Social Changes, Proliferation

of Castes and Rise of

Untouchability in Early
Medieval India
600 CE- 1200 CE
 01 The question of social immobility and closed economy

02 Social identity in the the changing economic scenario

Table Emergence of new social groups, assignment of

03
of caste on the basis of occupations

Contents 04 Relative position of vaishyas and shudras

05 Multiplication and proliferation of castes

06 Proliferation of untouchable castes

Introduction: Contexts
and Frameworks
 Model Economic Political Social
Kaliyuga crisis,
Feudal Decline of trade,
Urban decay
Decentralisation,
Parcellisation of Proliferation of
Decline, sovereignty, castes, but bipolar
Fragmentation, Subsistence economy
Result of state classes, i.e. lords and
Crises based on agriculture
activity peasants

Integrative Spread of state

Peasantization of
Integration, Agrarian expansion tribes,
societies
Expansion across regions Incorporation into
Local state formation
Processes of change varna-jati framework
Sharma argued that land grants were practiced on a
wide scale from 4th-5th century.

• Essentially provision of land grants led to the rise of

landed intermediaries and subjection of peasantry –
thus feudal culture appeared.

• The land grant system relieved the state of many

responsibilities
Moreover, Sharma also refers to the demerits of the dynamic changes
brought about by the new practice.
• They are now open to more protests and uprising especially from the
peasant servile.
• The Brahamanas in order to assert their control on land forged many
charters (kutasasana) deriving their power from authorities like the
Agni Purana, Narada etc. Yet we still see conflicts and tensions.
• The Kaivartas case – where in the 11th century a peasant revolt broke
out.
• Why murder of Brahmanas become so important in early medieval
times? Sharma pointed to the assignment of new position given to
beneficiaries.......
• Similarly R.N Nadu in Tamil Nadu collected certain evidence which
suggested some kind of collaboration .
• D.N Jha also refers to several instances of conflict between the
peasants and the beneficiary landlords in Cola inscriptions,
particularly after 1000.
“Kali Age”
Kali means negligence of rituals.
According to R.C Hazra, the period described in several texts as
Kali comes in various waves ....
Yet each period has similar traits- foreign invasions, instability,
social tensions.....
The Kali age is mainly described in 2 fold social contradictions-
1. Between the Brahamanas and
Kshatriyas on one hand and vaishyas on the other
2. Between the sudras and Brahamanas.
 The latter has been mentioned in several texts –
• Sudras would adopt the conduct of the Brahamanas and vice versa.

• Likewise some texts predicted that the sudras would become acquirers
of wealth.....

• Sudras would take to asceticism....

• This hostility is sometimes expressed in religious, social and political

idioms.
 The Kali description also mentions

• Refusal of vaishyas to pay taxes

• Oppression of the people with taxes

• Widespread theft and robbery

• Insecurity of family and property

• Destruction of livelihood

• Growing importance of wealth over ritual status and so on

 It is said that oppressive taxes could be termed as one of the
cause of the crisis.

Accordingly it is suggested that the kings levied oppressive taxes

in need of foreign goods and luxuries.

Furthermore some texts also mentioned by the end of the yuga

Brahamanas, Kshatriyas and vaishyas would all be mixed
together to lower status. On the contrary, the untouchables
would become middle rankers and so on......

In a different angle, several references also mention thieves and

some warriors or related status would be compelled to adopt
producing paddy and related occupations.
 Social Identity and Social Hierarchy
in the Changing Economic Scenario;
Urban-Rural Landscape
CHANGING URBAN-
RURAL LANDSCAPE
 URBAN DECAY
RS Sharma's theory of urban decay and plausible causes for it

Debunking foreign invasions and ecological changes

Decline of long distance trade
Paucity of coins
Kali age crisis

CRITIQUES OF THE URBAN DECAY THEORY

 AGRARIAN EXPANSION
Grants of lands situated in marginal areas
Effects of the migration of brahamanas and
artisans
Developments in agricultural techniques
Question of Social Immobility
and Closed Economy
 NEW SOCIAL GROUPS IN
NEW SETTLEMENTS
LEADING TO NEW SOCIAL
HIERARCHIES
Agrarian Expansion and Changes in the Social Hierarchy

Land grants Agrarian Expansion Social configuration

Land grants helped in the cultivation of several virgin lands
Evidence of agrarian expansion are many , however, the most striking one is the
emergence of nearly fifty states with an agrarian base
This shows that the early medieval period was characterized by unprecedented
agrarian expansion.
Land grants and agrarian expansion altered the character and composition of the
peasantry.
Gahapatis Kutumbins
Gramavriddhas Mahattara and Mahattama
The rankings of the village elders and peasants gave a clear indication of the social
heirarchy and subinfeudation prevalent in the countryside.
 The Kali age crisis

R.S Sharma put forward his theory of the Kali age crisis which involved:
sharp social conflict
weakening of traditional brahmanical order
varnasamkara or mixing of varnas
migration of people due to oppressive taxes
and overall political and social upheaval

Land grants Agrarian Expansion Socio-cultural

assimilation of groups outside the dominant social order
THE KAYASTHAS
R. S Sharma states that during the early
medieval period , land grants led to the rise
and growth of the Kayastha community.
They were initially drawn from the
brahmana group, but gradually, from
different varnas.
They isolated themselves from the
brahmanas and emerged as a
professionally literate class, thereby posing
a threat to the monopoly of the brahmanas.
The Kayasthas came to be divided into
territorial subcastes.
THE RAJPUTS In the Kshatriya community, proliferation was
caused mainly by the emergence of the new
group of Rajputs.
B.D. Chattopadhyaya attributed this emergence
to the widespread phenomenon of
proliferation of lineage based states in early
medieval period.
The emergence of the Rajputs according to
Chattopadhyaya could be juxtaposed with the
colonization of new areas, expansion of
agrarian economy and proliferation of
settlements.
Thus the emergence of the early rajputs clans
took place within the existing hierarchical
political structure.
ORISSA This period was also characterized by
ruralization and peasantization which was
supported by historians like Hermann Kulke
and B.D. Chattopadhyaya.
Epigraphic evidence shows that the
Agraharas, Brahmadeyas and Devadeyas
were not only integrative elements but also
helped in subjugating the peripheral and
tribal groups.
Hermann kulke emphasized the
transformation of tribal cheiftaincies into
regional kingdoms which indicates that
political and cultural integration was taking
place simultaneously.
Local cults and tribal deities were adopted
by these dynasties, the Jagannatha cult being
a prime example.
 BENGAL

Kunal Chakraborty gives the example of Bengal where the local cult
practicing population was assimilated into the dominant brahmanical
framework.
He talks about the Kaivartas who were Shiva worshipers.
The rulers realized that the Kaivartas could not be assimilated by only
using sheer military force so the practice of Shiva worship was adopted
and patronized.
B.D. Chattopadhyaya therefore states that the passage from pre-caste to
caste society actually was a journey from pre- state to state society.
THE SHUDRAS
While discussing peasantization, a great
emphasis should be given to the
differentiation within the Shudra
community.
There was a phenomenal proliferation of
untouchability during the early medieval
period.
As tribes were not absorbed as one caste or
varna, we see the prevalence of abhira
brahmanas, abhira kshatriya and abhira
vaishya.
 OCCUPATIONAL GROUPS
THAT EMERGED AS CASTES
with regional variations
not limited to just upper caste
such as Brahamans and kshatriyas

crafts turning into castes

guilds, trader groups adn shrenis

jetthaka
or pamukkha
head of a guild, exercised power
18 jatis or shrenis mentioned in jatakas

inscriptions of the Chamba state reveals they

were also called prakritis

One Jaina text, Jambudvipa Pragyapati describes

the 18 guilds

Kumbhkar (potter), weaver, suvarnakara

(goldsmith), singer, barber, Malakar (garland
maker), katchkar (coppersmith), tamboliya, etc.

The word used for these artisans is narua. Untouchables are referred to
as karua, which includes- shoemakers, oilman, dyer, bronzeworkers,
darzis (tailors), bhilla, dhivara (fishermen), etc.
Sharma has cited several inscriptional
pieces of evidence to show as to how
artisans, craftsmen were attached to
the land that was granted.
Restrictions imposed on the mobility
of the craftsmen is a distinctive
feature in this period, which
can be seen in some of the estates of
chiefs and religious beneficiaries in
the countryside
there were various crafts where the
people involved in those crafts emerged
as new jatis in the mixed caste group.
We do get references to crafts villages
such as the Kumbharapadraka that
belonged to the potters.
One very significant development was the
growth of the Kayasthas.

The increase In the number of

land grants gave way to the rise of
this community.

we find occupational endogamy

and caste exogamy taking place
here. They were described as the
progeny of a mixed union.
Impact of
Jatis on
Trade and
Economy
Kali Age Hypothesis
by R.S Sharma
Migration of peasants from Urban
centres
Decline of foreign trade
Paucity of coinage
 Increased scorn for arts and
Why did the crafts during the early medieval
or post-Gupta period
peasansts and The proliferation of caste and
artisans migrate untouchability throughout the
subcontinent and conversion of
from urban guilds into occupational castes
Heavy taxes imposed on the
centres? artisans and peasants
 The artisans and craftsmen occupied a low status even in the earlier
ages, but during the early medieval period, specifically 11th and 12th
century, we get evidence of increased scorn for arts and crafts, and
the people associated with them.
The Jataka mentions 18 guilds or Shrenis but during the early
medieval, these Shrenis emerge as Jatis and are considered lowly.
This period also marked the stigmatisation of certain occupations.
The proliferation of caste and untouchability throughout the
subcontinent adversely affected the already declining trade and
commerce in this region
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 Relative Position of the Vaishyas and Shudras in the
Early Medieval, Post Gupta Period: The Debate
1. Subjection of the Shudra Peasantry: As a result of the practise of land grants and the
rise of feudatories. This view does not take into account the deterioration in the
ranks of the Vaishya Peasants, whose status seems to have declined as a result of the
decline of long distance trade.
2. Improvement in the ranks of the Shudra Peasants: This view holds that the cultivating
Shudras ('New Shudras'), having newly acquired improved agricultural skills, were no
longer recruited as forced workers and hence, saw an improvement in their social and
economic positions.
This debate can be resolved if we get away from the
Dharmashastric descriptions of the so-called Shudra varna.

An analysis of the actual cultivating groups, keeping in mind

the regional contexts, becomes imperative.
 EXAMPLES

On the other hand, the

In Bengal, records from the
Post Gupta period make
mention of groups, such as,
Kutumbins, Mahattaras and
Mahamahattaras, who enjoyed
relative autonomy.
Kaivartas (cultivators), known
from Pala records, seem to
have had troubled relations
with the state, known from
the sustained references to the
Kaivarta rebellion in Pala
sources.
 Stray references to the Vardhakis (carpenters) and
Charmakaras (leather wokers), owning and cultivating
small plots of land, inform us of the perils of
homogenizing the category of the Shudra or Vaishya.
 B.D Chattopadhyaya

The use of the term Shudra is insufficient to

describe the fluid nature of the category, its
status or composition.
The centuries spanning from the sixth - seventh
to the twelfth - thirteenth, formed a major
evolutionary phase of 'rural agrarian structures'.
The Dharmashastric categories make little sense
of the developments that plagued the Post-
Gupta period.
Multiplication and Proliferation of
Castes
 The fourfold caste division includes:
Brahmanas( Priests and Scholars )
Kshatriyas( Rulers and Warriors )
Vaishyas( Merchants and Traders)
Sudras( Farmers, Laborers and Artisans )

Early medieval social environment evolved with two long economic trends:
1. Sedentary Farmers
2. Communication and transportation of mobile tribes.
A new society was promulgated, Dharma and Moral authority in the society was
upheld by kings, Brahmanas and local landed elites.
But the Medieval texts on Dharma do not insists that a king must be a Kshatriya.
Brahmanas provided guidance to the Kings on matters like:
Dharma and its realization
Local rights of lands
Dynastic and Moral support for Dharma.
Brahmanas along with dynastic lineage leaders moulded the new social system.
Thus 'BRAHMANAS' were imperative catalysts, as people climbed the social
strata by supporting and emulating Brahmanas
Population expansion simultaneously expanded the population and authority of high
caste landowners.
Individualistic traditions made the ethnic demarcation of lands.
The expansion of kingship was slow and violent. The victims of this violence included
Brahmanas.
In this context the Warrior clan/ Kshatriyas expanded their influence rapidly through
agricultural advancements and military skills.
The segmentary state model presents a dual mode of sovereignty: corresponding to
Ksatra and Rajdharma.
The issue of Proliferation with these two varnas ultimately depended upon the 'Rule of
Dharma'
The castes were further classified with land grants being the key factors in this process.
 A new form of Proliferation was executed within the Kshatriya clan
including the 'Rajput identity'. Thus it can be stated that the Proliferation
within the Kshatriya varna was caused by a collective term of Rajputs.
Major clans which played a dominant political role included : Pratiharas,
Chahamansa, Gujuras.
The question of indigenous origins of Rajputs gained significance in the
nationalist classification
The Rajput phenomenon in the Early Medieval must be assimilated in
terms of a process. Their emergence can be associated with economic
evolution in company with new administrative features like: Land
Distribution. Territorial systems.

The Social changes in this period were equally responsible for the changes and
dynamism within Brahmana and Kshatriya clans.
 VAISHYAS

Third highest in ritual status of the four varnas

Started seeing themselves as powerful in land ownership and subjugation
of Shudras
Were credited with favouring the reformist religious beliefs of Buddhism
and Jainism
SHUDRAS

Lowest rank of the caste system

There were 8 Shudra castes called as Ashtashudra
Al Biruni said that there was hardly any difference between the
Vaishyas and the Shudras
According to Ibn Kurdadba, the Shudra were husband-men by
profession
Al-idrisi too remarked that they were labourers and
agriculturalists
Seva- Susrusa was recognised not only as the duty of the
Shudras, but also of Vaishyas
Shudra : A hetreogenous and complex group
A group of agricultural labourers and petty
peasants, artisans and craftsmen,
vendors and manual workers, servants and attendants
-Dharmsastra’s description of untouchsbility
-Level of Untouchability and prescriptions
-Exception
Candalas: Most depressed class and heights of
pollution
- Bottom in the hierarchy
- Differentiation in the candalas, sudras,
and other groups of untouchsbles like leather workers.
- Rule of Derivative pollution
- Untouchablity in Gender
Medeival scholars and commentators on
the influence of untouchability-
-Banabhatt’s Kadambari Account
-Alberni’ decscrition about the Antyajas
- Prescriptios mentioned by Hemchandra
 Untouchability Arising Out of
Adherence to Heretical Religious Sects
-Comparision of follower of shaiva cult and
Pashupatinath with the sudras
-Followers of Tantricism and non- conforming
religious cults categorized inferior.
Specific untouchable group
-Inclusion of tribal group
-Foreign origin
Conclusion
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