Basic principle I First class Dr.

Arkan Jasim Hadi

CHAPTER 3
CHOOSING BASIS

Main Concepts
A basis is a reference chosen by you for the calculations you plan to make in any
particular problem, and a proper choice of basis frequently makes the problem much easier
to solve. The basis may be a period of time such as hours, or a given mass of material,
such as 5 kg of CO 2, or some other convenient quantity. To select a right basis (which in
many problems is predetermined for you but in some problems is not so clear), ask yourself
the following three questions:
a. What do I have to start with? (e.g., I have 100 lb of oil; I have 46 kg of fertilizer).
b. What answer is called for? (e.g., How much product is produced per hour?).
c. What is the most convenient basis to use? (For example, suppose that the mole fractions
of an amount of material are known. Then selecting 100 kilogram moles of the material
as a basis would make sense. On the other hand, if the mass fractions of the material are
known, then 100 kg of the material would be an appropriate basis).

If a rate of flow or production of a material is stated in a problem, then you should

usually select the time interval, such as 1 minute or 1 hour, as the basis on which to
make the calculations, because then a time unit does not have to be dragged along
during all of the calculations.

These questions and their answers will suggest suitable bases. Sometimes
when several bases seem appropriate, you may find it is best to use a unit basis of 1
or 100 of something, as, for example, kilograms, hours, moles, or cubic feet. For liq-
uids and solids in which a mass (weight) analysis applies, a convenient basis is often
I or 100 lb or kg; similarly, 1 or 100 moles is often a good choice for a gas. The rea-
son for these choices is that the fraction or percent in the analysis of the material au-
tomatically equals the number of pounds, kilograms, or moles, respectively, and one
step in the calculations is saved.

Always state the basis you have chosen for your calculations by writing it clearly on
your calculation sheets (or computer screen).

EXAMPLE 3.1 Choosing a Basis

The dehydration of the lower alkanes can be carried out using a ceric
oxide (CeO) catalyst. What is the mass fraction and mole fraction of Ce
and O in the catalyst?

Solution
Start the solution by selecting a basis. Because no specific amount of
material is specified, the question what do I have to start with does not help
decide on a basis. Neither does the question about the desired answer. Thus,
selecting a convenient basis becomes the best choice for a basis. What do you
Basic principle I First class Dr. Arkan Jasim Hadi

know about CeO? You know from the formula that one mole of Ce is
combined with one mole of O. Consequently, a basis of 2 kg mol (or 2 g mol,
or 2 lb mol, etc.) would make sense. You can get the atomic weights for Ce
and O from Appendix B, and then you are prepared to calculate the
respective masses of Ce and O in CeO. The calculations are presented in the
form of the following table:
Basic principle I First class Dr. Arkan Jasim Hadi
Basic principle I First class Dr. Arkan Jasim Hadi

Temperature
Temperature Scales
• Relative Scales
– Fahrenheit (°F)
– Celsius (°C)
• Absolute Scales
– Rankine (°R)
– Kelvin (K)
Basic principle I First class Dr. Arkan Jasim Hadi

Equations for temperature conversions

Basic principle I First class Dr. Arkan Jasim Hadi

Celsius (°C) Relative temperature scale with zero degrees being the freezing
point of an air-water mixture.
Fahrenheit (°F) Relative temperature scale with 32 degrees being the
freezing point of an air-water mixture.
Kelvin (K) Absolute temperature scale based on zero degrees being the
lowest possible temperature we believe can exist.
Rankine (°R) Absolute temperature scale related to degrees Fahrenheit based on
zero degrees being the lowest possible temperature we believe can exist.
Standard conditions of temperature 0°C, 32°F, 273.15 K, and 459.67°R. Temperature. A
measure of the energy of the molecules in a system.
Temperature interval (ΔT) Size of one degree in a temperature scale.
Basic principle I First class Dr. Arkan Jasim Hadi

CHAPTER FIVE
PRESSURE

5.1 Pressure and Its Units

Pressure is defined as "the normal (perpendicular) force per unit area." Examine
Figure 5.1. Pressure is exerted on the top of the cylinder of mercury by the atmosphere,
and on the bottom of the cylinder itself by the mercury, including the effect of the
atmosphere.
Basic principle I First class Dr. Arkan Jasim Hadi

The pressure at the bottom of the static (nonmoving) column of mercury exerted on the
sealing plate is

In the SI system the force is expressed in newtons, and area in square meters;
then the pressure is N/m2 or pascal (Pa). The value of the Pa is so small that the
kilo-pascal (kPa) is a more convenient unit of pressure.
Some common nonstandard variations of pressure measurement used
with the SI system are

a.Bars (bar): 100 kPa = 1 bar

b.Kilograms (force) per square centimeter (kgf/cm2).—a very common
measure of pressure but not standard in SI (often called just "kilos")
c. Torr (Torr): 760 Torr = 1 atm
In the AE system pressure can be expressed in a variety of ways, including
Basic principle I First class Dr. Arkan Jasim Hadi

a.Millimeters of mercury (mm Hg)

b.Inches of mercury (in. Hg)
c.Feet of water (ft H2 O)
d.Inches of water (in. H2O)
e. Atmospheres (atm)
f.Pounds (force) per square inch (often called just "pounds") (psi)

5.2 Measurement of Pressure

Basic principle I First class Dr. Arkan Jasim Hadi

Pressure, like temperature, can be expressed using either an absolute or a relative

scale. Whether relative or absolute pressure is measured in a pressure-measuring
device depends on the nature of the instrument used to make the measurements. For
example, an open-end manometer (Figure 5.2a) would measure a relative (gauge)
pressure, since the reference for the open end is the pressure of the atmosphere at the
open end of the manometer.

On the other hand, closing off the open end of the manometer (Figure 5.2b) and
creating a vacuum in that end results in a measurement against a complete vacuum, or
against "no pressure"; po , in Equation (5.1) is zero. Such a measurement is called
absolute pressure. Since absolute pressure is based on a complete vacuum, a fixed
reference point that is unchanged regardless of location, temperature, weather, or other
factors, absolute pressure establishes a precise, invariable value that can be readily
identified. In contrast the zero point for a relative or gauge pressure measurement
usually corresponds to the pressure of the air that surrounds us at all times, and as you
know, varies slightly.

You are probably familiar with the barometer illustrated in Figure 5.3. Does a
barometer read absolute or relative (gauge) pressure?
Figure 5.4 shows the workings of a dial device that measures pressure called a
Bourdon gauge. Does it measure absolute or relative pressure?
Basic principle I First class Dr. Arkan Jasim Hadi

A Bourdon gauge normally measures relative pressure, but not always. The
pressure-sensing device in the Bourdon gauge is a thin metal tube with an elliptical
cross-section closed at one end that has been bent into an arc. As the pressure in-
creases at the open end of the tube, it tries to straighten out, and the movement of the
tube is converted into a dial movement by gears and levers.

Always keep in mind that the reference point or zero point for the relative pressure
scales or for a vacuum scale is not constant, and that the relationship between relative
and absolute pressure is given by the following expression:
Basic principle I First class Dr. Arkan Jasim Hadi

Gauge pressure + barometer pressure = absolute pressure (5.2

You definitely must not confuse the standard atmosphere with atmos pheric
pressure. The standard atmosphere is defined as the pressure (in a stan dard
gravitational field) equivalent to I atm or 760 mm Hg at 0°C or other equiva lent
value, whereas atmospheric pressure is variable and must be obtained from
barometric measurement each time you need it.
Basic principle I First class Dr. Arkan Jasim Hadi

Absolute pressure Pressure relative to a complete vacuum.

Barometric pressure Absolute pressure measure measured by a barometer.
Bourdon gauge Pressure measuring device containing a thin metal tube that flexes
and moves a dial as the pressure being measured changes.
Gauge pressure Pressure measured above atmospheric pressure.
Manometer A U-tube or other device containing a fluid that moves in the tube as the
pressure difference across the sides of the tube changes. The difference in the height
of the fluid in the two sides of the tube indicates the pressure difference.
Pressure The normal force per unit area that a fluid exerts on a surface.
Pressure difference The difference between the pressure at one point and another,
usually as measured by an instrument.
Relative pressure Same as gauge pressure.
Standard atmosphere The pressure in a standard gravitational field equivalent to 760
(exactly) mm Hg.
Vacuum A pressure less than atmospheric (but reported as a positive number).