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Repository
The latest version and source LATEXcode are located in
https://github.com/goropikari/SolutionForQuantumComputationAndQuantumInformation.
For readers
This is an unofficial solution manual for ”Quantum Computation and Quantum Information:
10th Anniversary Edition” (ISBN-13: 978-1107002173) by Michael A. Nielsen and Isaac L.
Chuang.
I have studied quantum information theory as a hobby. And I’m not a researcher. So there is
no guarantee that these solutions are correct. Especially because I’m not good at mathematics,
proofs are often wrong. Don’t trust me. Verify yourself!
If you find some mistake or have some comments, please feel free to open an issue or a PR.
goropikari
Contents
Errata list i
1
CONTENTS 2
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Errata list
P P
• p.408. eq (9.49) i pi D(ρi , σi ) + D(pi , qi ) should be i pi D(ρi , σi ) + 2D(pi , qi ).
X X
eqn (9.48) = pi Tr(P (ρi − σi )) + (pi − qi ) Tr(P σi )
i i
X X
≤ pi Tr(P (ρi − σi )) + |pi − qi | Tr(P σi ) (∵ pi − qi ≤ |pi − qi |)
i i
X X
≤ pi Tr(P (ρi − σi )) + |pi − qi | (∵ Tr(P σi ) ≤ 1)
i i
P
i |pi − qi |
X
= pi Tr(P (ρi − σi )) + 2
2
i
X
= pi Tr(P (ρi − σi )) + 2D(pi , qi )
i
• p.411. Exercise 9.16. eqn(9.73) Tr(A† B) = hm|A ⊗ B|mi should be Tr(AT B) = hm|A ⊗ B|mi.
i 0 1 0
Simple counter example is the case that A = . B= , In this case,
0 0 0 0
† −i 0 1 0 −i 0
AB= = ,
0 0 0 0 0 0
Tr(A† B) = −i,
i 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
A⊗B = 0
0 0 0
0 0 0 0
hm|A ⊗ B|mi = (h00| + h11i)(A ⊗ B)(|00i + |11i) = i.
i
CHAPTER 0. ERRATA LIST ii
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Chapter 2
2.1
1 1 2 0
+ − =
−1 2 1 0
2.2
2.3
From eq (2.12)
X
A |vi i = Aji |wj i
j
X
B |wj i = Bkj |xk i
k
1
CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM MECHANICS 2
Thus
X
BA |vi i = B Aji |wj i
j
X
= Aji B |wj i
j
X
= Aji Bkj |xk i
j,k
X X
= Bkj Aji |xk i
k j
X
= (BA)ki |xk i
k
X
∴(BA)ki = Bkj Aji
j
2.4
X
I |vj i = Iij |vi i = |vj i , ∀j.
i
⇒ Iij = δij
2.5
!
X X X
(y1 , · · · , yn ), λi (zi1 , · · · , zin ) = yi∗ λj zji
i i j
X
= yi∗ λj zji
i,j
!
X X
= λj yi∗ zji
j i
X
= λj ((y1 , · · · , yn ), (zj1 , · · · , zjn ))
j
X
= λi ((y1 , · · · , yn ), (zi1 , · · · , zin )) .
i
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3 CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM MECHANICS
.
Verify (3) of eq (2.13),
X
((y1 , · · · , yn ), (y1 , · · · , yn )) = yi∗ yi
i
X
= |yi |2
i
Since |yi |2 ≥ 0 for all i, if i |yi |2 = 0, then |yi |2 = 0 for all i. Therefore |yi |2 = 0 ⇔ yi = 0
P
for all i. Thus,
(y1 , · · · , yn ) = 0.
2.6
! !∗
X X
λi |wi i , |vi = |vi , λi |wi i
i i
" #∗
X
= λi (|vi , |wi i) (∵ linearlity in the 2nd arg.)
i
2.7
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CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM MECHANICS 4
1
hw|vi = 1 1 =1−1=0
−1
|wi |wi 1 1
=p =√
k|wik hw|wi 2 1
|vi |vi 1 1
=p =√
k|vik hv|vi 2 −1
2.8
If k = 1,
= 0.
2.9
2.10
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5 CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM MECHANICS
Thus
2.11
0 1 −λ 1
X= , det(X − λI) = det = 0 ⇒ λ = ±1
1 0 1 −λ
If λ = −1,
1 1 c1 0
=
1 1 c2 0
Thus
c1 1 −1
|λ = −1i = =√
c2 2 1
If λ = 1
1 1
|λ = 1i = √
2 1
−1 0
X= w.r.t. {|λ = −1i , |λ = 1i}
0 1
2.12
1 0
det − λI = (1 − λ)2 = 0 ⇒ λ = 1
1 1
Therefore the eigenvector associated with eigenvalue λ = 1 is
0
|λ = 1i =
1
0 0
Because |λ = 1i hλ = 1| = ,
0 1
1 0 0 0
6= c |λ = 1i hλ = 1| =
1 1 0 c
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CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM MECHANICS 6
2.13
∗
(|ψi , (|wi hv|) |φi)∗ = (|wi hv|)† |ψi , |φi
= |φi , (|wi hv|)† |ψi
= hφ| (|wi hv|)† |ψi .
Thus
hφ| (|wi hv|)† |ψi = hφ|vi hw|ψi for arbitrary vectors |ψi , |φi
∴ (|wi hv|)† = |vi hw|
2.14
2.15
2.16
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7 CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM MECHANICS
X
P = |ii hi| .
i
!
X X
P2 = |ii hi| |ji hj|
i j
X
= |ii hi|ji hj|
i,j
X
= |ii hj| δij
i,j
X
= |ii hi|
i
=P
2.17
Proof. (⇒) Suppose A is Hermitian. Then A = A† . Let |λi be eigenvectors of A with eigenvalues
λ, that is,
A |i = λ |λi .
Therefore
hλ|A|λi = λ hλ|λi = λ.
where λi are real eigenvalues with eigenvectors |λi i. By taking adjoint, we get
X
A† = λ∗i |λi ihλi |
i
X
= λi |λi ihλi | (∵ λi are real)
i
=A
Thus A is Hermitian.
2.18
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CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM MECHANICS 8
U |vi = λ |vi .
1 = hv|vi
= hv| I |vi
= hv| U † U |vi
= λλ∗ hv|vi
= kλk2
∴ λ = eiθ
2.19
20 1 0 1 1 0
X = = =I
1 0 1 0 0 1
2.20
X
U≡ |wi i hvi |
i
0
Aij = hvi |A|vj i
= hvi |U U † AU U † |vj i
X
= hvi |wp i hvp |vq i hwq |A|wr i hvr |vs i hws |vj i
p,q,r,s
00
X
= hvi |wp i δpq Aqr δrs hws |vj i
p,q,r,s
00
X
= hvi |wp i hwr |vj i Apr
p,r
2.21
M = IM I
= (P + Q)M (P + Q)
= P M P + QM P + P M Q + QM Q
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9 CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM MECHANICS
2.22
Suppose A is a Hermitian operator and |vi i are eigenvectors of A with eigenvalues λi . Then
hvi |A|vj i = hvi |A† |vj i = hvj |A|vi i∗ = λ∗i hvj |vi i∗ = λ∗i hvi |vj i = λi hvi |vj i
Thus
2.23
Therefore
λ = λ2
λ(λ − 1) = 0
λ = 0 or 1.
2.24
A + A† A − A†
A= +i
2 2i
A + A† A − A†
= B + iC where B = , C= .
2 2i
Now operators B and C are Hermitian.
Since B and C are Hermitian, α, β ∈ R. From def of positive operator, β should be vanished
because hv|A|vi is real. Hence β = hv|C|vi = 0 for all |vi, i.e. C = 0.
Therefore A = A† .
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CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM MECHANICS 10
Reference: MIT 8.05 Lecture note by Prof. Barton Zwiebach.
https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/physics/8-05-quantum-physics-ii-fall-2013/
lecture-notes/MIT8_05F13_Chap_03.pdf
Proof. Suppose u = T v. Then (T v, T v) = 0 for all v implies that T v = 0 for all v. Therefore
T = 0.
Proof. First, we show that (u, T v) = 0 if (v, Av) = 0. Then apply proposition 2.0.1
Suppose u, v ∈ V . Then (u, T v) is decomposed as
1 1
(u, T v) = (u + v, T (u + v)) − (u − v, T (u − v)) + (u + iv, T (u + iv))
4 i
1
− (u − iv, T (u − iv)) .
i
If (v, T v) = 0 for all v ∈ V , the right hand side of above eqn vanishes. Thus (u, T v) = 0 for
all u, v ∈ V . Then T = 0.
2.25
Thus A† A is positive.
2.26
1 1
|ψi⊗2 = √ (|0i + |1i) ⊗ √ (|0i + |1i
2 2
1
= (|00i + |01i + |10i + |11i)
2
1
1 1
=
2 1
1
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11 CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM MECHANICS
1 1 1
|ψi⊗3 = √ (|0i + |1i) ⊗ √ (|0i + |1i ⊗ √ (|0i + |1i
2 2 2
1
= √ (|000i + |001i + |010i + |011i + |100i + |101i + |110i + |111i)
2 2
1
1
1
1 1
= √
2 2 1
1
1
1
2.27
0 1 1 0
X ⊗Z = ⊗
1 0 0 −1
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 −1
=1 0 0 0
0 −1 0 0
1 0 0 1
I ⊗X = ⊗
0 1 1 0
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
=0
0 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 1 1 0
X ⊗I = ⊗
1 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
=
1
0 0 0
0 1 0 0
In general, tensor product is not commutable.
2.28
∗
A11 B · · · A1n B
(A ⊗ B)∗ = ... .. ..
. .
Am1 B · · · Amn B
∗ ∗
· · · A∗1n B ∗
A11 B
= ... .. ..
. .
Am1 B · · · Amn B ∗
∗ ∗ ∗
= A∗ ⊗ B ∗ .
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CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM MECHANICS 12
T
A11 B · · · A1n B
(A ⊗ B)T = ... .. ..
. .
Am1 B · · · Amn B
A11 B T · · · Am1 B T
= ... .. ..
. .
A1n B T · · · Amn B T
T · · · A1m B T
A11 B
= ... .. ..
. .
An1 B T · · · Anm B T
= AT ⊗ B T .
2.29
Suppose U1 and U2 are unitary operators. Then
Similarly,
(U1 ⊗ U2 )† (U1 ⊗ U2 ) = I ⊗ I.
2.30
Suppose A and B are Hermitian operators. Then
(A ⊗ B)† = A† ⊗ B † = A ⊗ B. (2.6)
Thus A ⊗ B is Hermitian.
2.31
Since A and B are positive operators, hψ|A|ψi ≥ 0 and hφ|B|φi ≥ 0 for all |ψi , |φi. Then
hψ|A|ψi hφ|B|φi ≥ 0. Thus A ⊗ B is positive if A and B are positive.
2.32
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13 CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM MECHANICS
2.33
1 1 1
H=√ (2.7)
2 1 −1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 −1 1 −1
H ⊗2 =√ ⊗√ =
2 1 −1 2 1 −1 2 1 1 −1 −1
1 −1 −1 1
2.34
4 3
Suppose A = .
3 4
Thus
A = |λ = 1ihλ = 1| + 7 |λ = 7ihλ = 7| .
√ √
A = |λ = 1ihλ = 1| + 7 |λ = 7ihλ = 7|
√
1 1 −1 7 1 1
= +
2 −1 1 2 1 1
√ √
1 1 + 7 −1 + 7
= √ √
2 −1 + 7 1 + 7
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CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM MECHANICS 14
2.35
3
X
~v · ~σ = vi σi
i=1
0 1 0 −i 1 0
= v1 + v2 + v3
1 0 i 0 0 −1
v3 v1 − iv2
=
v1 + iv2 −v3
Thus
2.36
0 1
Tr(σ1 ) = Tr =0
1 0
0 −i
Tr(σ2 ) = Tr =0
i 0
1 0
Tr(σ3 ) = Tr =1−1=0
0 −1
2.37
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15 CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM MECHANICS
X
Tr(AB) = hi|AB|ii
i
X
= hi|AIB|ii
i
X
= hi|A|ji hj|B|ii
i,j
X
= hj|B|ii hi|A|ji
i,j
X
= hj|BA|ji
j
= Tr(BA)
2.38
X
Tr(A + B) = hi|A + B|ii
i
X
= (hi|A|ii + hi|B|ii)
i
X X
= hi|A|ii + hi|B|ii
i i
= Tr(A) + Tr(B).
X
Tr(zA) = hi|zA|ii
i
X
= z hi|A|ii
i
X
=z hi|A|ii
i
= z Tr(A).
2.39
(i)
! " !#
X X
†
A, λi Bi = Tr A λ i Bi
i i
= Tr(A† λ1 B1 ) + · · · + Tr(A† λn Bn ) (∵ Execise 2.38)
† †
= λ1 Tr(A B1 ) + · · · + λn Tr(A Bn )
X
= λi Tr(A† Bi )
i
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CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM MECHANICS 16
(ii)
∗
(A, B)∗ = Tr(A† B)
∗
X
= hi|A† |ji hj|B|ii
i,j
∗
hi|A† |ji hj|B|ii∗
X
=
i,j
∗
hj|B|ii∗ hi|A† |ji
X
=
i,j
X
= hi|B † |ji hj|A|ii
i,j
X
= hi|B † A|ii
i
= Tr(B † A)
= (B, A).
(iii)
(A, A) = Tr(A† A)
X
= hi|A† A|ii
i
(2)
(3)
2.40
[X, Y ] = XY −YX
0 1 0 −i 0 −i 0 1
= −
1 0 i 0 i 0 1 0
i 0 −i 0
= −
0 −i 0 i
2i 0
=
0 −2i
= 2iZ
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17 CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM MECHANICS
0 −i 1 0 1 0 0 −i
[Y, Z] = −
i 0 0 −1 0 −1 i 0
0 2i
=
2i 0
= 2iX
1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0
[Z, X] = −
0 −1 1 0 1 0 0 −1
0 −i
= 2i
i 0
= 2iY
2.41
{σ1 , σ2 } = σ1 σ2 + σ2 σ1
0 1 0 −i 0 −i 0 1
= +
1 0 i 0 i 0 1 0
i 0 −i 0
= +
0 −i 0 i
=0
0 −i 1 0 1 0 0 −i
{σ2 , σ3 } = +
i 0 0 −1 0 −1 i 0
=0
1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0
{σ3 , σ1 } = +
0 −1 1 0 1 0 0 −1
=0
σ02 = I 2 = I
2
2 0 1
σ1 = =I
1 0
2
2 0 −i
σ2 = =I
i 0
2
2 1 0
σ3 = =I
0 −1
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CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM MECHANICS 18
2.42
[A, B] + {A, B} AB − BA + AB + BA
= = AB
2 2
2.43
2.44
2.45
2.46
[A, B] = AB − BA
= −(BA − AB)
= − [B, A]
2.47
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19 CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM MECHANICS
2.48
(Positive ) P
Since P is positive, it is diagonalizable. Then P = i λi |iihi|, (λi ≥ 0).
√ √ √ Xq X
†
J = P P = PP = P = 2 λ2i |iihi| = λi |iihi| = P.
i i
(Unitary)
Suppose
√ unitary U is decomposed by U = W J where W is unitary and J is positive,
J = U †U .
√ √
J = U †U = I = I
(Hermitian)
Suppose H = U J.
√ √ √
J= H †H = HH = H 2.
√
Thus H = U H 2 .
√
In general, H 6= H 2 . P
From spectral decomposition, H = i λi |iihi|, λi ∈ R.
√ sX Xq X
H2 = λ2i |iihi| = λ2i |iihi| = |λi | |iihi| =
6 H
i i i
2.49
P
Normal matrix is diagonalizable, A = i λi |iihi|.
√ X
J = A† A = |λi | |iihi| .
i
X
U= |ei ihi|
i
X
A = UJ = |λi | |ei ihi| .
i
2.50
1 0 † 2 1
Define A = . A A= .
1 1 1 1
Characteristic equation of A† A is det(A† A − λI) = λ2 − 3λ †
+ 1 = 0. Eigenvalues of A A are
√
2√
λ± = 3±2 5 and associated eigenvectors are |λ± i = √ 1 √ .
10∓2 5 −1 ± 5
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CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM MECHANICS 20
√ p p
J= A† A = λ+ |λ+ ihλ+ | + λ− |λ− ihλ− |
s √ √ √
s √ √ √
3+ 5 5− 5 4 2 5− 2 3− 5 5+ 5 4 −2 5√−2
= · √ √ + · √
2 40 2 5−2 6−2 5 2 40 −2 5 − 2 6 + 2 5
1 1
J −1 = p |λ+ ihλ+ | + p |λ− ihλ− | .
λ+ λ−
U = AJ −1
I’m tired.
2.51
†
† 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 0
H H= √ √ =√ √ = = I.
2 1 −1 2 1 −1 2 1 −1 2 1 −1 2 0 2
2.52
†
† 1 1 1 1 1 1
H = √ =√ = H.
2 1 −1 2 1 −1
Thus
H 2 = I.
2.53
1 1 1
det (H − λI) = √ − λ −√ − λ −
2 2 2
1 1
= λ2 − −
2 2
= λ2 − 1
1 1√
Eigenvalues are λ± = ±1 and associated eigenvectors are |λ± i = √ √ .
4∓2 2 −1 ± 2
2.54
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21 CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM MECHANICS
P P
Since [A, B] = 0, A and B are simultaneously diagonalize, A = i ai |iihi|, B= i bi |iihi|.
! !
X X
exp(A) exp(B) = exp(ai ) |iihi| exp(bi ) |iihi|
i i
X
= exp(ai + bj ) |ii hi|ji hj|
i,j
X
= exp(ai + bj ) |iihj| δi,j
i,j
X
= exp(ai + bi ) |iihi|
i
= exp(A + B)
2.55
X
H= E |EihE|
E
† iH(t2 − t1 ) iH(t2 − t1 )
U (t2 − t1 )U (t2 − t1 ) = exp − exp
~ ~
iE 0 (t2 − t1 )
X iE(t2 − t1 ) 0 0
= exp − |EihE| exp − |E ihE |
0
~ ~
E,E
X i(E − E 0 )(t2 − t1 )
0
= exp − |EihE | δE,E 0
0
~
E,E
X
= exp(0) |EihE|
E
X
= |EihE|
E
=I
2.56
P
U= i λi |λi ihλi | (|λi | = 1).
X X
log(U ) = log(λj ) |λj ihλj | = iθj |λj ihλj | where θj = arg(λj )
j j
X
K = −i log(U ) = θj |λj ihλj | .
j
†
X X X
K † = (−i log U )† = θj |λj ihλj | = θj∗ |λj ihλj | = θj |λj ihλj | = K
j j j
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CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM MECHANICS 22
2.57
Ll |ψi
|φi ≡ q
hψ|L†l Ll |ψi
† hψ|L†l Mm
†
Mm Ll |ψi
hφ|Mm Mm |φi =
hψ|L†l Ll |ψi
q
Mm |φi Mm Ll |ψi hψ|L†l Ll |ψi
Mm Ll |ψi Nlm |ψi
q =q ·q =q =q
†
hφ|Mm Mm |φi hψ|L†l Ll |ψi hψ|L†l Mm
†
Mm Ll |ψi hψ|L†l Mm
†
Mm Ll |ψi †
hψ|Nlm Nlm |ψi
2.58
2.59
2.60
3
X
~v · ~σ = vi σi
i=1
0 1 0 −i 1 0
= v1 + v2 + v3
1 0 i 0 0 −1
v3 v1 − iv2
=
v1 + iv2 −v3
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23 CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM MECHANICS
1
q
1+v3
Normalized eigenvector is |λ1 i = 2 1−v3 .
v1 −iv2
1 + v3 1 1−v3
|λ1 ihλ1 | = 1−v3 1 v1 +iv2
2 v1 −iv2
" #
v1 −iv2
1 + v3 1 1+v3
= v1 +iv2 1−v3
2 1+v3 1+v3
1 1 + v3 v1 − iv2
=
2 v1 + iv2 1 − v3
1 v3 v1 − iv2
= I+
2 v1 + iv2 −v3
1
= (I + ~v · ~σ )
2
(ii) If λ = −1.
~v · ~σ − λI = ~v · ~σ + I
v3 + 1 v1 − iv2
=
v1 + iv2 −v3 + 1
1
q
1−v3
Normalized eigenvalue is |λ−1 i = .
2 − v1+v 3
1 −iv2
1 − v3 1
1 − v1+v
|λ−1 ihλ−1 | = 1+v3
3
+iv
2 − v −iv 1 2
" 1 2 #
1 −iv2
1 − v3 1 − v1−v
= 3
2 − v1−v
1 +iv2
3
1+v3
1−v3
1 1 − v3 −(v1 − iv2 )
=
2 −(v1 + iv2 ) 1 + v3
1 v3 v1 − iv2
= I−
2 (v1 + iv2 −v3
1
= (I − ~v · ~σ ).
2
While I review my proof, I notice that my proof has a defect. The case (v1 , v2 , v3 ) = (0, 0, 1),
second component of eigenstate, v1−v 3
1 −iv2
, diverges. So I implicitly assume v1 − iv2 6= 0. Hence
my proof is incomplete.
Since the exercise doesn’t require explicit form of projector, we should prove the problem
more abstractly. In order to prove, we use the following properties of ~v · ~σ
• ~v · ~σ is Hermitian
• (~v · ~σ )2 = I where ~v is a real unit vector.
We can easily check above conditions.
(~v · ~σ )† = (v1 σ1 + v2 σ2 + v3 σ3 )†
= v1 σ1† + v2 σ2† + v3 σ3†
= v1 σ1 + v2 σ2 + v3 σ3 (∵ Pauli matrices are Hermitian.)
= ~v · ~σ
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CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM MECHANICS 24
3
X
(~v · ~σ )2 = (vj σj )(vk σk )
j,k=1
3
X
= vj vk σ j σ k
j,k=1
3 3
!
X X
= vj vk δjk I + i jkl σl (∵ eqn(2.78) page78)
j,k=1 l=1
3
X 3
X
= vj vk δjk I + i jkl vj vk σl
j,k=1 j,k,l=1
3
X
= vj2 I
j=1
X
=I ∵ vj2 = 1
j
~v · ~σ |λi = λ |λi
(~v · ~σ )2 |λi = λ2 |λi
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25 CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM MECHANICS
Therefore hψ|(P± − |λ±1 ihλ±1 |)|ψi = 0 for all |ψi ∈ C2 . Thus P± = |λ±1 ihλ±1 |.
2.61
2.62
†
Suppose Mm is a measurement operator. From the assumption, Em = Mm Mm = M m .
Then
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CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM MECHANICS 26
2.63
†
p
†
p
Mm Mm = Em Um Um Em
p p
= Em I Em
= Em .
†
Since Em is POVM, for arbitrary unitary U , Mm Mm is POVM.
2.64
Read following paper:
• Lu-Ming Duan, Guang-Can Guo. Probabilistic cloning and identification of linearly inde-
pendent quantum states. Phys. Rev. Lett.,80:4999-5002, 1998. arXiv:quant-ph/9804064
https://journals.aps.org/prl/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevLett.80.4999
https://arxiv.org/abs/quant-ph/9804064
• Stephen M. Barnett, Sarah Croke, Quantum state discrimination, arXiv:0810.1970 [quant-
ph]
https://arxiv.org/abs/0810.1970
https://www.osapublishing.org/DirectPDFAccess/67EF4200-CBD2-8E68-1979E37886263936_
176580/aop-1-2-238.pdf
2.65
2.66
|00i + |11i |10i − |01i
X1 Z2 √ = √
2 2
h00| + h11| |00i + |11i h00| + h11| |10i − |01i
hX1 Z2 i = √ X1 Z2 √ = √ · √ =0
2 2 2 2
2.67
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27 CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM MECHANICS
and
X X X X
U 0 (U 0 )† = |ui ihwi | + |u0j ihwj0 | |wi ihui | + |wj0 ihu0j |
i j i j
X X
= |ui ihui | + |u0j ihu0j | = I.
i j
X X
U 0 |wi = |ui ihwi | + |u0j ihwj0 | |wi
i j
X X
= |ui i hwi |wi + |u0j i hwj0 |wi
i j
X
= |ui i hwi |wi (∵ |wj0 i ⊥ |wi)
i
X
= U |wi i hwi |wi
i
= U |wi .
Therefore U 0 is an extension of U .
2.68
|00i+|11i
|ψi = √
2
.
2.69
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CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM MECHANICS 28
∴ a1 = a2 = a3 = a4 = 0
2.70
2.71
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29 CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM MECHANICS
!
X X X X X
2
Tr(ρ ) = Tr p2i |iihi| = p2i Tr(|iihi|) = p2i hi|ii = p2i ≤ pi = 1 (∵ p2i ≤ pi )
i i i i i
Suppose Tr(ρ2 ) = 1. Then i p2i = 1. Since p2i < pi for 0 < pi < 1, only single pi should be
P
1 and otherwise have to vanish. Therefore ρ = |ψi ihψi |. It is a pure state.
Conversely if ρ is pure, then ρ = |ψihψ|.
2.72
a b
(1) Since density matrix is Hermitian, matrix representation is ρ = ∗ , a, d ∈ R and
b d
b ∈ C w.r.t. standard basis. Because ρ is density matrix, Tr(ρ) = a + d = 1.
Define a = (1 + r3 )/2, d = (1 − r3 )/2 and b = (r1 − ir2 )/2, (ri ∈ R).
In this case,
a b 1 1 + r3 r1 − ir2 1
ρ= ∗ = = (I + ~r · ~σ ).
b d 2 r1 + ir2 1 − r3 2
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CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM MECHANICS 30
(2)
(3)
1 1
ρ2 = (I + ~r · ~σ ) (I + ~r · ~σ )
2 2
3
!
1 X X
= I + 2~r · ~σ + rj rk δjk I + i jkl σl
4
j,k l=1
1
I + 2~r · ~σ + |~r|2 I
=
4
1
Tr(ρ2 ) = (2 + 2|~r|2 )
4
1
1 = Tr(ρ2 ) = (2 + 2|~r|2 )
4
∴ |~r| = 1.
2.73
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31 CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM MECHANICS
Theorem 2.6
X X X X X
ρ= pi |ψi ihψi | = |ψ̃i ihψ̃i | = |ϕ̃j ihϕ̃j | = qj |ϕj ihϕj | ⇔ |ψ̃i i = uij |ϕ̃j i
i i j j j
where u is unitary. P
The-transformation in theorem 2.6, |ψ̃i i = j uij |ϕ̃j i, corresponds to
h i h i
|ψ̃1 i · · · |ψ̃k i = |ϕ̃1 i · · · |ϕ̃k i U T
where k = rank(ρ).
˜1 |
hψ
|ψ̃i ihψ̃i | = |ψ̃1 i · · · |ψ̃k i ...
X h i
(2.10)
i hψ˜k |
hϕ̃1 |
= |ϕ̃1 i · · · |ϕ̃k i U T U ∗ ...
h i
(2.11)
hϕ̃k |
i hϕ̃1 |
= |ϕ̃1 i · · · |ϕ̃k i ...
h
(2.12)
hϕ̃k |
X
= |ϕ̃j ihϕ̃j | . (2.13)
j
Pd
From spectral theorem, density matrix ρ is decomposed as ρ = k=1 λk |kihk| where d =
dim H. Without loss of generality, we P 0 for k = 1 · · · , l where l √
can assume pk > P = rank(ρ) and
l l
pk = 0 for k = l + 1, · · · , d. Thus ρ = k=1 pk |kihk| = k=1 |k̃ihk̃|, where |k̃i = λk |ki.
Suppose |ψi i is a state in support ρ. Then
l
X X
|ψi i = cik |ki , |cik |2 = 1.
k=1 k
√
1 pi cik
Define pi = P |cik |2
and uik = √ .
k
λk
λk
Now
X X pi |cik |2 X |cik |2
|uik |2 = = pi = 1.
λk λk
k k k
Next prepare an unitary operator 1 such that ith row of U is [ui1 · · · uik · · · uil ]. Then we can
1
By Gram-Schmidt procedure construct an orthonormal basis {uj } (row vector) with ui = [ui1 · · · uik · · · uil ].
u1
..
.
ui .
Then define unitary U =
.
..
ul
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CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM MECHANICS 32
√
where |ψ̃i i = pi |ψi i. From theorem 2.6,
X X
ρ= |k̃ihk̃| = |ψ̃k ihψ̃k | .
k k
X 1 X |cik |2 1
hψi |ρ−1 |ψi i = hψi |kihk|ψi i = = .
λk λk pi
k k
1
Hence, hψi |ρ−1 |ψi i
= pi .
2.74
Thus ρA is pure.
2.75
Define |Φ± i = √1 (|00i ± |11i) and |Ψ± i = √1 (|01i ± |10i).
2 2
1
|Φ± ihΦ± |AB = (|00ih00| ± |00ih11| ± |11ih00| + |11ih11|)
2
1 I
TrB (|Φ± ihΦ± |AB ) = (|0ih0| + |1ih1|) =
2 2
1
|Ψ± ihΨ± | = (|01ih01| ± |01ih10| ± |10ih01| + |10ih10|)
2
1 I
TrB (|Ψ± ihΨ± |) = (|0ih0| + |1ih1|) =
2 2
2.76
Unsolved. I think the polar decomposition can only apply to square matrix A, not arbitrary
linear operators. Suppose A is m × n matrix. Then size of A† A is n × n. Thus the size of U
should be m × n. Maybe U is isometry, but I think it is not unitary.
I misunderstand linear operator.
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33 CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM MECHANICS
Thus coordinate matrices of linear operator are square matrices. And Nielsen and Chaung say
at Theorem 2.3, ”Let A be a linear operator on a vector space V .” Therefore A is a linear
transformation such that A : V → V .
2.77
where |φi i are arbitrary orthonormalPstates and α, β ∈ C. We cannot vanish cross term. There-
fore |ψi cannot be written as |ψi = i λi |iiA |iiB |iiC .
2.78
2.79
Procedure ofP
Schmidt
√ decomposition.
Goal: |ψi = i λi |iA i |iB i
P
• Diagonalize reduced density matrix ρA = i λi |iA ihiA |.
(I ⊗ hiA |) |ψi
• Derive |iB i, |iB i = √
λi
• Construct |ψi.
(i)
1
√ (|00i + |11i) This is already decomposed.
2
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CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM MECHANICS 34
(ii)
|00i + |01i + |10i + |11i |0i + |1i |0i + |1i |0i + |1i
= √ ⊗ √ = |ψi |ψi where |ψi = √
2 2 2 2
(iii)
1
|ψiAB = √ (|00i + |01i + |10i)
3
ρAB = |ψihψ|AB
1
ρA = TrB (ρAB ) = (2 |0ih0| + |0ih1| + |1ih0| + |1ih1|)
3
2 1 1
det(ρA − λI) = −λ −λ − =0
3 3 9
1
λ2 − λ + = 0
9√ √
1 ± 5/3 3± 5
λ= =
2 6
√ " √ #
3+ 5 1 1+ 5
Eigenvector with eigenvalue λ0 ≡ is |λ0 i ≡ q √ 2 .
6 5+ 5 1
2
√ " √ #
3− 5 1 1− 5
Eigenvector with eigenvalue λ1 ≡ is |λ1 i ≡ q √ 2 .
6 5− 5 1
2
(I ⊗ hλ0 |) |ψi
|a0 i ≡ √
λ0
(I ⊗ hλ1 |) |ψi
|a1 i ≡ √
λ1
Then
1 p
X
|ψi = λi |ai i |λi i .
i=0
2.80
P P
Let |ψi = P
i λi |ψi iA |ψi iB and |ϕiP = i λi |ϕi iA |ϕi iB .
Define U = i |ψj ihϕj |A and V = j |ψj ihϕj |B .
Then
X
(U ⊗ V ) |ϕi = λi U |ϕi iA V |ϕi iB
i
X
= λi |ψi iA |ψi iB
i
= |ψi .
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35 CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM MECHANICS
2.81
P √ A R
Let
P √ the Schmidt decomposition of |AR 1 i be |AR 1 i = i pi |ψi i |ψi i and let |AR2 i =
A R
i qi |φi i |φi i.
Suppose ρ has orthonormal decomposition ρA = i pi |iihi|.
A
P
The |ii, |ψiA i, and |ψiA i are orthonormal bases and they are eigenvectors of ρA . Hence
without loss of generality, we can consider
Then
X
|AR1 i = λi |ii |ψiR i
i
X
|AR2 i = λi |ii |φR
i i
i
Since |AR1 i and |AR2 i have same Schmidt numbers, there are two unitary operators U and V
such that |AR1 i = (U ⊗ V ) |AR2 i from exercise 2.80.
Suppose U = I and V = i |ψiR ihφR
P
i |. Then
X X X
I ⊗ |ψjR ihφR
j | |AR2 i =
λi |ii |ψjR i hφR R
j |φi i
j i j
X
= λi |ii |ψiR i
i
= |AR1 i .
Therefore there exists a unitary transformation UR acting on system R such that |AR1 i =
(I ⊗ UR ) |AR2 i.
2.82
(1)
P √
Let |ψi = i pi |ψi i |ii.
X√ √
TrR (|ψihψ|) = pi pj |ψi ihψj | TrR (|iihj|)
i,j
X√ √
= pi pj |ψi ihψj | δij
i,j
X
= pi |ψi ihψi | = ρ.
i
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CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM MECHANICS 36
(2)
Define the projector P by P = I ⊗ |iihi|. The probability we get the result i is
(3)
({|ψi i} is not necessary an orthonormal basis.) P √
Suppose |ARi is a purification of ρ and its Schmidt decomposition is |ARi = i λi |φA R
i i |φi i.
From assumption
X X
TrR (|ARihAR|) = λi |φA A
i ihφi | = pi |ψi ihψi | .
i i
√ √
λi |φA
P
By theorem 2.6, there exits an unitary matrix uij such that i i = j uij pj |ψj i.
Then
X X √
|ARi = uij pj |ψj i |φR
i i
i j
!
X√ X
= pj |ψj i ⊗ uij |φR
i i
j i
X√
= pj |ψj i |ji
j
X√
= pi |ψi i |ii
i
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37 CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM MECHANICS
Problem 2.1
Problem 2.2
Unsolved
Problem 2.3
Unsolved
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CHAPTER 2. INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM MECHANICS 38
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Chapter 8
8.1
Density operator of initial state is written by |ψihψ| and final state is written by U |ψihψ| U † .
Thus time development of ρ = |ψihψ| can be written by E(ρ) = U ρU † .
8.2
From eqn (2.147) (on page 100),
† †
Mm ρMm Mm ρMm Em (ρ)
ρm = †
= †
= .
Tr(Mm Mm ρ) Tr(Mm ρMm ) Tr Em (ρ)
† †
And from eqn (2.143) (on page 99), p(m) = Tr(Mm Mm ρ) = Tr(Mm ρMm ) = Tr Em (ρ).
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8
8.9
8.10
8.11
8.12
8.13
39
CHAPTER 8. QUANTUM NOISE AND QUANTUM OPERATIONS 40
8.14
8.15
8.16
8.17
8.18
8.19
8.20
8.21
8.22
8.23
8.24
8.25
8.26
8.27
8.28
8.29
8.30
8.31
8.32
8.33
8.34
8.35
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Chapter 9
9.1
1
D((1, 0), (1/2, 1/2)) = (|1 − 1/2| + |0 − 1/2|)
2
1 1 1
= +
2 2 2
1
=
2
1
D ((1/2, 1/3, 1/6), (3/4, 1/8, 1/8)) = (|1/2 − 3/4| + |1/3 − 1/8| + |1/6 − 1/8|)
2
1
= (1/4 + 5/24 + 1/24)
2
1
=
4
9.2
1
D ((p, 1 − p), (q, 1 − q)) = (|p − q| + |(1 − p) − (1 − q)|)
2
1
= (|p − q| + | − p + q|)
2
= |p − q|
9.3
p p 1
F ((1, 0), (1/2, 1/2)) = 1 · 1/2 + 0 · 1/2 = √
2
p p p
F ((1/2, 1/3, 1/6), (3/4, 1/8, 1/8)) = 1/2 · 3/4 + 1/3 · 1/8 + 1/6 · 1/8
√ √
4 6+ 3
=
12
41
CHAPTER 9. DISTANCE MEASURES FOR QUANTUM INFORMATION 42
9.4
Thus
X X X
max rx = rx = − rx . (9.2)
S
x∈S x∈S+ x∈S−
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43 CHAPTER 9. DISTANCE MEASURES FOR QUANTUM INFORMATION
P P
Therefore D(px , qx ) = maxS x∈S px − x∈S qx = maxS |p(S) − q(S)|.
9.5 P P
From eqn (9.1) and (9.2), maximizing x∈S rx is equivalent to maximizing x∈S rx .
Hence
!
X X
D(px , qx ) = max(p(S) − q(S)) = max px − qx .
S S
x∈S x∈S
9.6
3
Define ρ = 4 |0ih0| + 41 |1ih1|, σ = 2
3 |1ih1| + 31 |1ih1|.
1
D(ρ, σ) = Tr |ρ − σ|
2
= D((3/4, 1/4), (2/3, 1/3))
1 3 2 1 1
= − + −
2 4 3 4 3
1 1 1
= +
2 12 12
1
=
12
3
Define ρ = 4 |0ih0| + 41 |1ih1|, σ = 2
3 |+ih+| + 31 |−ih−|.
1
|+ih+| = (|0ih0| + |0ih1| + |1ih0| + |1ih1|)
2
1
|−ih−| = (|0ih0| − |0ih1| − |1ih0| + |1ih1|)
2
3 1 1 1 1
ρ−σ = −
|0ih0| − (|0ih1| + |1ih0|) + − |1ih1|
4 2 6 4 2
1 1 1
= |0ih0| − (|0ih1| + |1ih0|) − |1ih1|
4 6 4
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(ρ − σ)† (ρ − σ) = 2
|0ih0| − |0ih1| + 2 |0ih0| + |0ih1| − |1ih0| + 2 |1ih1| + |1ih0| + 2 |1ih1|
4
4 · 6 6 6 · 4 4 · 6 6 4 · 6 4
1 1
= + (|0ih0| + |1ih1|)
42 62
1
D(ρ, σ) = Tr |ρ − σ|
2
r
1 1
= 2
+ 2
4 6
9.7
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CHAPTER 9. DISTANCE MEASURES FOR QUANTUM INFORMATION 44
|ρ − σ| = |Q − S|
q
= (Q − S)† (Q − S)
p
= (Q − S)2
p
= Q2 − QS − SQ + S 2
p
= Q2 + S 2
sX
= λ2i |iihi|
i
X
= |λi | |iihi|
i
=Q+S
9.8
P
Suppose σ = σi . Then σ = i pi σi .
! !
X X X
D pi ρi , σ =D pi ρi , pi σi (9.3)
i i i
X
≤ pi D(ρi , σi ) (∵ eqn(9.50)) (9.4)
i
X
= pi D(ρi , σ). (∵ assumption). (9.5)
i
9.9
9.10
9.11
9.12
Suppose ρ = 12 (I + ~r · ~σ ) and σ = 12 (I + ~s · ~σ ) where ~v and ~s are real vectors s.t. |~v |, |~s| ≤ 1.
I I
E(ρ) = p + (1 − p)ρ, E(σ) = p + (1 − p)σ.
2 2
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45 CHAPTER 9. DISTANCE MEASURES FOR QUANTUM INFORMATION
1
D(E(ρ), E(σ)) = Tr |E(ρ) − E(σ)|
2
1
= Tr |(1 − p)(ρ − σ)|
2
1
= (1 − p) Tr |ρ − σ|
2
= (1 − p)D(ρ, σ)
|~r − ~s|
= (1 − p)
2
9.13
√ √
Bit flip channel E0 = pI, E1 = 1 − pσx .
1
D(E(ρ), E(σ)) = Tr |E(ρ) − E(σ)|
2
1
= Tr |p(ρ − σ) + (1 − p)(σx ρσx − σx σσx )|
2
1 1
≤ p Tr |ρ − σ| + (1 − p) Tr |σx (ρ − σ)σx |
2 2
= pD(ρ, σ) + (1 − p)D(σx ρσx , σx σσx )
= D(ρ, σ) (∵ eqn(9.21)).
9.14
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CHAPTER 9. DISTANCE MEASURES FOR QUANTUM INFORMATION 46
q
F (U ρU † , U σU † ) = Tr(U ρU † )1/2 σ(U ρU † )
q
= Tr U ρ1/2 σρ1/2 U †
q
= Tr(U ρ1/2 σρ1/2 U † )
q
= Tr( ρ1/2 σρ1/2 U † U )
q
= Tr ρ1/2 σρ1/2
= F (ρ, σ)
√ √
I think the fact U AU † = U AU † is not restricted for positive operator.
Suppose A is a normal matrix. From spectral theorem, it is decomposed as
X
A= ai |iihi| .
i
9.15
√ √
|ψi = (UR ⊗ ρUQ ) |mi is any fixed purification of ρ, and |φi = (VR ⊗ σVQ ) |mi is purification
√ √ √ √ √ √
of σ. Suppose ρ σ = | ρ σ|V is the polar decomposition of ρ σ. Then
†√ √
†
| hψ|φi | = hm| UR VR ⊗ UQ ρ σVQ |mi
†√ √
= Tr (UR† VR )T UQ ρ σVQ
†√ √
= Tr VRT UR∗ UQ ρ σVQ
†√ √
= Tr VQ VRT UR∗ UQ ρ σ
† √ √
= Tr VQ VRT UR∗ UQ | ρ σ|V
† √ √
= Tr V VQ VRT UR∗ UQ | ρ σ|
√ √
≤ Tr | ρ σ|
= F (ρ, σ)
∗ U † )† we see that equality is attained.
Choosing VQ = V † , VRT = (UQ R
9.16
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47 CHAPTER 9. DISTANCE MEASURES FOR QUANTUM INFORMATION
I think eq (9.73) has a typo. Tr(A† B) = hm|A ⊗ B|mi should be Tr(AT B) = hm|A ⊗ B|mi. See
errata list.
In order to show that this exercise, I will prove following two properties,
Tr(A) = hm|(I ⊗ A)|mi , (I ⊗ A) |mi = (AT ⊗ I) |mi
P
where A is a linear operator and |mi is unnormalized maximally entangled state, |mi = i |iii.
X
hm|I ⊗ A|mi = hii|(I ⊗ A)|jji
ij
X
= hi|I|ji hi|A|ji
ij
X
= δij hi|A|ji
ij
X
= hi|A|ii
i
= Tr(A)
P
Suppose A = ij aij |iihj|.
X X
(I ⊗ A) |mi = I ⊗ aij |iihj| |kki
ij k
X
= aij |ki ⊗ |ii hj|ki
ijk
X
= aij |ki ⊗ |ii δjk
ijk
X
= aij |ji ⊗ |ii
ij
X
= aji |ii ⊗ |ji
ij
X X
(AT ⊗ I) |mi = aji |iihj| ⊗ I |kki
ij k
X
= aji |ii hj|ki ⊗ |ki
ij
X
= aji |ii δjk ⊗ |ki
ij
X
= aji |iji
ij
= (I ⊗ A) |mi
Thus
Tr(AT B) = Tr(BAT ) = hm|I ⊗ BAT |mi
= hm|(I ⊗ B)(I ⊗ AT )|mi
= hm|(I ⊗ B)(A ⊗ I)|mi
= hm|A ⊗ B|mi .
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CHAPTER 9. DISTANCE MEASURES FOR QUANTUM INFORMATION 48
9.17
If ρ = σ, then F (ρ, σ) = 1. Thus A(ρ, σ) = arccos F (ρ, σ) = arccos 1 = 0.
If A(ρ, σ) = 0, then arccos F (ρ, σ) = 0 ⇒ cos(arccos F (ρ, σ)) = cos(0) ⇒ F (ρ, σ) = 1 (∵ text
p.411, the fifth line from bottom).
9.18
For 0 ≤ x ≤ y ≤ 1, arccos(x) ≥ arccos(y). From F (E(ρ), E(σ)) ≥ F (ρ, σ) and 0 ≤ F (E(ρ), E(σ)), F (ρ, σ) ≤
1,
9.19
From eq (9.92)
!
X X X√
F pi ρi , pi σi ≥ pi pi F (ρi , σi )
i i i
X
= pi F (ρi , σi ).
i
9.20
Suppose σi = σ. Then
! !
X X X
F pi ρi , σ =F pi ρi , pi σ
i i i
!
X X
=F pi ρi , pi σi
i i
X
≥ pi F (ρi , σi ) (∵ Exercise9.19)
i
X
= pi F (ρi , σ)
i
9.21
9.22
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49 CHAPTER 9. DISTANCE MEASURES FOR QUANTUM INFORMATION
First inequality is triangular inequality, second is contractivity of the metric1 and third is from
definition of E.
Above inequality is hold for all ρ. Thus E(V U, F ◦ E) ≤ E(V, F) + E(U, E).
9.23
(⇐) If E(ρj ) = ρj for all j such that pj > 0, then
X X X X
F̄ = pj F (ρj , E(ρj ))2 = pj F (ρj , ρj )2 = pj 12 = pj = 1.
j j j j
(⇒) Suppose E(ρj ) 6= ρj . Then F (ρj , E(ρj )) < 1 (∵ text p.411, the fifth line from bottom ).
Thus
X X
F̄ = pj F (ρj , E(ρj ))2 < pj = 1.
j j
Problem 1
Problem 2
Problem 3
Theorem 5.3 of ”Theory of Quantum Error Correction for General Noise”, Emanuel Knill,
Raymond Laflamme, and Lorenza Viola, Phys. Rev. Lett. 84, 2525 – Published 13 March 2000.
arXiv:quant-ph/9604034 https://arxiv.org/abs/quant-ph/9604034
1
Trace distance and angle are satisfied with contractive (eq (9.35), eq (9.91)), but I don’t assure that arbitrary
metric satisfied with contractive.
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CHAPTER 9. DISTANCE MEASURES FOR QUANTUM INFORMATION 50
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Chapter 11
11.1
Fair coin:
1 1
H(1/2, 1/2) = − log ×2=1 (11.1)
2 2
Fair die:
1 1
H(p) = − log × 6 = log 6. (11.2)
6 6
11.2
51
CHAPTER 11. ENTROPY AND INFORMATION 52
11.3
Hbin (p) = −p log p − (1 − p) log(1 − p).
dHbin (p) 1
= (− log p − 1 + log(1 − p) + 1) (11.10)
dp ln 2
1 1−p
= ln =0 (11.11)
ln 2 p
1−p
⇒ =1 (11.12)
p
⇒ p = 1/2. (11.13)
11.4
11.5
X p(x)p(y)
H (p(x, y)||p(x)p(y)) = p(x, y) log (11.14)
x,y
p(x, y)
X
= −H(p(x, y)) − p(x, y) log [p(x)p(y)] (11.15)
x,y
X
= −H(p(x, y)) − p(x, y) [log p(x) + log p(y)] (11.16)
x,y
X X
= −H(p(x, y)) − p(x, y) log p(x) − p(x, y) log p(y) (11.17)
x,y x,y
X X
= −H(p(x, y)) − p(x) log p(x) − p(y) log p(y) (11.18)
x y
11.6
11.7
11.8
11.9
11.10
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53 CHAPTER 11. ENTROPY AND INFORMATION
11.11
11.12
11.13
11.14
11.15
11.16
11.17
11.18
11.19
11.20
11.21
11.22
11.23
11.24
11.25
11.26
Problem 11.1
Problem 11.2
Problem 11.3
Problem 11.4
Problem 11.5
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