
• Required light immediately after • Protection against humidity because of the risk of corrosion
are selected to exemplify the
switch-on • Short-term operation and frequent switching shortens the service life
subject matter for those interested
• Disposal as hazardous waste in acc. with WEEE 13), among other things
in planning: they make no claim to
because of the mercury content (Internet: lightcycle.de)
be complete and serve for
• Colour rendering demands • To be handled with gloves (among other things, to prevent corrosion of orientation only; the
• Frequent or short switch-on and the glass) manufacturer's product-specific
-off • Protection against humidity because of the risk of corrosion instructions have to be observed.
• Required light immediately after • Due to overpressure in operation to be operated in closed luminaires only
switch-on (with only a few exceptions) 9) Due to the rapid development of
• Short-term operation and frequent switching shortens the service life the semiconductor technology, the
• Disposal as hazardous waste in acc. with WEEE 13), among other things data may change within brief
because of the mercury content (Internet: lightcycle.de) intervals; in particular with regard
• Frequent or short switch-on and • To be handled with gloves (among other things, to prevent corrosion of to luminous efficacy and luminous
-off (e.g., in corridors) the glass) flux
• Required light immediately after • Protection against humidity because of the risk of corrosion
10) C
onsider thermal management!
switch-on • Due to overpressure in operation to be operated in closed luminaires only
(with only a few exceptions) 11) w
w = warm white,
• Short-term operation and frequent switching shortens the service life nw = neutral white,
• Disposal as hazardous waste in acc. with WEEE 13), among other things dw = daylight white
because of the mercury content (Internet: lightcycle.de)
• High ambient temperatures and if • Protection against electrostatic discharge 12) C
olour range depending on the
aggressive gases arise (shortening • Do not touch LED to avoid damage composition of the LED; for colour
of the service life) • Protection against humidity because of the risk of corrosion stabilisation, a colour sensor is
• Focus on low acquisition costs • General rule: the lower the temperature at the LED, the higher the required; a conventional RGB
luminous efficacy / system output and the longer the service life mixture might lead to an
• Disposal as hazardous waste in acc. with WEEE 13), among other things undesired colour cast
because of the arsenic content (Internet: lightcycle.de)
13) The WEEE Directive 2002 / 96 / EC
of the European Parliament of
2003 on waste of electrical and
electronic equipment is to
• Powerful, brilliant light for • To be handled with gloves to prevent damaging and pollution of the glass contribute to the avoidance and
accentuation because of diffused, • P rotection against humidity because of the risk of corrosion of the environmentally sound disposal of
wide-area light distribution contacts electronic scrap and was
• Not suitable yet for general lighting • The manufacturer's disposal instructions are to be observed transposed into national laws
with the required high (e.g. ElektroG of 2005 in
illuminances Germany)
Intro
duction
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
Intro
duction
Door
T30
12
MDSP
TIP04_13_194_EN
13
Fig. 16/21: Functional endurance for the safety lighting in
individual fire sections
14
15
16
17
Intro 17 Appendix
duction
3
10 IK2 ≈ IK3 ·
2
13 current:
IN · 100 %
IK“ =
χd“
14
Advantages • High transmission capacities • Distributed availability • Low losses
• Stable short-circuit currents • Self-contained power supply • Voltage stability
15 Disadvantages
• Electrical isolation
• High inrush currents • Grid instability in case of power
• Electrical isolation
• Very low short-circuit currents
• Dependency on the public grid fluctuations
• Low short-circuit currents
16 IN Nominal current, UN Nominal voltage, UK Rated short-circuit voltage, SN Nominal apparent power
17
Intro
duction
2003/54/EG
Gebäuden
EG-Richtlinie über gemeinsame Vorschriften für den EC Directive concerning common rules for the
5
Elektrizitätsbinnenmarkt und zur Aufhebung der internal market in electricity and repealing Directive
Richtlinie 96/92/EG 96/92/EC
2004/22/EG EG-Richtlinie über Messgeräte EC Directive on Measuring Instruments (MID) 6
2006/32/EG EG-Richtlinie über Endenergieeffizienz und EC Directive on energy end-use efficiency and
Energiedienstleistungen und zur Aufhebung der energy services and repealing Council Directive
Richtlinie 93/76/EWG 93/76/EEC
7
2006/42/EG EG-Richtlinie über Maschinen und zur Änderung der EC-directive on machinery, and amending Directive
Richtlinie 95/16/EG 95/16/EC
2014/35/EU EU-Richtlinie zur Harmonisierung der
Rechtsvorschriften der Mitgliedstaaten über die
EU-directive on the harmonisation of the laws of
the Member States relating to the making available
8
Bereitstellung elektrischer Betriebsmittel zur on the market of electrical equipment designed for
Verwendung innerhalb bestimmter Spannungen use within certain voltage limits
2009/125/EG
(„Niederspannungsrichtlinie“)
EG-Richtlinie zur Schaffung eines Rahmens für die EC-directive establishing a framework for the
9
Festlegung von Anforderungen an die setting of ecodesign requirements for energy-
umweltgerechte Gestaltung related products
energieverbrauchsrelevanter Produkte 10
2010/30/EU EU-Richtlinie über die Angabe des Verbrauchs an EU-directive on the indication by labelling and
Energie und anderen Ressourcen durch standard product information of the consumption
energieverbrauchsrelevante Produkte mittels
einheitlicher Etiketten und Produktinformationen
of energy and other resources by energy-related
products 11
2010/31/EU EU-Richtlinie über die Gesamteffizienz von EU-directive on the energy performance of
Gebäuden buildings
2012/27/EU EU-Richtlinie zur Energieeffizienz, zur Änderung der EU-directive on energy efficiency, amending 12
Richtlinien 2009/125/EG und 2010/30/EU und zur Directives 2009/125/EC and 2010/30/EU and
Aufhebung der Richtlinien 2004/8/EG und 2006/32/ repealing Directives 2004/8/EC and 2006/32/EC
EG
244/2009 + EG-Verordnung zur Durchführung der Richtlinie EC-regulation implementing Directive 2005/32/EC
13
859/2009 2005/32/EG für die Anforderungen an die with regard to ecodesign requirements for non-
umweltgerechte Gestaltung von Haushaltslampen directional household lamps – ecodesign
mit ungebündeltem Licht + Anforderungen an die
Ultraviolettstrahlung von Haushaltslampen mit
requirements on ultraviolet radiation of non-
directional household lamps 14
ungebündeltem Licht
245/2009 + EG-Verordnung zur Durchführung der Richtlinie „EC-regulation implementing Directive 2005/32/EC
347/2010 2005/32/EG für die Anforderungen an die
umweltgerechte Gestaltung von Leuchtstofflampen
with regard to ecodesign requirements for
fluorescent lamps without integrated ballast, for
15
ohne eingebautes Vorschaltgerät, high intensity discharge lamps, and for ballasts and
Hochdruckentladungslampen sowie Vorschaltgeräte luminaires able to operate such lamps“
und Leuchten zu ihrem Betrieb
16
89/391/EWG EWG-Richtlinie über die Durchführung von EEC-directive on the introduction of measures to
Maßnahmen zur Verbesserung der Sicherheit und encourage improvements in the safety and health
des Gesundheitsschutzes der Arbeitnehmer bei der of workers at work
Arbeit 17
1 Artikel 153
Arbeit“
Titel X – Sozialpolitik (zum Arbeitsschutz) Title X – Social Policy (relating to occupational
EU‑Vertrag safety and health)
(2009)
2 Artikel 114 Titel VII – Gemeinsame Regeln betreffend Title VII – Common Rules on Competition, Taxation
EU‑Vertrag Wettbewerb, Steuerfragen und Angleichung der and Approximation of Laws (relating to the free
(2009) Rechtsvorschriften (zum freien Warenverkehr) movement of goods)
4 60269‑5
D‑A‑CH‑CZ-
die Anwendung von Niederspannungssicherungen
Technische Regeln zur Beurteilung von
application of low-voltage fuses
Technical rules for the assessment of network
Richtlinie Netzrückwirkungen disturbances
5 EN 12193
EN 12464‑1
Licht und Beleuchtung – Sportstättenbeleuchtung
Licht und Beleuchtung – Beleuchtung von
Light and lighting – Sports lighting
Light and lighting – Lighting of work places –
Arbeitsstätten – Teil 1: Arbeitsstätten in Part 1: Indoor work places
Innenräumen
6 EN 12464‑2 Licht und Beleuchtung – Beleuchtung von Light and lighting – Lighting of work places –
Arbeitsstätten – Teil 2: Arbeitsplätze im Freien Part 2: Outdoor work places
EN 12665 Licht und beleuchtung – Grundlegende Begriffe und Light and lighting – Basic terms and criteria for
7 Kriterien für die Festlegung von Anforderungen an
die Beleuchtung
specifying lighting requirements
EN 13201 Strassenbeleuchtung (Teile 1 – 4; Entwurf Teil 5: Road lighting (Parts 1 – 4; draft part 5: energy
8 EN 15193
Energieeffizienzindikatoren))
Energetische Bewertung von Gebäuden –
performance indicators)
Energy performance of buildings – Energy
Energetische Anforderungen an die Beleuchtung requirements for lighting
17
3 60364‑4‑43 Schutzmaßnahmen – Schutz bei Überstrom Protection for safety – Protection against
overcurrent
IEC VDE 0100‑520 Errichten von Niederspannungsanlagen – Teil 5-52: Low-voltage electrical installations – Part 5-52:
60364‑5‑52 Auswahl und Errichtung elektrischer Betriebsmittel – Selection and erection of electrical equipment –
4 Kabel- und Leitungsanlagen Wiring systems
IEC VDE 0100‑530 Elektrische Anlagen von Gebäuden – Teil 5-53: Electrical installations of buildings – Part 5-53:
60364‑5‑53 Auswahl und Errichtung elektrischer Betriebsmittel; Selection and erection of electrical equipment;
Trennen, Schalten und Steuern Isolation, switching and control
5 IEC VDE 0100‑540 Errichten von Niederspannungsanlagen – Teil 5-54: Low-voltage electrical installations – Part 5-54:
60364‑5‑54 Auswahl und Errichtung elektrischer Betriebsmittel – Selection and erection of electrical equipment –
Erdungsanlagen, Schutzleiter und Earthing arrangements and protection conductors
Schutzpotentialausgleichsleiter
6 IEC VDE 0100‑560 Errichten von Niederspannungseinrichtungen – Low-voltage electrical installations – Part 5-56:
60364‑5‑56 Teil 5-56: Auswahl und Errichtung elektrischer Selection and erection of electrical equipment –
Betriebsmittel – Einrichtungen für Sicherheitszwecke Safety services
16 IEC
60870‑5‑101
Fernwirkeinrichtungen und -systeme – Teil 5:
Übertragungsprotokolle; Hauptabschnitt 1:
Telecontrol equipment and systems – Part 5-101:
Transmission protocols; Companion standard for
TelegrammformateFernwirkeinrichtungen und basic telecontrol tasks
-systeme – Teil 5-101: Übertragungsprotokolle;
Anwendungsbezogene Norm für grundlegende
17 Fernwirkaufgaben
16
IEC 61000‑3‑2 VDE 0838‑2 Elektromagnetische Verträglichkeit (EMV) – Teil 3-2: Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) – Part 3-2:
Grenzwerte – Grenzwerte für Limits – Limits for harmonic current emissions
Oberschwingungsströme (Geräte-Eingangsstrom (equipment input current ≤ 16 A per phase)
≤ 16 A je Leiter)
17
2 IEC
61000‑4‑15
VDE 0847‑4‑15 Elektromagnetische Verträglichkeit (EMV) –
Teil 4-15: Prüf- und Messverfahren – Flickermeter –
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) – Part 4-15:
Testing and measurement techniques –
Funktionsbeschreibung und Auslegungsspezifikation Flickermeter – Functional and design specifications
IEC VDE 0847‑4‑30 Elektromagnetische Verträglichkeit (EMV) – Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) – Testing and
3 61000‑4‑30 Teil 4-30: Prüf- und Messverfahren – Verfahren zur
Messung der Spannungsqualität
measurement techniques – Power quality
measurement methods
IEC 61000‑4‑7 VDE 0847‑4‑7 Elektromagnetische Verträglichkeit (EMV) – Teil 4-7: Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) – Part 4-7:
16
kombinierte Wandler requirements for combined transformers
IEC 61936‑1 VDE 0101‑1 Starkstromanlagen mit Nennwechselspannungen Power installations exceeding 1 kV a.c. – Part 1:
über 1 kV – Teil 1: Allgemeine Bestimmungen Common rules
IEC 62034 VDI 0711‑400 Automatische Prüfsysteme für batteriebetriebene Automatic test systems for battery powered
17 Sicherheitsbeleuchtung für Rettungswege emergency escape lighting
16
17
ISO 13849‑1 Sicherheit von Maschinen – Sicherheitsbezogene Safety of machinery – Safety-related parts of
9 ISO 23601 Sicherheitskennzeichnung – Fluchtwegpläne Safety identification – Escape and evacuation plan
signs
ISO 3864 Normenreihe graphische Symbole – Group of standards for graphical symbols – Safety
Sicherheitsfarben und Sicherheitszeichen colours and safety signs
10 ISO 50001 Energiemanagementsysteme – Anforderungen mit Energy management systems – Requirements with
Anleitung zur Anwendung guidance for use
ISO 9001 Qualitätsmanagementsysteme – Anforderungen Quality management systems – Requirements
11 VDE 0710‑13 Leuchten mit Betriebsspannungen unter 1000 V; Luminaires with operating voltages below 1000 V;
Ballwurfsichere Leuchten VDE-Bestimmung luminaires safety to ball throwing VDE Specification
DIN 4102‑2 Brandverhalten von Baustoffen und Bauteilen; Fire Behaviour of Building Materials and Building
12 Bauteile, Begriffe, Anforderungen und Prüfungen Components; Building Components; Definitions,
Requirements and Tests
DIN 4102‑9 Brandverhalten von Baustoffen und Bauteilen; Fire behaviour of building materials and elements;
13 Kabelabschottungen; Begriffe, Anforderungen und
Prüfungen
seals for cable penetrations; concepts,
requirements and testing
EltBauVO Verordnung über den Bau von Betriebsräumen für Regulation for the construction of operation rooms
elektrische Anlagen for electrical equipment
14 HOAI 2013 Deutsche Honorarordnung für Architekten und German fee structure imposed on architects and
Ingenieure engineers
15 DIN 276
DIN 6280‑12
Normenreihe – Kosten im Bauwesen
Stromerzeugungsaggregate – Unterbrechungsfreie
Series of standards – Building costs
Generating sets – Uninterruptible power supply –
Stromversorgung – Teil 12: Dynamische USV- Part 12: Dynamic UPS systems with and without
Anlagen mit und ohne Hubkolben- reciprocating internal combustion engines
16 Verbrennungsmotor
DIN VDE V Selbsttätige Schaltstelle zwischen einer Automatic disconnection device between a
0126‑1‑1 netzparallelen Eigenerzeugungsanlage und dem generator and the public low-voltage grid
17
öffentlichen Niederspannungsnetz
DIN 43880 Installationseinbaugeräte; Hüllmasse und Built-in equipment for electrical installations; 1
zugehörige Einbaumasse overall dimensions and related mounting
dimensions
VDE 0670‑402 Wechselstromschaltgeräte für Spannungen über 1 A.C. switchgear and controlgear for voltages above 3
kV; Auswahl von strombegrenzenden 1 kV; application guide for the selection of fuse-
Sicherungseinsätzen für Transformatorstromkreise links for transformer circuits
Entwurf VDE
0662
Ortsfeste Schutzeinrichtungen in
Steckdosenausführung zur Schutzpegelerhöhung
Fixed socket-outlets with residual current devices
intended for an increase in the protection level
4
EMVG Gesetz über die elektromagnetische Verträglichkeit Law on the Electromagnetic Compatibility of
von Betriebsmitteln (2008; basierend auf der EMV-
Richtlinie 2004/108/EG)
Equipment (2008; based on EC-directive 2004/108/
EC) 5
VDI 4602‑1 Energiemanagement – Begriffe, Definitionen Energy management – Terms, definitions
DIN 5035‑7 Beleuchtung mit künstlichem Licht – Teil 7: Artificial Lighting – Part 7: Lighting of interiors with
Beleuchtung von Räumen mit
Bildschirmarbeitsplätzen
visual displays work stations 8
DIN 5035‑8 Beleuchtung mit künstlichem Licht – Teil 8: Artificial lighting – Part 8: Workplace luminaries –
Arbeitsplatzleuchten – Anforderungen,
Empfehlungen und Prüfung
Requirements, recommendations and proofing
9
DIN V 18599‑1 Energetische Bewertung von Gebäuden – Energy efficiency of buildings – Calculation of the
Berechnung des Nutz-, End- und
Primärenergiebedarfs für Heizung, Kühlung,
net, final and primary energy demand for heating,
cooling, ventilation, domestic hot water and 10
Lüftung, Trinkwarmwasser und Beleuchtung – Teil 1: lighting – Part 1: General balancing procedures,
Allgemeine Bilanzierungsverfahren, Begriffe, terms and definitions, zoning and evaluation of
Zonierung und Bewertung der Energieträger energy sources
DIN V 18599‑4 Energetische Bewertung von Gebäuden – Energy efficiency of buildings – Calculation of the
11
Berechnung des Nutz-, End- und net, final and primary energy demand for heating,
Primärenergiebedarfs für Heizung, Kühlung, cooling, ventilation, domestic hot water and
Lüftung, Trinkwarmwasser und Beleuchtung – Teil 4:
Nutz- und Endenergiebedarf für Beleuchtung
lighting – Part 4: Net and final energy demand for
lighting
12
DIN V 18599‑10 Energetische Bewertung von Gebäuden – Energy efficiency of buildings – Calculation of the
Berechnung des Nutz-, End- und
Primärenergiebedarfs für Heizung, Kühlung,
net, final and primary energy demand for heating,
cooling, ventilation, domestic hot water and 13
Lüftung, Trinkwarmwasser und Beleuchtung – lighting – Part 10: Boundary conditions of use,
Teil 10: Nutzungsrandbedingungen, Klimadaten climatic data
16
17
Intro
duction
VDI 6011‑1 Richtlinie zur Optimierung von Tageslichtnutzung Optimisation of daylighting and artificial lighting –
und künstlicher Beleuchtung Fundamentals
6 MPrüfVo
BetrSichV
Musterprüfverordnung
Betriebssicherheitsverordnung Ordinance on Industrial Safety and Health
BGV Berufsgenossenschaftliche Vorschriften Employers' Liability Association regulations BGV
15
16
17
Intro
duction
A C
2
A/D Analog/digital CAES Compressed air energy storage
AC Alternating current CB Conventional ballast 3
ACB Air circuit-breaker CBEMA Computer and Business Equipment
AEC Availability Environment Classification Manufacturing Association
16
17
Intro
duction
1 E I
EB Electronic ballast I&C Instrumentation and control
EC Electronically commutated, e.g. for EC motor ICT Information and communication technology
2 ECG Electrocardiogram IDMTL Inverse definite minimum time leakage
EEA European Economic Area IEC International Electrotechnical Commission
3 EEG Electroencephalogram IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics
EEPROM Electrically erasable, programmable read- Engineers
only-memory IGBT Insulated gate bipolar transistor
4 EEX European Energy Exchange IR Infrared
EMG Electromyogram ISO International Organization for
Standardization
5 EMC Electromagnetic compatibility
IT Information technology
EN European standard
ENEC European norms electrical certification, a ITIC Information Technology Industry Council
6 symbol indicating conformity with European
safety standards L
EnEV Energy Saving Ordinance (Germany) LDC Light distribution curve
7 EnMS Energy management system LED Light emitting diode
EPROM Erasable, programmable read-only-memory LEMP Lightning electro-magnetic pulse
17 HV High voltage
Intro
duction
M P 1
MCB Miniature circuit-breaker PAS Publicly available specification in connection
MCC Motor control centre with international standards
17
Intro
duction
1 T X
TAB Technical supply conditions (Germany) XDMT General for either DMT or IDTML protection
THDi Total harmonic distortion of load current
2 TIP Totally Integrated Power Z
TMTU Thermal magnetic trip unit ZSI Zone-selective interlocking
3 TU Transportation unit
U
4 UCTE Union for the Co-ordination of Transmission
of Electricity
V
7 VDN Verband der Netzbetreiber e. V. (Registered
Association of Network Operators, Germany)
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
Intro
duction
17.4 Bibliography 1
17
Intro
duction
2
Conductor cross sections in the Metric and US System Temperature
3
Metric cross American Wire Gauge °C °F
4 sections acc.
to IEC
(AWG)
8m
Conductor Equivalent AWG or 160 320
5 cross metric CSA MCM
15 m
3m
section 305
150
in mm2 in mm2 290
7m
6 140
275
13 m
130
0.653 19 AWG 260
0.75
7 0.832 18
120
245
6m
1.040 17
1.310 16
1.50 110 230
8
11 m
1.650 15
2.080 14 100 212
2.50 2.620 13 200
2m
5m
9 3.310 12 90
4.00 185
4.170 11
9m
80
5.260 10 170
6.00
10 6.630 9 70 155
4m
8.370 8
10.00 10.550 7 60 140
11
7m
13.300 6
125
16.00 16.770 5 50
110
3m
21.150 4
40
12 25.00 26.670
33.630
3
2
95
5m
1m
35.00 30
42.410 1 80
14 120.00
107.200
126.640
4/0
250 MCM 0 32
150.00 152.000 300
1m
20
185.00 –10
15 240.00
202.710
253.350
400
500
5
1m
–20
M 1 : 100
M 1 : 20
M 1 : 50
16 400.00
500.00
405.350
506.710
800
1000
–30 –25
17
Intro
duction
2
Linear measure Volume
3
SI unit Non-metric unit SI unit Non-metric unit
9
9m
11
7m
1 acre 4,046.9 m2
1 mile2 2.59 km2 14
15
1m
Intro
duction
Non-metric unit
5 Torque, moment of force
1 in HG
1 psi
0.034 bar
0.069 bar 1 hp h 0.
SI unit Non-metric unit 1 lbf/ft2 4.788 × 10–4 bar =
1 ft lbf =
1 lbf/in2 4.882 × 10–4 kgf/cm2
6 1 Nm 8.851 lbf in = 0.738 lbf ft
(= 0.102 kgf m)
1 tonf/ft2 0.069 bar = 0.070 kgf/cm2 1 Btu 0.
1.
1 tonf/in2 1.072 bar = 1.093 kgf/cm2 (=
Non-metric unit SI unit 154.443 bar =
7 1 lbf in 0.113 Nm = 0.012 kgf m
157.488 kgf/cm2
ft2 m2 1 oz 28.35 g
11
1 lbf 0.04214 kg 1 hp 0.
1 lb 0.454 kg = 453.6 g 76
1 sh ton 0.907 t = 907.2 kg 1 ft lbf/s (=
1 kcal/h 1.
12 Velocity
1 Btu/h 1.
SI unit Non-metric unit 0.
Specific steam consumption
13 1 m/s
1 km/h
3.281 ft/s = 2.237 mile/h
0.911 ft/s = 0.621 mile/h SI unit Non-metric unit
15
16
17
Intro
duction
9
Non-metric unit
2
= 1 kWh 1.341 hp h = 2.655 kgf m °C °F – · ∂ + 32 = ∂F
5 C
1J = 3.6 × 105 J
/ft2 = 9
n2 =
3.725 × 10–7 hp h =
0.738 ft lbf =
K °F – · T – 459,67 = ∂F
5 3
t2 1 kgf m 9.478 × 10–4 Btu Non-metric unit SI unit
3 tonf/in2
(= 2.388 × 10–4 kcal
5 (∂ – 32) = ∂
m2)
3.653 × 10–6 hp h =
7.233 ft lbf
°F °C –
9 F
5
C
4
SI unit °F K – (∂F + 459.67) = T
9
Non-metric unit SI unit Note:
53.6 g
1 hp 0.746 kW = 745.70 W =
76.040 kgf m/s 11
7.2 kg 1 ft lbf/s (= 1.014 PS) Btu = British thermal unit
1 kcal/h 1.356 W (= 0.138 kgf in/s) Btu/h = British thermal unit/hour
1 Btu/h 1.163 W
kgf
lbf
= kilogram force
= pound force
12
0.293 W
on tonf = ton force
ric unit
13
ph
SI unit 14
Wh
15
16
17
3 Imprint
Totally Integrated Power – Consultant Support
Planning of Electric Power Distribution
4 Technical Principles
Published by
5 Siemens AG
Energy Management
Medium Voltage & Systems
6 Editor
Siemens AG
Dr. Siegbert Hopf
7 E-Mail: siegbert.hopf@siemens.com
Technical Support
8 Ulrike Fleischmann, Wolfgang Fruth, Ralf Gluth,
Birgitta Grandjean, Jasmin Gruner, Thomas Klimiont,
Wolfgang Peter, Frank Scheunert, Manfred Weiß
9 Translation
Albani translations
10 Äußere Brucker Str. 51
D-91052 Erlangen
Publishing House
11
Publicis Pixelpark
Nägelsbachstr. 33
12 D-91052 Erlangen
14 Image Rights
All images and graphics © Siemens AG.
15 © 2016 Siemens AG
Berlin and Munich
All rights reserved.
16 All data and circuit examples without engagement.
Subject to change without prior notice.
Subject to changes and errors. The information given in DIAZED, DYNAVERT, FITformer, NEOZED, NXACT,
this document only contains general descriptions and/or SENTRON, SICAM, SIMARIS, SIMOVERT, SINCAL,
performance features which may not always specifically SIPROTEC, SIRIUS, SITOR, SIVACON, Totally Integrated
reflect those described, or which may undergo Power (TIP), TUMETIC, TUNORMA are registered
modification in the course of further development of the trademarks of Siemens AG. Any unauthorized use is
products. The requested performance features are prohibited. All other designations in this document may
binding only when they are expressly agreed upon in the represent trademarks whose use by third parties for their
concluded contract. own purposes may violate the proprietary rights of the
owner.