See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/332175680

Frying Process: From Conventional to Air Frying Technology

Article  in  Food Reviews International · April 2019

DOI: 10.1080/87559129.2019.1600541

CITATIONS READS

3 707

4 authors, including:

Sandra Maria Barbalho Elen Landgraf Guiguer

Universidade de Marília - Medicina Universidade de Marília
154 PUBLICATIONS   721 CITATIONS    66 PUBLICATIONS   340 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Metabolic profile View project

EFFECT OF DIFFERENT HYPERCALORIC DIETS ON THE BIOCHEMICAL... View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Sandra Maria Barbalho on 10 October 2019.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Food Reviews International

ISSN: 8755-9129 (Print) 1525-6103 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/lfri20

Frying Process: From Conventional to Air Frying

Technology

Aline Nalon Zaghi, Sandra Maria Barbalho, Elen Landgraf Guiguer & Alda
Maria Otoboni

To cite this article: Aline Nalon Zaghi, Sandra Maria Barbalho, Elen Landgraf Guiguer & Alda
Maria Otoboni (2019) Frying Process: From Conventional to Air Frying Technology, Food Reviews
International, 35:8, 763-777, DOI: 10.1080/87559129.2019.1600541

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/87559129.2019.1600541

Published online: 02 Apr 2019.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 40

View Crossmark data

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=lfri20
FOOD REVIEWS INTERNATIONAL
2019, VOL. 35, NO. 8, 763–777
https://doi.org/10.1080/87559129.2019.1600541

Frying Process: From Conventional to Air Frying Technology

Aline Nalon Zaghia, Sandra Maria Barbalho a,b
, Elen Landgraf Guiguera,b,
and Alda Maria Otobonia
a
Department of Food Technology, Food Technology School, São Paulo, Brazil; bMedical School of Marília,
UNIMAR, São Paulo, Brazil

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
Studies have shown that products resulting from oils heated for long Deep frying; air frying;
periods under high temperatures contain polar compounds such as acrylamide
polymers, dimers, free fatty acids, and acrylamide, which lead to
metabolic changes, malabsorption of essential fat, and development
of cancer. The air frying process is capable of reaching the character-
istic color and similar flavor obtained by deep fat frying, and reduces
the amount of oil content and polar compounds. However, it has not
been extensively studied and should receive a greater focus on the
detailed evaluation of components and properties of foods and the
effects on the human health.

Introduction
Frying is one of the most common practices used in food preparation and employed in
restaurants, homes, and food industry. Fried food is based on dehydrating food that is
immersed in hot oil, a technique widely used all over the world. The rapidity and ease of
preparation, the relatively low price and the aggregation of desirable food properties, such as
color, texture, and taste, contribute to its overall use. These positive attributes are results of
physical and chemical changes during frying, including oxidation, hydrolysis, and polymer-
ization, which are related to chemical and physical modifications in the food products.[1,2]
Few studies have focused on the biological consequences of the consumption of oil-fried
foods for humans. However, it has been found that the content of the polar compounds in
frying is associated with endothelial dysfunction, hypertension, and may be related to a higher
chance of developing chronic diseases, especially those of the cardiovascular system. Also,
people who eat fried foods are more likely to develop obesity and intestinal diseases.[3–6]
Despite all the restrictions, fried products are trendy and highly consumed both inside and
outside homes and are typically found in fast food dishes and many other food services.
However, because of the risks of a high-fat diet, there is an increasing tendency for consumers
to seek more nutritious and safer food alternatives. Therefore, the reduction of the oil content
in fried foods has become a necessity. A series of alternatives have been proposed, with the
intention of replacing the traditional frying process with systems capable of providing proper-
ties similar to those of fried food while providing higher nutritional quality to the product as
well as ease of use.[7–9]

CONTACT Sandra Maria Barbalho smbarbalho@gmail.com School of Medicine, University of Marília, Av. Higino
Muzzi Filho 1001, Marília 15525-902, SP, Brazil
Color versions of one or more of the figures in the article can be found online at www.tandfonline.com/lfri.
© 2019 Taylor & Francis
764 A. N. ZAGHI ET AL.

Based on this idea, air frying technology has emerged in the market. The equipment uses hot
air in combination with high-speed air circulation. Foods are heated from all sides at once, and
there is no need to add oil to most of them. The proposal is to obtain fried food with small
amounts of fat. Its acceptability depends on, among other characteristics, the sensorial properties
of the final product, which should approximate those present in the conventional frying
process.[10]

Objective
This review intends to gather information about the physicochemical changes that occur
in food submitted to the conventional and air frying process and compare the advantages
and disadvantages of these processes.

Methods
Focused objective
The focused objective for this review is to compare the conventional frying process and
the air frying process.

Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Studies related to conventional frying process and air frying process published in
MEDLINE–PubMed, Scielo and Google Scholar were included. Reviews and original
articles in English were selected. The exclusion criteria for this search were editorials,
case reports, poster presentations, and studies not in English or Portuguese.

Databases
For this review, we have searched Scielo, Google Scholar, and MEDLINE–PubMed
(National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health) databases for appropriate
articles addressing the focused question. The combination of descriptors used for this
search was “conventional frying and air frying”; “air frying and oxidation”; “air frying and
health.” With the list of references for these combinations of the keywords, we have
selected articles to build the results and to perform the discussion.
We did not restrict a specific period to do this review since the technology of air frying
is recent, and there are not many studies relating this type of process to the frying usually
performed with oil heated to high temperatures and immersion of the food for the
cooking process. Each author checked the screening of the articles found in the above-
described databases, and the articles were only used after the agreement of all.

Results
Recently, air frying technology has become a viable alternative to deep fat frying since it
advocates the use of technology with little or no oil, and this, at least in theory, would
 FOOD REVIEWS INTERNATIONAL 765

bring benefits to maintaining health. On the other hand, the sensory characteristics that
conventional frying provides attract consumers worldwide.
Before presenting the discussion of the articles that fulfilled the eligibility criteria for the
search, it was necessary to collect some aspects related to the importance of frying in the food
industry as well as its relation with the resulting products to the process and its health
implications. The results for oxidation products such as acrylamide and health implications
may be found in Table 1.[11–19] We have found five original articles that fulfilled the eligibility
criteria for this search (Fig. 1). These articles are found in Table 2.[7,10,20–22] As may be
observed, only a few articles provide information about the air frying process.

Discussion
The importance of frying in the food industry
The frying process is an efficient and widely used method due to its rapidity and,
mainly, the supply of unique sensorial characteristics with much acceptance by the
population. The preservative effect is another secondary character that results from the
thermal destruction of microorganisms and enzymes, in addition to a reduction of
water activity on the food surface. The shelf life of fried foods is determined, above all,
by the moisture content after frying. Those that suffer more dehydration through frying
(e.g., potato chips or corn chips), have a shelf life of up to twelve months at room
temperature.[22–25]
There are two main techniques of commercial frying that are distinguished by the
method of heat transfer: shallow frying and deep frying. Surface or contact frying consists
of heat transfer to the food mainly by conduction of the hot surface of the frying pan
through a thin layer of oil. This type of frying produces variable browning in the food,
preventing standardization of the product. In deep frying, the heat transfer is
a combination of convection in the hot oil and conduction into the food. All surfaces
receive similar heat treatment, producing uniform color and appearance.[25–27]
The frying process can be continuous, which is usually used by the industrial market for
frying extruded snacks, fried pasta, pre-fried and fried potatoes, or discontinuous, which is
used mainly by the institutional market that includes fast food chains, restaurants, and
pastries.[28] When the food is placed in hot oil, its surface temperature rises quickly, and
water evaporates. The surface then begins to dry. The evaporation plane moves into the
food, and a surface crust of porous structure is formed. Its rapid formation is beneficial as
it maintains moisture in the food and restricts the rate of heat transfer to the interior. The
temperature used for frying is determined primarily by economic considerations and
product needs. At high temperatures (180–200°C), processing times are reduced, and
production rates are increased.[25,27]
Concern about harmful health effects due to the consumption of trans fatty acids has
led industries to substitute raw materials such as frying oils.[29–31] Substitution of saturated
to unsaturated fats, which is nutritionally and functionally favorable, involves a large
number of disadvantages. The high degree of unsaturation makes them unstable at high
temperature and more susceptible to oxidation, resulting in faster rancidity and alteration
of taste, thus limiting the shelf life of the final product. Also, the sensory characteristics of
some of these oils may interfere with the taste of the food or lead to loss of crispness,
palatability, and taste.[32–35]
766 A. N. ZAGHI ET AL.

Table 1. Effects of the acrylamide on the human organism.

Reference Effects on health Mechanisms of action
Lee et al.[11] Ataxia; skeletal muscle weakness; cognitive and Since learning and memory are influenced by
memory impairment; numbness of the neural plasticity as well as by hippocampal
extremities; impaired hippocampal neurogenesis neurogenesis, acrylamide-mediated memory
and increased neural progenitor cell death; complications may be associated with changes
mitochondrial dysfunction in primary neurons. in brain plasticity which, when affected, impair
the maturation of the primary neuron and the
proliferation of neuritis. Also, mitochondrial
dysfunction is related to oxidative stress by the
increase in the levels of reactive oxygen species.
Huang et al.[12] Augment in the incidence of thyroid follicular cell Acrylamide may exert its genotoxicity via DNA
tumors; scrotal sac mesotheliomas; mammary alkylation, resulting in mutagenicity.
gland fibroadenomas and lung adenomas.
Stošić, Matavulj, Decrease in the corticosterone and testosterone Acrylamide interferes with the reasonable
Marković[13] levels; decrease in serum insulin level. balance of several hormones. Prolonged and
chronic exposure can reduce blood insulin level
caused by reduction of beta cells.
Kadawathagedara Acrylamide is a neurotoxicant and can exert One possible biological mechanism between
et al.[14] reproductive and developmental toxicity effects; acrylamide exposure and growth is through
prenatal acrylamide exposure is associated with oxidative stress and inflammation. During
impaired fetal growth and a moderate increase in pregnancy, high acrylamide exposure can result
the prevalence of children being overweight or in increased oxidative stress through increased
obese. expression of CYP2E1 leading to a heightened
perinatal inflammatory status.
Pan et al.[15] Induces a high risk of neuropathic alteration Evidence strongly suggested that acrylamide-
induced neurotoxicity was possibly caused by
the imbalance of oxidation and antioxidant
function, resulting from the elevated levels of
intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) and
lipid peroxidation.
Liu et al.[16] Increased overall mortality and cancer in the Acrylamide can cause cancer through non-
digestive tract in elderly; induce changes in the genotoxic mechanisms such as oxidative stress
redox state of cells, transcription, and expression after glutathione depletion. It may also alter the
of genes, interfering in DNA repair and hormonal levels of steroid hormones and interact with
balances; breast cancer. genes involved in the production of sex
hormones, with circulating estrogen influencing
various factors and recognizing their
participation in the incidence of breast cancer.
Semla et al.[17] Production of free radicals, hydroperoxides and Free radicals can damage mitochondria and
lipid peroxidation. other cellular organelles. They induce apoptosis
and cause oxidation of DNA bases, fragmenting
the double strand leading to cell death or
neoplastic transformation.
Olesen et al.[18] Formation of adducts with proteins and DNA Acrylamide is highly reactive and mutagenic
bases. and can induce chromosomal breakage or
degradation.
Sickles et al.[19] Aneuploidy; generation of micronuclei with Interaction of acrylamide with the proteins
kinetochores; dominant lethal effects; delays in involved in cell division, interfering in the
the cell cycle; blockages in mitosis and meiosis; mitotic/meiotic spindle.
heritable translocations; chromosomal
aberrations.

During the heating of the oil, a number of reactions produce numerous degradation
compounds. With the continuity of the reactions, the functional, sensorial and nutritional
change leads to a low-quality product.[36] For these reasons frequent oil changes are necessary,
thus increasing costs. Also, there are amounts of degraded oil that are disposed of by users in
the environment. Furthermore, acrolein, a product of oil degradation characterized by the
formation of a bluish mist, is considered a source of air pollution.[7,11,13,25,37]
 FOOD REVIEWS INTERNATIONAL 767

Figure 1. Flow diagram depicting the articles selected for this review.

Degradation reactions in the frying process

During the frying process, oils and fats are exposed to the action of three agents that
contribute to decrease its quality and modify its structure. These agents include the
moisture from food (which is the cause of the hydrolytic alteration), the oxygen in the
air (which enters the oil through the surface of the cooking vessel, allowing the oxidative
change) and, the high temperature.[38] There are many changes in the properties of oils
and food, such as sensory (flavor, aroma, texture, and color), nutritional, functional and
toxicity qualities.[39] The most frequently observed physical changes in oils are increased
viscosity, color change and foaming.[40] Fig. 2 shows the modifications observed in the
frying process.
For foods subjected to such a process, the possible results may be both desirable and
undesirable. For example, the color presented by the potato after frying directly implies its
acceptance. This visual characteristic is mainly influenced by the type of oil, the age and
thermal history of the oil, the interfacial tension between the oil and the product, the
temperature, the frying time and the sample size.[10,39] Duarte-Delgado et al.[41] showed
that the sugar content also influences the color of the fried potatoes because the hydrolysis
of sucrose by the invertase enzyme is the primary source of glucose and fructose reducing
sugars, which are precursors of the Maillard reaction. This reaction produces dark
pigments and toxic products such as acrylamide during the non-enzymatic reaction
between free amino acids and reducing sugars at high temperatures. The high content
of reducing sugars in tubers causes a poor quality of potato chips.
The texture of fried foods is produced by changes in proteins, fats and polymeric
carbohydrates. Changes in protein quality occur as a result of the Maillard reaction with
the amino acids in the crust. The effect of frying on the nutritional value of food depends
on the type of the of the process. As the high temperatures of the oils produce a rapid
 768

Table 2. Air frying versus conventional frying.

Reference Objective Analysis Technique Results
A. N. ZAGHI ET AL.

Santos To compare samples Lipid composition; Conventional Trans Fatty Tocopherols Total ascorbic β-carotene Total phenolics Total
et al., of chips processed in indicators of frying with Acids acid antioxidant
[10]
2017 air fryers versus degradation; soy oil activity
traditional frying tocopherols; total 0.026g/100g 4.60mg/100g 0.88mg/100g 167μm/100g 20.46mg gallic acid/100g 9.06mg gallic
method ascorbic acid; β- potato acid/100g
carotene; antioxidant
Air frying 0.004g/100g 1.13mg/100g 1.44mg/100g 167.5μm/100g 27.21mg gallic acid/100g 7.27mg gallic
activity
potato acid/100g
Giovanelli Evaluation of the Equipment Conventional Lipids Acrylamide Energy consumption
et al., characteristics of the performance; frying with content
2017[7] chips processed by nutritional quality of soy oil 15.79g/100g 94.5 μg/kg Time of cooking Consumption
the primary kitchen the samples;
13 minutes 270.4 Wh
equipment. acrylamide content
Air frying Equipment 1 9.25g/100g 209.5 μg/kg 20 minutes 233.0 Wh
Equipment 2 9.14g/100g 89 μg/kg 16 minutes 193.8 Wh
Teruel Compare air frying Evaluation of oil and Air and deep The deep frying process: products with higher content of fat; similar moisture and color, better surface crust,
et al., with conventional moisture content, frying higher extend of starch gelatinization, and less time for preparation.
2015[20] deep fat frying and color, texture, sensorial
products formed by analysis and
these processes calorimetry.
(color, texture,
calorimetric
properties, and
sensory characteristic)
Shaker, To investigate the Stability of the oil and Conventional Oil degradation (180°C) Amount of used oil Amount of
2014[21] effect that the air sensory evaluation of frying with Free fatty Oxidized fatty Polar content Peroxides absorbed oil
frying technology French fries soy oil acids acids
exerts on the oil
Initial Initial Initial Initial 2kg for each 200g of 14.81%
content and sensorial
value = 0,09% value = 0,002% value = 0,08% value = 0,75 potato
characteristics of the
meq.O2/kg oil
potato, compared to
the traditional After frying After frying After frying After frying
process of frying. value = 0.22% value = 0.11% value = 0.71% value = 2.75
meq.O2/kg
óleo
Air frying Initial Initial Initial Initial 30g/kg potato 0.0025%
value = 0.09% value = 0.002% value = 0.08% value = 0.75
meq.O2/kg
óleo
After frying After frying After frying After frying
value = 0.12% value = 0.06% value = 0.34% value = 1.22
meq.O2/kg
oil
Andres Evaluation of volume Analysis of the kinetics Air and deep -The final content of oil is much lower in air frying.
et al., and influence of pre- of mass transfer and frying. -The heat transfer coefficient for air frying was lower.
[22]
2012 treatment (blanching modifications in -Frozen samples showed the highest content of fat in the deep frying.
and freezing). volume. -The evolution in the content of oil in the unpretreated and blanched samples was much higher in the deep
frying as well as the water loss, and the frozen samples showed the lowest rate of water loss.
FOOD REVIEWS INTERNATIONAL
769
770 A. N. ZAGHI ET AL.

Figure 2. Diagram of changes occurring during the frying process.

formation of crust, it seals the surface of the food, reducing the range of changes in the
interior and, consequently, there is significant retention of nutrients.[25] Neethu et al.[42]
also attributed changes in fried food quality to starch gelatinization reactions, protein
denaturation, caramelization, enzyme inactivation and fat absorption.
The oxidation of fat-soluble vitamins in the oil results in loss of nutritional value.
Retinol, carotenoids, and tocopherols are destroyed, contributing to changes in the
taste and color of the oil. However, the preferential oxidation of tocopherols has an
antioxidant effect on the oil that is particularly important since most frying oils have
a vegetable origin and contain a substantial proportion of unsaturated fats that oxidize
quickly.[25,43,44]
Due to the knowledge that the frying process alters the chemical nature of the heated
oil, generating toxic compounds, the safety of the consumer and possible consequences for
the human organism are a concern.

Oxidized compounds and their effects on health

The relevance of ingestion of vegetable oils in the human diet, especially those containing
essential fatty acids, primarily as energy-supplying food resources, is indisputable.
However, frying present limitations from the nutritional point of view and may pose
serious health risks.[45,46]
Researchers have shown that products resulting from oils heated for long periods under
extremely high temperatures contain more than 50% polar compounds, which are the
products of the breakdown of triglycerides (polymers, dimers, free fatty acids and oxidized
fatty acids). These compounds lead to metabolic changes resulting in weight loss, suppres-
sion of growth, development of cancer, decrease in liver and kidney size, malabsorption of
 FOOD REVIEWS INTERNATIONAL 771

fat, decrease in the desaturation rate of linoleic and α-linolenic fatty acids, and reduced
fertility.[12,14,15,40,47]
Another toxic contaminant in a plethora of heat-treated foods is acrylamide, a polar
organic substance, highly reactive, mainly generated through the Maillard reaction.[17] It is
commonly present in foods rich in carbohydrates that are processed at high temperatures
(>120°C).[16] This compound is considered genotoxic and neurotoxic and has been related
to the development of cancer.[48] There is an estimate that the dietary exposure for the
population to acrylamide is around 1 mg kg-1 per day indicating that this scenario is
a human health concern.[37,49]
The metabolism of acrylamide follows two central paths: epoxidation and conjugation
with glutathione.[18] Once ingested, approximately 50% of the acrylamide is metabolized;
the biotransformation occurs in the cytochrome P450 by the action of the enzyme
CYP2E1 and, as a result, obtains its metabolite epoxy glycidamid.[17,50] During
the second phase of biotransformation, acrylamide and glycidamid are coupled to reduced
glutathione through glutathione S-transferase group enzymes, which constitute the glu-
tathione conjugation phase. As a result of this reaction, acrylamide and its derivatives lose
their toxic properties. Afterward, they are excreted as mercapturic acid derivatives by
urine, the main route of excretion of acrylamide metabolites in humans.[16,18] The half-life
of acrylamide in the body is 2–7 hours, which demonstrates a long time that this substance
takes to be removed from the body. It is still unclear whether the toxic effects of chronic
exposure to acrylamide may be cumulative in the organism in the long term.[17] Some
effects of acrylamide on health are described in Table 1.
Although there is awareness of the contraindications of the consumption of fried foods,
there are no signs that they suggest a withdrawal or change in the preparation or
consumption habits of these foods. However, current nutritional recommendations sug-
gest that fat intake should not exceed 30–35% of total calories, with a maximum of 10%
for saturated fats.[32] In this context, new technologies need to be developed to obtain fried
products with sensorial properties similar to those of the conventional frying process,
which are much appreciated by consumers, but with reduced fat content.[21]

Air frying technology

An alternative found for the disadvantages of conventional frying is the air frying
process, which is intended to produce a variety of fried products using mainly hot air
around the material instead of immersion in hot oil. This technique acts by direct
contact between a fine mist consisting of oil droplets in the hot air and the product
inside a chamber. The heat transfer is extremely high and evenly distributed in the
product, which minimizes variations in its quality. The product is dehydrated during
the process and a crust, typically associated with deep frying, appears gradually in the
food.[20,21] Table 2 shows some comparisons of the air frying process compared to the
conventional frying process.
Air frying technology was initially introduced in some European markets and, due to
its remarkable acceptance in response, the product was launched throughout Europe. Over
time, it has spread on a global scale, becoming a great success worldwide. The patented
technology cooks products in a short time, keeping the taste pleasant and containing up to
80% less fat compared to frying by deep frying.[51] However, it is necessary to analyze
772 A. N. ZAGHI ET AL.

other possible advantages as well as disadvantages of this technology including modifica-

tions in the properties of the food, besides making comparisons about the traditional
process of frying.
Comparison of air frying and deep fat frying Andrés et al.[22], when comparing air
frying to deep frying, found that during the same frying time, the oil absorption in the
samples of French fries was about ten times greater for those submitted to hot oil. In
frozen potatoes subjected to deep frying, the oil content was substantially modified from
the original content. In the air frying process, a decrease of the concentration of the oil to
values of half the initial content was found. However, this reduction of oil content resulted
in the formation of a less consistent crust (leading to less resistance to water loss) and
interfered with the sensorial characteristic of the final product. They also observed similar
moisture concentration when comparing to deep frying, but water and volume losses were
higher in air frying process. The loss of water is limited by the crust of the products, which
is formed rapidly in the deep frying process. Changes in oil content in both processes were
shown when samples of French fries were pretreated with blanching or freezing.
According to Teruel et al.[20], the air frying process is capable of reaching the characteristic
color of frying by deep frying. The deep frying process results in products with lower content
of fat and similar moisture and color when compared to the air frying process. The authors
also observed interferences in color, texture, moisture, sensory characteristics, and starch
gelatinization. However, it requires a significantly longer processing time (the use of air frying
requires more than twice the time of deep fat frying.), which is a relative disadvantage
considering that the current lifestyle (because people spend much of their time away from
home) requires agility and rapid preparation of meals. In general, the air frying process allows
the manufacture of a product that contains low fat content, although it exhibits different
sensory characteristics such as taste, color, odor, appearance, hardness, crispness, crispiness,
and oiliness. In contrast, for Shaker[21], air frying technology did not show significant
differences in sensory attributes like taste, appearance, odor and overall acceptance when
compared to oil frying. In aspects such as crispness, hardness, oiliness, and color, air frying
was preferred. Nevertheless, potato strips prepared by air frying process showed superiority in
attributes such as hardness, crispness, and oiliness when compared to that traditional fried
potato. The characteristics of better hardness and oiliness may be attributed to lower uptake of
oil compared to deep frying process.
Furthermore, studies using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and differential scan-
ning calorimetry(DSC)[20] show that the difference between products submitted to air
frying and immersion frying is the greater extent of gelatinization of the starch that occurs
in traditional frying, which is observed visually as a dry and thick crust. This is the result
of high temperatures rapidly reaching the surface of the product, causing intense evapora-
tion of the local water and preventing gelatinization of the starch. In products subjected to
air frying, the water evaporates more slowly, the surface crust is thinner, homogeneous
and without irregularities, which gives a noticeable difference in texture. However, in the
central region, the air frying samples presented higher hardness than the samples resulting
from immersion frying possibly related to a lower degree of gelatinization of the starch
associated with the low temperatures.
Tarmizi and Niranjan[52] studied the relationship of oil absorption in immersion frying,
and verified that it occurs predominantly at the end of the process, due to the condensa-
tion of water vapor inside the food caused by the temperature drop below the boiling
 FOOD REVIEWS INTERNATIONAL 773

water, creating a water vapor pressure gradient between the surface and the inner
structure of the product. During frying, both water and water vapor are first removed
from the large capillaries and replaced with hot oil.
Studies performed by Andres et al[22] show that the mass losses of the product in air
frying were higher than in immersion frying because the water lost during this process was
not compensated by any significant oil absorption, in agreement with the results described
by Tamizi and Niranjan.[52]
In addition to the difference in mass presented by the products submitted to the two types
of frying, color is one of the most important quality attributes to influence the consumer‘s
food choices.[53] For example, the study by Pedreschi et al[54] reported that the frying process
in hot air requires a significantly longer processing time to obtain the characteristic color of
potato chips in oil.
Budzaki and Seruga[55], Farinu and Baik[56], Mir-Bel et al.[57], when measuring the
potatoes in the two frying conditions (oil and air), verified that the initial temperature
increased, almost linearly with time, until reaching the boiling point of the water, although
the deep frying reached the boiling point faster than frying in hot air. According to Teruel[20],
the speed to reach the boiling point in oil frying is 3.7 times higher than in hot air. According
to the author, a constant temperature is observed in the frying process in the hot air when it
reaches the boiling point of the water until the end of the process, different from the
significant increase of temperature above 100ºC, observed in the frying in oil.
Authors agree that the air frying technology presents a higher nutritional quality than
conventional frying, being a practical alternative for obtaining healthier fried foods due to the
possibility of fat reduction, lipid degradation, and oxidation. Moreover, it also has environ-
mental advantages such as reduced consumption of oil, and emission of effluents that would be
discarded after frying[10,21,22]According to Giovanelli et al.[7], the air frying equipment showed
more significant energy savings compared to others, corresponding to a savings of 70%.

Conclusion
The current context of changing eating habits in which society is inserted deserves
attention and suggests constant monitoring, mainly by the food industry. Since there is
no evidence of stopping the use of frying to prepare meals, it is recommended to use air
frying technology, since it has a proven reduction in the oil content of the products, once
the addition of the same is dispensed in the preparation of most foods.
The incorporation of air frying equipment in snack factories, in commercial establish-
ments such as fast food chains, restaurants and even for domestic use may be an
investment trend for the coming years. Among the advantages are the reduction of
expenses with vegetable oils, reduction of emission of pollutants in the environment and
energy saving, as well as the attraction of consumers who seek a healthier diet, which will
undoubtedly add value to the company.
Although the air frying technology is a healthier frying alternative it has not been
extensively studied and should receive a greater focus on the detailed evaluation of its
mechanisms of action on the components and properties of foods and consequent effects
on the human health.
774 A. N. ZAGHI ET AL.

Practical applications
The concern over the increase in the incidence of chronic-degenerative diseases has increased the
search for a healthier diet. The substitution of food produced by deep fat frying is an increasingly
common reality since this type of processing carries with it the production of highly toxic
compounds in addition to being highly caloric. Air fryer technology may modify this scenario
since it does not produce toxic compounds and, on the other hand, preserves sensory characteristics
similar to deep fat frying.

Conflicts of interest
We declare no conflict of interests.

Notes on author contribution

ANZ, SMB, ELG and AMO designed, wrote and reviewed the manuscript. SMB submitted the
manuscript.

ORCID
Sandra Maria Barbalho http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5035-876X

References
[1] Kou, Y.; Li, Q.; Liu, X.; Zhang, R.; Yu, X. Efficient Detection of Edible Oils Adulterated with
Used Frying Oils through PE-film-based FTIR Spectroscopy Combined with DA and PLS.
J. Oleo Sci. 2018, 67, 1083–1089. DOI: 10.5650/jos.ess18029.
[2] Molina-Garcia, L.; Santos, C. S. P.; Cunha, S. C.; Casal, S.; Fernandes, J. O. Comparative
Fingerprint Changes of Toxic Volatiles in Low PUFA Vegetable Oils under Deep-Frying.
J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 2017, 94(2), 271–284. DOI: 10.1007/s11746-016-2943-1.
[3] Rangel-Zuñiga, O. A.; Haro, C.; Tormos, C.; Perez-Martinez, P.; Delgado-Lista, J.; Marin, C.;
Quintana-Navarro, G. M.; Cerdá, C.; Sáez, G. T.; Lopez-Segura, F.; et al. Frying Oils with
High Natural or Added Antioxidants Content, Which Protect against Postprandial Oxidative
Stress, Also Protect against DNA Oxidation Damage. Eur. J. Nutr. 2016, 56(4), 1597–1607.
DOI: 10.1007/s00394-016-1205-1.
[4] Khayyatzadeh, S. S.; Kazemi-Bajestani, S. M. R.; Mirmousavi, S. J.; Heshmati, M.;
Khoshmohabbat, S.; Ferns, G. A.; Ghayour-Mobarhan, M. Dietary Behaviors in Relation to
Prevalence of Irritable Bowel Syndrome in Adolescent Girls. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2017,
33(2), 404–410. DOI: 10.1111/jgh.13908.
[5] Ismail, S. R.; Maarof, S. K.; Siedar, A. S.; Ali, A.; Atkin, S. L. Systematic Review of Palm Oil
Consumption and the Risk of Cardiovascular Disease. PLoS One. 2018, 13(2), e0193533. DOI:
10.1371/journal.pone.0193533.
[6] Ekhator, O. C.; Udowelle, N. A.; Igbiri, S.; Asomugha, R. N.; Frazzoli, C.; Orisakwe, O. E.
Street Foods Exacerbate Effects of the Environmental Burden of Polycyclic Aromatic
Hydrocarbons (Pahs) in Nigeria. Environ. sci. pollut. res. int. 2018, 25(6), 5529–5538. DOI:
10.1007/s11356-017-0894-1.
[7] Giovanelli, G.; Torri, L.; Sinelli, N.; Buratti, S. Comparative Study of Physico-Chemical and
Sensory Characteristics of French Fries Prepared from Frozen Potatoes Using Different
Cooking Systems. Eur. Food Res. Technol. 2017, 243(9), 1619–1631. DOI: 10.1007/s00217-
017-2870-x.
[8] Dehghannya, J.; Abedpour, L. Influence of a Three Stage Hybrid Ultrasound-Osmotic-Frying
Process on Production of Low-Fat Fried Potato Strips. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2017, 98(4),
1485–1491. DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.8617.
 FOOD REVIEWS INTERNATIONAL 775

[9] Lartey, A.; Marquis, G. S.; Aryeetey, R.; Nti, H. Lipid Profile and Dyslipidemia among
School-Age Children in Urban Ghana. BMC Public Health. 2018, 6. 18(1), 320. DOI:
10.1186/s12889-018-5196-0.
[10] Santos, C. S. P.; Cunha, S. C.; Casal, S. Deep or Air Frying? A Comparative Study with
Different Vegetable Oils. Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 2017, 119(6), 1600375. DOI: 10.1002/
ejlt.201600375.
[11] Lee, S.; Park, H. R.; Lee, J. Y.; Cho, J. H.; Song, H. M.; Kim, A. H.; Lee, W.; Lee, Y.;
Chang, S. C.; Kim, H. S.; et al. Learning, Memory Deficits, and Impaired Neuronal
Maturation Attributed to Acrylamide. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A. 2018, 81(9), 254–265.
DOI: 10.1080/15287394.2018.1440184.
[12] Huang, Y. F.; Huang, C. J.; Lu, C. A.; Chen, M. L.; Liou, S. H.; Chiang, S. Y.; Wu, K. Y.
Feasibility of Using Urinary N7-(2-Carbamoyl-2-Hydroxyethyl) Guanine as a Biomarker for
Acrylamide Exposed Workers. J. Expo. Sci. Environ. Epidemiol. 2018, 28, 589–598. DOI:
10.1038/s41370-018-0018-0.
[13] Stošić, M.; Matavulj, M.; Marković, J. Subchronic Exposure to Acrylamide Leads to Pancreatic
Islet Remodeling Determined by Alpha Cell Expansion and Beta Cell Mass Reduction in
Adult Rats. Acta Histochem. 2018, 120(3), 228–235. DOI: 10.1080/09637486.2016.1226273.
[14] Kadawathagedara, M.; Botton, J.; Lauzon-Guillain, B.; Meltzer, H. M.; Alexander, J.;
Brantsaeter, A. L.; Haugen, M.; Papadopoulou, E. Dietary Acrylamide Intake during
Pregnancy and Postnatal Growth and Obesity: Results from the Norwegian Mother and
Child Cohort Study (Moba). Environ. Int. 2018, 113, 325–334. DOI: 10.1016/j.
envint.2018.01.004.
[15] Pan, X.; Wu, X.; Yan, D.; Peng, C.; Rao, C.; Yan, H. Acrylamide-Induced Oxidative Stress and
Inflammatory Response are Alleviated by N-Acetylcysteine in PC12 Cells: Involvement of the
Crosstalk between Nrf2 and NF-κB Pathways Regulated by MAPKs. Toxicol. Lett. 2018, 288,
55–64. DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2018.02.002.
[16] Liu, Z.; Tse, L. A.; Ho, S. C.; Wu, S.; Chen, B.; Chan, D.; Wong, S. Y. Dietary Acrylamide
Exposure Was Associated with Increased Cancer Mortality in Chinese Elderly Men and
Women: A 11-Year Prospective Study of Mr. And Ms. OS Hong Kong. J. Cancer Res. Clin.
Oncol. 2017, 143(11), 2317–2326. DOI: 10.1007/s00432-017-2477-4.
[17] Semla, M.; Goc, Z.; Martiniaková, M.; Omelka, R.; Formicki, G. Acrylamide: A Common
Food Toxin Related to Physiological Functions and Health. Physiol. Res. 2016, 66(2),
205–217.
[18] Olesen, P. T.; Olsen, A.; Frandsen, H.; Frederiksen, K.; Overvad, K.; Tjonneland, A.
Acrylamide Exposure and Incidence of Breast Cancer among Postmenopausal Women in
the Danish Diet, Cancer and Health Study. Int. J. Cancer. 2008, 122(9), 2094–2100. DOI:
10.1002/ijc.23359.
[19] Sickles, D. W.; Sperry, A. O.; Testino, A.; Friedman, M. Acrylamide Effects on
Kinesin-Related Proteins of the Mitotic/Meiotic Spindle. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 2007,
222(1), 111–121. DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2007.04.006.
[20] Teruel, M. R.; Gordon, M.; Linares, M. B.; Garrido, M. D.; Ahromrit, A.; Niranjan, K.
A Comparative Study of the Characteristics of French Fries Produced by Deep Fat Frying
and Air Frying. J. Food Sci. 2015, 80(2), 349–358. DOI: 10.1111/1750-3841.12753.
[21] Shaker, M. A.;. Air Frying a New Technique for Produce of Healthy Fried Potato Strips.
J. Food Nutr. Sci. 2014, 2(4), 200–206. DOI: 10.11648/j.jfns.20140204.26.
[22] Andrés, A.; Arguelles, A.; Castelló, M. L.; Heredia, A. Mass Transfer and Volume Changes in
French Fries during Air Frying. Food Bioprocess Technol. 2012, 6(8), 1917–1924. DOI:
10.1007/s11947-012-0861-2.
[23] Viana, R. D.; Oliveira, F. C.; Monte, M. J. S.; Pereira, L. M. R.; Carvalho, J. O. Ação de
antioxidantes no reaproveitamento de óleos vegetais. Rev. Interdiscip. 2014, 7(4), 13–21.
[24] Sansano, M.; Juan-Borras, M.; Escriche, I.; Andres, A.; Heredia, A. Effect of Pretreatments and
Air-Frying, a Novel Technology, on Acrylamide Generation in Fried Potatoes. J. Food Sci.
2015, 80(5), 1120–1128. DOI: 10.1111/1750-3841.12843.
776 A. N. ZAGHI ET AL.

[25] Fellows, P. J.;. Tecnologia do processamento de alimentos: Princípios e prática; Artmed: Porto
Alegre, 2006.
[26] Heredia, A. B.; Castello, M. L.; Arguelles, A.; Andres, A. Evolution of Mechanical and Optical
Properties of French Fries Obtained by Hot Air-Frying. LWT- Food Sci. Technol. 2014, 57(2),
755–760. DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2014.02.038.
[27] Ferreira, F. S.; Sampaio, G. R.; Keller, L. M.; Sawaya, A. C. H. F.; Chávez, D. W. H.;
Torres, E. A. F. S.; Saldanha, T. Impact of Air Frying on Cholesterol and Fatty Acids
Oxidation in Sardines: Protective Effects of Aromatic Herbs. J. Food Sci. 2017, 82(12),
2823–2831. DOI: 10.1111/1750-3841.13967.
[28] Sanibal, E. A. A.; Filho, J. M.; Físicas, A. Químicas e Nutricionais de Óleos Submetidos ao
Processo de Fritura. Food Ingr. South Am.. 2002, 2, 64–71.
[29] Mishra, R.; Sharma, H. K. Effect of Frying Conditions on the Physico-Chemical Properties of
Rice Bran Oil and Its Blended Oil. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2014, 51(6), 1076–1084. DOI:
10.1007/s13197-011-0602-y.
[30] Freitas de Sá, D. G. C.; Torrezan, R.; Antoniassi, R.; Terra, K. J. S.; Guedes, A. M. M.;
Wilhelm, A. E.; Machado, A. F. F. Aceitação sensorial de batatas fritas com redução de
gorduras. Encontro nacional, 20; Congresso Latino Americano de Analistas de Alimentos, 6,
2017. Belém, PA. Segurança e qualidade de alimentos. LACEN: UFPA, 2017. 1–5.
[31] Tanvir, S.; Sajjad, S.; Roshan, R. Awareness Levels of Prevention of Cardiac Diseases in
General Population of Rawalpindi and Requirement of Health Education. Public Health.
2018, 157, 107–110. DOI: 10.1016/j.puhe.2018.01.006.
[32] Marangoni, F.; Galli, C.; Ghiselli, A.; Lercker, G.; La Vecchia, C.; Maffeis, C.; Agostoni, C.;
Ballardini, D.; Brignoli, O.; Faggiano, P.; et al. Palm Oil and Human Health. Meeting Report
of NFI: Nutrition Foundation of Italy Symposium. Int. J. Food Sci. Nutr. 2017, 68(6),
643–655. DOI: 10.1080/09637486.2016.1278431.
[33] Leal-Castaneda, E. J.; Hernandez-Becerra, J. A.; Rodrıguez-Estrada, M. T.; Garcıa, H. S.
Formation of Cholesterol Oxides in Lipid Medium during Microwave Heating. Eur. J. Lipid
Sci. Technol. 2017, 119(4), 1–13. DOI: 10.1002/ejlt.201500597.
[34] Dantas, N. M.; Sampaio, G. R.; Ferreira, F. S.; Labre, T. S.; Torres, E. A. F. S.; Saldanha, T.
Cholesterol Oxidation in Fish and Fish Products. J. Food Sci. 2015, 80(12), 2627–2639. DOI:
10.1111/1750-3841.13124.
[35] Barbosa, K. M.; Cardoso, L. P.; Ribeiro, A. P. B.; Kieckbusch, T. G.; Buscato, M. H. M.
Crystallization of Low Saturated Lipid Blends of Palm and Canola Oils with Sorbitan
Monostearate and Fully Hydrogenated Palm Oil. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2018, 55(3),
1104–1115. DOI: 10.1007/s13197-017-3026-5.
[36] Ans, V. G.; Mattos, E. S.; Jorge, N. Avaliação da qualidade dos óleos de fritura usados em
restaurantes, lanchonetes e similares; UNESP – Departamento de Engenharia e Tecnologia de
Alimentos: São José do Rio Preto, 1999.
[37] Qi, Y.; Zhang, H.; Wu, G.; Zhang, H.; Gu, L.; Wang, L.; Qian, H.; Qi, X. Mitigation Effects of
Proanthocyanidins with Different Structures on Acrylamide Formation in Chemical and Fried
Potato Crisp Models. Food Chem. 2018, 250, 98–104. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.01.012.
[38] Jorge, N.; Soares, B. B. P.; Lunardi, V. M.; Malacrida, C. R. Alterações físico-químicas dos
óleos de girassol, milho e soja em frituras. Quim. Nova. 2005, 28(6), 947–951. DOI: 10.1590/
S0100-40422005000600003.
[39] Rios, H. C. S.; Pereira, I. R. O.; Abreu, E. S. Avaliação da oxidação de óleos, gorduras e azeites
comestíveis em processo de fritura. Ciênc. Saúde. 2013, 6(2), 118–126. DOI: 10.15448/1983-
652X.2013.2.13143.
[40] Corsini, M. S.; Jorge, N.; Miguel, A. M. R. O.; Vicente, E. Perfil de ácidos graxos e avaliação da
alteração em óleos de fritura. Quim. Nova. 2008, 31(5), 956–961. DOI: 10.1590/S0100-
40422008000500003.
[41] Duarte-Delgado, D.; Juyó, D.; Gebhardt, C.; Sarmiento, F.; Mosquera-Vásquez, T. Novel SNP
Markers in InvGE and SssI Genes are Associated with Natural Variation of Sugar Contents
and Frying Color in Solanum Tuberosum Group Phureja. BMC Genet. 2017, 18(1), 1. DOI:
10.1186/s12863-017-0489-3.
 FOOD REVIEWS INTERNATIONAL 777

[42] Neethu, K. C.; Sharma, A. K.; Pushpadass, H. A.; Emerald, F.; Magdaline, E.; Manjunatha, M.
Prediction of Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient during Deep-Fat Frying of Pantoa Using
Neurocomputing Approaches. Innovative Food Sci. Emerging Technol. 2016, 34, 275–284.
DOI: 10.1016/j.ifset.2016.02.012.
[43] Cao, X.; Zhou, S.; Yi, C.; Wang, L.; Qian, H.; Zhang, H.; Qi, X. Effect of Whole Wheat Flour
on the Quality, Texture Profile, and Oxidation Stability of Instant Fried Noodles. J. Texture
Stud. 2017, 48(6), 607–615. DOI: 10.1111/jtxs.12274.
[44] Silveira, C. M.; Moreira, A. V.; Martino, H. S.; Gomide, R. S.; Pinheiro, S. S.; Della
Lucia, C. M.; Pinheiro-Sant‘ana, H. M. Effect of Cooking Methods on the Stability of
Thiamin and Folic Acid in Fortified Rice. Int. J. Food Sci. Nutr. 2017, 68(2), 179–187. DOI:
10.1080/09637486.2016.1226273.
[45] Adjepong, M.; Pickens, C. A.; Jain, R.; Harris, W. S.; Annan, R. A.; Fenton, J. I. Association of
Whole Blood N-6 Fatty Acids with Stunting in 2-To-6-Year-Old Northern Ghanaian
Children: A Cross-Sectional Study. PLoS One. 2018, 13(3), e0193301. DOI: 10.1371/journal.
pone.0193301.
[46] Yang, J.; Xing, G.; Niu, L.; He, H.; Guo, D.; Du, Q.; Qian, X.; Yao, Y.; Li, H.; Zhong, X.; et al.
Improved Oil Quality in Transgenic Soybean Seeds by RNAi-mediated Knockdown of
GmFAD2-1B. Transgenic Res. 2018, 27(2), 155–166. DOI: 10.1007/s11248-018-0063-4.
[47] Hogervorst, J. G. F.; van den Brandt, P. A.; Godschalk, R. W. L.; van Schooten, F. J.;
Schouten, L. J. Interaction between Dietary Acrylamide Intake and Genetic Variants for
Estrogen Receptor-Positive Breast Cancer Risk. Eur. J. Nutr. 2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00394-
018-1619-z.
[48] Capuano, E.; Fogliano, V. Acrylamide and 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF): A Review on
Metabolism, Toxicity, Occurrence in Food and Mitigation Strategies. LWT- Food Sci. Technol.
2011, 44(4), 793–810. DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2010.11.002.
[49] Expert Committee of Food Additives (JECFA). 2011. Who 2018. http://apps.who.int/food-
additives-contaminants-jecfadatabase/chemical.aspx (accessed Aug 6, 2018).
[50] Aras, D.; Cakar, Z.; Ozkavukcu, S.; Can, A.; Cinar, O.; Yu, Y. In Vivo Acrylamide Exposure
May Cause Severe Toxicity to Mouse Oocytes through Its Metabolite Glycidamide. PLoS One.
2017, 12(2), e0172026. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0172026.
[51] Usman, M.; Vanhaverbeke, W. How Start-Ups Successfully Organize and Manage Open
Innovation with Large Companies. Eur. J. Innovation Manage. 2017, 20(1), 171–186. DOI:
10.1108/EJIM-07-2016-0066.
[52] Tarmizi, A. H. A.; Niranjan, K. The Possibility of Lowering Oil Content of Potato Chips by
Combining Atmospheric Frying with Postfrying Vacuum Application. J. Food Sci. 2010, 75
(9), 572–579. DOI: 10.1111/j.1750-3841.2010.01819.x.
[53] Pathare, P. B.; Opara, U. L.; Al-Said, F. A. J. Colour Measurement and Analysis in Fresh and
Processed Foods: A Review. Food Bioprocess Technol. 2013, 6(1), 36–60. DOI: 10.1007/
s11947-012-0867-9.
[54] Pedreschi, F.; Moyano, P.; Kaack, K.; Granby, K. Color Changes and Acrylamide
Formation in Fried Potato Slices. Food Res. Int. 2005, 38(1), 1–9. DOI: 10.1016/j.
foodres.2004.07.002.
[55] Budzaki, S.; Seruga, B. Determination of Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient during Frying
of Potato Dough. J. Food Eng. 2005, 66(3), 307–314. DOI: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2004.03.023.
[56] Farinu, A.; Baik, O. D. Convective Mass Transfer Coefficients in Finite Element Simulations
of Deep Fat Frying of Sweet Potato. J. Food Eng. 2008, 89(2), 187–194. DOI: 10.1016/j.
jfoodeng.2008.04.024.
[57] Mir-Bel, J.; Oria, R.; Salvador, M. L. Influence of Temperature on Heat Transfer Coefficient
during Moderate Vacuum Deep Fat Frying. J. Food Eng. 2012, 113(2), 167–176. DOI:
10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2012.06.009.

View publication stats