Language policy in Ethiopia: History Getachew A.

and Derib Ado 37

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Language Policy in Ethiopia: History and Current Trends

Getachew Anteneh * Derib Ado**

ABSRACT
Ethiopia, as one of the multilingual and multicultural countries, has faced the critical
problem of development and implementation of language use policy that could satisfy the
needs of various societies in question and contribute to their socioeconomic and socio-
cultural development. The various governments that ruled Ethiopia since the reign of
Emperor Tewodros II followed various language use policies that suit their political
orientation.
The major objective of this paper was to seek answers to the following questions:
a. What type of language policy did Ethiopia have in the past?
b. What is the language policy of the country today?
c. How is Ethiopia implementing its language policy today?
The historical survey of language use policy was made based on the secondary data (i.e.
written documents) from different sources. The study on the implementation of the current
language policy of the country focuses mainly on four regional states, namely Amhara,
Oromiya and SNNP regional states and the Addis Ababa City Administration. Interviews
were conducted with various bodies that are concerned with developing, implementing and
monitoring language use policies, such as the Ethiopian Language Research Center, the
Ministry of Tourism and Culture, the information and education bureaus of three regional
states, namely the Amhara, Oromiya and SNNP regional states to get the necessary data.

The analysis of the data shows that though there had been a change from having no
written policy to a policy that encourages the development and use of all the languages in
the country, the implementation showed a little change in the time from the reign of
Tewodros II up to the end of the Derg. The language policies of Tewodros II, Minilek II,
Hailesellasie I and the Derg regime had been similar on the ground level: they all
implemented a one-language language use policy .The language use policy of the current
government, however, is quite different in its approach and implementation. The
implementation of a multilingual language use policy has served the country both its
blessings and consequences.

__________________________________________________________
* Getachew Anteneh JU Education Faculty Jimma, Ethiopia
** Derib do Education Faculty Jimma Ethiopia
Ethiop. J. Educ. & Sc.
I. INTRODUCTION
1. Background of the study
Ethiopia has been labeled possessing a
long history of three thousand years and
more. At various times, its governors
and rulers had played their roles in
shaping the geographical, cultural,
historical, religious etc. -all aspects of
the country. As a result most of the
status quo today is, to a great extent, the
legacy of our past history. Our worries
and challenges, - all, have something to
do with the past.
In the course of its long history, Ethiopia
has treated different social and cultural
issues within the boundary. One of the
primary issues that concern Ethiopia
today is the question of language. Being
a multilingual and multicultural country,
Ethiopia shares the problem of language
use and language choice for various
purposes. There are more than 75
languages in Ethiopia that can be
categorized under different language
families (i.e. Semitic, Cushitic, Omotic,
Nilotic). These diversified languages are
Vol. 2 No. 1 September 2006 38
considered as assets for the speakers.
Every language is used as a means of
interaction for the community that
speaks it. Apart from the use of these
languages for communication purposes,
they have the potential to be used in
education, administration and the justice
system of the country.
This paper attempts to look the historical
development of language policy in
Ethiopia, in other words, it aims at
assessing the various language policies
that have been practiced in Ethiopia for
the past one hundred plus years. It tries
to relate the nature of language policies,
their manifestations and position in the
practical application of language use,
during different periods in Ethiopia
(from the time of Tewodros II up to
now).
2. What is language policy?
The concept of language policy is
mainly related to decisions rules,
regulations and guidelines about the
status, use, domains and territories of
language and the rights of speakers
1
under question" . Calvet says we shall
1
Schiffman 2005
Language policy in Ethiopia: History Getachew A. and Derib Ado 39
treat language policy as the conscious participation, and provide
choice made in the domain of access to public services,
relationship between language and social 3
proceedings and documents.
2
life as a whole. The explanations provided so far clearly
point out that language policy is the
There is also a more specific definition responsibility of the government.
that treats the subject in a better depth. Scholars such as Columas (1994), and
This specific definition explains Calvet (1997) also assert that there is a
language policy as: need for the possession of authority in
the formulation of language policies.
I. What government does
officially through legislation, The other point that is explained by the
court decisions, executive definitions is about the domain of
action or other means to: application of language policies.
a. determine how Language polices are concerned with
languages are used in determining the status of languages that
public contexts implies whether languages should be
b. cultivate language used as national language, language of
skills needed to national wider communication, official language,
priorities, or working language, language of
c. establish the rights instruction, etc. is decided at government
of individuals or groups to level by a policy. Language policies are
learn use and maintain concerned with domains use, and
languages. territories of languages also imply that
II. Government regulation of its which language should be used in
own language including steps education, administration etc, and to
to facilitate clear what extent and where should be
communication, train and resolved by language policies.
recruit personnel, guarantee
due process, foster political

2
Calvet 1997 3
Crawford 2000
Ethiop. J. Educ. & Sc. Vol. 2 No. 1 September 2006 40

constitutional, administrative and legal

3. Types of language policies guarantees by providing personal and/ or
Language policies differ from place to by specifying the domains of use. By
place and from time to time according to domains of use, it means whether (a)
the political orientation of governments language (s) should be used in court,
and the nature of the society that exists. schools or in the administration, etc.
Some governments have clear and Tolerance policies, on the other hand,
explicit language policies, called overt allow the use of a particular or several
policies, which have written support in languages but there is no such
legal documents, for instance, the encouragement of use and development by
constitution. Others prefer to conceal to 5
providing financial or personnel support.
their language policy, and as a result, do
not state their language policies in The other distinction between language
written legal documents or others. Such policies is between equalitarian and
policies are referred to as covert restricted policies. Some language
language policies. Covert language policies treat 'even if a very small
policies are also known as de facto, minority' as always totally equals to any
common law or traditional, and usually language and place all languages on
it is the linguistic status quo that is taken equal footings. However, restricted
4
as the de facto or common low. policies as their name imply, are not as
6
open as equal for all languages.
Language policies are also classified as
either promotive or tolerance (permissive) On the other hand, Patten (2001),
depending on the support and proposed four models of language
encouragement provided by the policy, based on the usage of language
government in the use and development of (s) in a given community. They are
languages. In the case of promotive a. disestablishment or public,
policies there is a promotion of one or disengagement: the model
several languages by giving some

5
Schiffman 2005
4 6
Ibid Ibid
Language policy in Ethiopia: History Getachew A. and Derib Ado 41
which maintains that there whether it is for education,
should be no official publicly administration, wider communication
recognized language (s). etc. In multilingual nations, however,
b. official multilingualism: in this there exists a problem as which language
model there should be the same to be used for education, administration,
recognition for the various wider communication and so on. Thus,
languages spoken in the the use of language is usually supported
community. by a language policy in those
c. language rationalization: the multilingual nations.
model which privileged public This study looks into the language
language by limiting or denying policies of various governments that
recognition of other languages ruled in Ethiopia since Tewodros II to
in certain spheres of language show how Ethiopia dealt with such a
use. very serious problem and how the
d. language maintenance: the current government is dealing with the
model which aims to make all same problem. Specifically it will
languages equally successful in answer the following questions:
7
their use.
All these different types of language • What type of language policy did
policies, as stated earlier, are the Ethiopia have in the past?
manifestations the government's • What is the language policy of
ideologies in a given country for the the country today?
speech community regarding on the • How is Ethiopia implementing
language (s) use. its language policy today?

4. What is this study about? 5. Delimitation of the study

In monolingual nations, the use of
language does not create problems, as
there will be no difficulty in choosing
the language for various purposes,
7
Patten 2001
This study is limited to describing or
showing the historical development of
language policy in Ethiopia. The study
will try to investigate the history of
language use policy in Ethiopia since the
regime of Emperor Tewodros II up to
Ethiop. J. Educ. & Sc. Vol. 2 No. 1 September 2006 42

now. The discussion of the

implementation of the present language III. Language policy in Ethiopia:
policy of the country will look at the history
case of the Amhara, Oromiya, SNNP
regional states and the Addis Ababa City 3.1 Language policy before the reign
Administration. The rest of the regions, of Haile Sellasie I
namely Afar, Tigray and Somali are not
included in this later discussion due to Despite its long history Ethiopia had no
time constraint to conduct interviews written constitution before Haile
and collect the necessary data from these Sellasie. There are claims that those
regions. governments used the 'Fetha Negest'
(Book of Kings) as a basic reference in
II. Methodology 8
their governance. That there was no
This research is a survey that employed constitution or clearly stated language
a qualitative method. The historical policy before Haile Sellasie I though,
survey of language use policy was made does not mean there was no language
based on the secondary data (i.e. written policy at all. The prevailing linguistic
documents) from different sources. The status quo can be taken as the implicit
information on the implementation of 9
language policy. In order to assess the
the current language policy of the language policies of the then
country was gathered through interview governments, however, we need to look
with various bodies that are concerned at the subdivisions of the era.
with developing implementing and
monitoring language use policies, 3.1.1 Language Policy before Haile
namely the Ethiopian Language Sellaise I
Research Center, the Ministry of Youth, Before the reign of Emperor Tewodros
Sports, and Culture,the information and (1855), Ethiopia was under the hands of
education bureaus of the four regional different regional lords. Assessing the
states, namely the Amhara, Oromiya ,
Addis Ababa administrative State and
8
Cooper 1976a
SNNP regional States. 9
Schiffman 2005
Language policy in Ethiopia: History Getachew A. and Derib Ado 43
language policies of these rulers require The next emperor, Yohanes IV, a
a detailed study of the era, and it is Tigrinya speaker himself, did not try to
beyond the scope of this paper. alter the history by adopting Tigrinya for
official purposes. He promoted the same
The reign of Tewodros II was cited as language as Tewodros did in his quest
the beginning of the history of modern for national unification of his empire.
10 Since hefollowed the footsteps of
Ethiopia by many people. The major
contribution of Tewodros was that he Tewodros, we can thus, put his
tried to unify Ethiopia under one empire. contribution in similar category with
Though his objective to unity the Tewodros.
country was not successful for various
reasons, he laid the foundation for the The third period, the reign of Minilik,
coming rulers who followed in his foot can also be considered the continuation
steps. Tewodros had a promotive of the second period with relative
language policy that encouraged the use modernization and expansion. In terms
of Amharic. The main and noted of unifying the country it can be said
contribution of Tewodros nevertheless, that Minilik II finished what Tewodros
was his attempt to make Amharic a had started. The promotion of a
literary language. He changed the trend monolingual language policy, namely
of using Geez to write the Royal the promotion of Amharic, continued
11 covering a very wide area. By the time
Chronicles into using Amharic. In his
reign, Amharic got the momentum to of Minilik, Amharic reached the

move one step up from a mere lingua premises of local elites and

franca to a literary language. The administrative offices where the

language policy that Tewodros followed language had never spoken before-to the

was a covert one as it was not supported south, east and west part of Ethiopia.

by any legal document like a

constitution. With regard to Minilik’s language
policy, Cohen notes that it focused
mainly on incorporating local elites.

10
Amharic then, got the chance to be
McNabb 1989
11
Bahru 1991 considered the language of the rulers.
Ethiop. J. Educ. & Sc. Vol. 2 No. 1 September 2006 44

Every local rulers, as a result had to As Cohen states it, there was a
speak Amharic in addition to other comprehensive and premeditated
religious and cultural adaptations. He language policy which was incorporated
also states that the roles played by the in the bigger policy of what is called
soldiers, the church and northern 12
‘Ethiopianization ‘ . While the
Ethiopian settlers together with the ‘Ethiopianization’ during Emperor
incorporation of local elites by providing Minilik incorporated local elites the
them with local authority and ‘Ethiopianization’ during Emperor Haile
recognition (even by establishing Sellasie aimed to encompass the general
intermarriage between the families of the 13
population. The major rational behind
royal group and the local elites) helped, such a move was also explained by the
among other things, the implementation government’s quest for national
of a covert language policy promoting unification and ease of communication
one language. among different people. Cohen
concludes “in pursuance of a policy of
3.1.2 Language policy during the reign national unification, the government
of Haile Sellasie I sought to establish a national religion
Haile Sellasie’s government had a
unique history from its predecessors
with regard to language policy. It had a
12
well established language policy in a We prefer the term ‘Ethiopianization’
instead of the term
written constitution. The first ever ‘Amharization’which is used by most
constitution was provided in August foreign writers because we feel that
the rulers were always referring to
1930 on the coronation of Ras Teferi as themselves as rulers of Ethiopia and
Emperor of Ethiopia by the name Haile their actions were justified in unifying
the country-creating an Ethiopian
Sellasie I. This constitution, however, culture. Note that Darkwah (1975)
does not mention any thing about the argues that Minilik a systematic way
of assigning and controlling local
official language or any other use of rulers have a full control over them.
language while it itself was written in He also states that Minilik has
assigned Muslim rulers in the eastern
Amharic. part of the country for economic and
political reasons.
13
Cohn 2000
Language policy in Ethiopia: History Getachew A. and Derib Ado 45
culture and language for all activities in education sector. It states
14 that Amharic shall be the general
Ethiopians.”
language of instruction in Ethiopia, and
Though it seems more of hypothetical missionaries are expected to comply
and it did not have such a profound with it by learning Amharic and teaching
16
effect on the country's language policy, via Amharic.
there was a brief departure from
promoting a single language during the The implementation of a single language
five year (1935-41). During this period, policy was more prevalent in the area of
the Italians helped introduce local administration, judiciary and education
languages even as media of instruction sectors. Even before the re-integration of
at primary school level. Scholars explain Eritrea with Ethiopia, the government
that the changes that Italy introduced had replaced Tigrigna and Arabic by
was part of their divide and rule policy, 17
Amharic as a medium of instruction.
which McNabb considers as Italy’ Later Amharic became a full-fledged
attempt to combat “nationalist medium of instruction at primary school
sentiments” and Tekeste calls (it the level throughout the country following
attempt of “passivization through the official declaration of the position of
apartheid”) as the attempt of Amharic as the official language of the
“passivization througe apartheid“ the use country in the revised constitution of
of languages as the medium of 18
1955.
instruction and other administrational
15
purpose. Haile Selasie's promotive language
policy of a single language was not
After Haile Sellasie regained power in limited in the education sector. Amharic
1941, government language policy was the legitimate language to be used in
started to come out more clearly. In all official functions: government
1944, for instance, there came out a clear publications and announcements were
directive to control the missionary

16
Cooper 1976a in Bender 1976a
14 17
Cohn 2000:30 McNabb 1989
15 18
Tekeste 1986 in McNabb 1989 McNabb 1988
Ethiop. J. Educ. & Sc. Vol. 2 No. 1 September 2006 46

all made in Amharic. A language survey as the time allotted for the broadcasting
made by Cooper showed that Amharic of other Ethiopian languages , i.e.
dominated the use of other languages in 21
Tigrinya, Somali, Tigre and Afar.
19
the judiciary system.
McNabb argues that the establishment of It could be concluded that, in general
the National Academy of the Amharic during Haile Sellasie's government there
Language in June 1972 had strengthened was very little concern for the
the position of Amharic and by development of other Ethiopian
implication, the implementation of a languages. The course that Haile Sellasie
monolingual language policy. This claim followed was in line with the prevailing
is asserted by the nature of the objectives global assumption that the use of one
set for the national academy. i.e, language is useful in bringing about
1. To foster the growth of the national unification, which he sought
Amharic language 22
very badly.
2. To encourage the development
20
of Amharic literature. Quite contrary to the discussion so far,
there was a final, but unsuccessful
A further evidence for the nature of the attempt that was made during the very
language policy during the reign of final days of the emperor. The August
Emperor Haile Sellasie comes from the 1974 draft constitution, Article 45 states
language use of the government in the that, "With out violating all those
media. No newspaper was published in statements in other articles of the
any other Ethiopian language, except for constitution, Ethiopian tribes and
one daily Tigrigna news paper, while nationalities shall enjoy the right to
there were two daily and four weekly maintain and develop their language and
newspapers in Amharic. In addition to 23
culture."
this, the time that Amharic was
broadcasted on the radio twice as large 21
Tesfaye 1971 in McNabb 1989
22
Cohen 2000
23
A translation by the authors from the
19
Cooper 1976b in Bender et al 1976 Draft Constitution of Ethiopia
20
Negarit Gazeta 1987 Presented to the High Constitution
Language policy in Ethiopia: History Getachew A. and Derib Ado 47
The attempt to endorse such statements environments, it (each
in the constitution did not become nationality) has the right
successful because the revolution took to determine the contents
over the ratification of the constitution , of its political, economic
and this final sympathetic attempt to and social life, use its own
follow a tolerance language policy language and elect its own
remained unheard of. leaders and
administrators to head its
3.1.3 Language policy during the Derg 24
general organs.
Following the revolution in 1974, the
Derg took power and adopted a socialist The first attempt, it could also be called
ideology in the government of the the only one as well, in implementing
country. As a result of the ideology such a language policy which recognized
which applauds the necessity for other Ethiopian languages, was the
respecting nationalities’ rights, the Derg introduction of fifteen Ethiopian
pronounced that there came the time for languages (including Amharic) in the
all nations, nationalities and ethnicities national literacy campaign. The fifteen
to enjoy the freedom of maintaining, languages selected based on the
using and developing their language language survey made earlier by Bender
together with many political and and others were Amharic, Afan Oromo,
economical benefits. The 1976 Wolayta, Somali, Hadiya, Kembata,
document of the government as quoted Tigrinya, Tigre, Sidama, Gedeo, Afar,
by McNabb states that, Kafa-Mochinga, Saho, Kunama and
Given Ethiopia’s Silti. These languages were said to
existing situation the represent about 90% of the population.
25

problem of nationalities
can be resolved if each There were some shortcomings of the
nationality is accorded national literally campaign of the Derg.
full right to self
government …. wit in its
24
Ethiopian Government 1976
Conference in Inter Africa Group
25
1993 McNabb 1989
Ethiop. J. Educ. & Sc. Vol. 2 No. 1 September 2006 48

All languages were made to be 29

languages, practically, there was no
transcribed in the Ethiopic(Geez) script other Ethiopian language given any
and were made to use the 'fidel' which official status nor there was any
was proved to be inadequate, not only implication in the constitution, that other
for the Cushitic and others but also for Ethiopian languages could be used for
26
the Semitic language themselves. In official purposes.
addition, the teachers were, almost all,
Amharic speakers, who did not speak the If we examine the Derg's language
local languages spoken in the area they policy critically it seems that it was a
went to teach. McNabb summarizes the continuation of the previous language
effect of this campaign saying that, "The policy in a slightly different form. As it
literacy campaign although through the was stated so far, Amharic remained the
media of nationality languages, main language that was used in the
[brought] more adults into contact with formal education, judiciary,
speakers of the official language, administration and the media.
27
Amharic.” Hoben also arrives at
similar conclusions by pointing out that 3.2 The Ethiopian language policy:
lack of resources infrastructure and current trends
proper consultation, the literally In May 1991, the Derg was over thrown
campaign and all other policies by the EPRDF. The new government,
regarding language remained named the Transitional Government,
28 first developed the charter which mainly
imposition.
focused on the rights of nations and

Though, Article 2.5 of the 1980 nationalities. The second article of the

constitution states, "The peoples charter states,

Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Nations,

ensures the equality, respect and Nationalities and

development of the nationality

29
A translation by the authors from The
26
Cohen 2000 Decree of the Constitution of the
27
McNabb 1989 Ethipipian Peoples Democratic
28
Hoben 1994 republic in Inter Africa group 1993
Language policy in Ethiopia: History Getachew A. and Derib Ado 49
peoples have the right 3. Members of the Federation
to self determination. may determine their
Accordingly each 31
respective languages.
nation, nationality
and people has the Meles Zenawi's government
right to preserve and aggressively promoted the use of local
guard its identity, languages for official, administrative,
develop its culture judiciary and educational purposes. As a
and history and use result of such a language policy, regional
30
its own language. states have chosen their respective
official languages for various purposes.
The consequent geopolitical Today, in addition to Amharic, which is
reformation, which introduced the used as the working language of the
federal system of administration and the federal government and the official
ratification of the 1994 constitution, working language of four regional states
changed the history of the country with plus the federal cities Addis Ababa and
regard to language policy. In the Dire Dawa, Afan Oromo in Oromia,
constitution, Article 5 reads, Tigrinya in Tigray, Harari (Aderi) in
Harari, Afar in Afar, and Somali in
1. All Ethiopian languages shall Somali serve as regional languages.
enjoy equal state of There are also many languages used as
recognition. official languages at zonal and wereda
2. Amharic shall be the working levels, especially, in the SNNPR.
language of the Federal
Government. Probably the strongest manifestation of
the new government's language policy is
seen in the education system of the
country than in the other areas. Section

30
A translation by the authors from
Ethiopian Transitional Government
Charter in Inter Africa Group 1993.
31
The Constitution of The Federal
democratic republic Of Ethiopia
Ethiop. J. Educ. & Sc. Vol. 2 No. 1 September 2006 50

3.5.1 of the Education and Training As a result of this policy, there are
Policy (1994) reads twenty one languages, excluding
"Cognizant of the Amharic, which are currently used as
pedagogical media of instruction at primary school
advantage of the child level. These languages are Tigrinya,
in learning in mother Afan Oromo, Awigni, Xahmta, Somali,
tongue and the rights Afar, Aderi(Harari), Anywak, Nuer,
of nationalities to Majang, Sidama, Gedeo, Wolayta,
promote the use of Gamo ,Goffa, Dawro, Kambata, Silti,
their languages, Kafa, Konta, Hadiya. All these
primary education will languages are also given as separate
be given in nationality subjects in the primary education. In
32 addition to the primary education,
languages".
Amharic, Afan Oromo, and Tigrinya are
The government strongly argues that being taught as subjects upto
people should learn in their own mother postgraduate level. Several languages
tongue because, including Afan Oromo, Tigrinya,
a) language is the basis for Wolayta, Gamo, Sidama, Kafa, are used
identity to train primary school teachers.
b) pedagogically it is more
The current government has made clear
advantageous
that it works towards the development of
c) It gives people
all the Ethiopian languages for various
psychological satisfaction
purposes. The cultural policy of Ethiopia
and helps them develop
33 states that the policy ensures
positive self esteem.
1. [all] the languages,…,
literature … of the
nations, nationalities,
32
Ministry of Education 1994: and peoples of Ethiopia
33
A translation by the authors from
receive equal
Education Policy in Ministry of
Education 2002
Language policy in Ethiopia: History
recognition, respect and
chance to development.
2. creating a favorable 3.2.1
situation to carry out
scientific research and
inventory of
languages , oral
literature. …of
nations, nationalities,
and peoples of Ethiopia
and make them useful in
development endeavour
3. providing the necessary
professional assistance
to the various nations,
nationalities and peoples
while making their
34
choice of language
The choice of languages to be used at
regional state level seems to be settled,
but still there is a need to choose
languages for medium of instruction,
administration and justice at various
levels in different parts of the country. In
the following sections we will try to look
at how language policies
implemented in four regional states:
34
The Ministry of Youth, Sports and
Culture 2003
Getachew A. and Derib Ado 51
Addis Ababa, Amhara, Oromiya and the
SNNPR.
The implementation of language
policy in Addis Ababa
Addis Ababa is the seat of all nations,
the
nationalities and peoples from all over
the country. From the point of view of
the
implementing the multilingual language
policy, it poses a serious problem
because almost all languages in the
country are spoken in the city. The
government has decided that Amharic
shall be the working language of the
city’s administration as it is the capital
of the federal government. On the other
hand,. The city’s charter, all official
communications, newspapers, radio and
TV programs are presented in Amharic.
First cycle primary education is given in
Amharic and second cycle primary
education is offered in English. Amharic
is given as a separate subject from grade
one.
Actually, implementing a multilingual
language policy that allows the use of 75
are or more languages in the city would be
quite impractical. Yet Addis Ababa is
not the seat of the federal government
only, but the seat of the Oromiya
National Regional State as well.
Ethiop. J. Educ. & Sc. Vol. 2 No. 1 September 2006 52

Considering the special interest the are used in the primary education, the
regional state has in Addis Ababa, the first two up to second cycle while the
choice of language use seem to be still last two at the first cycle primary
unsettled as there is a plan to open 10 education level. Amharic is given as a
schools that use Afan Oromo as a separate subject in all the educational
medium of instruction in the 10 levels, while Awngi and Xamta are
subccities of Addis Ababa given as subjects from grades 1-8. Afan
Oromo is used as both medium of
3.2.2 The implementation of language
instruction and administration in the
policy in the Amhara National Oromiya zone of the region. Besides
Regional State
these languages, English is given as
asubject from grade 1 and is used as a
Article 5 of the constitution of the
medium of instruction in all the
Amhara Regional State provides that
secondary schools of the region.
1. all languages spoken
As to the script selection, Amharic,
throughout the regional
Awngi and Xamta use the Ethiopic
state shall enjoy equal
script while Afan Oromo uses the Latin
recognition on the part of
script. The selection of the script for
the state
Awngi and Xamta was made by the
2. Amharic should be the government officials. The script
official working language selection for Afan Oromo was made by
of the national regional the Oromiya National Regional State.
35
state
Radio broadcast is made in all the four

The implementation of the policy languages stated, but the TV broadcast is

seemed to be straightforward in the only in Amharic. But people in Afan

education sector in the region. So far, of Oromo zone enjoy the TV program

Amharic, Afan Oromo, Awngi, Xamta broadcasted by Oromya National

Reginal state wihin Etv. All the
35 newspapers, magazines and other
The Amhara National Regional State
2001
Language policy in Ethiopia: History
supplementary materials for education)
36
are produced in Amharic.
The Argoba language did not get any
attention by the regional government
until the establishment of the Argoba
Special Woreda this year because it was
believed that the Argobas live in
37
neighbouring Afar Regional State.
There is no clear indication as to
whether the region will endorse the use
of the Argoba language for education
and other purposes.
As to an official from the education
bureau, except for Amharic, all the other
languages were made to be medium of
instruction in haste. There was no survey
made to check whether the concerned
people wanted the languages to be the
medium of instructions. As a result there
was a resistance to the use of Awngi and
Xamta as a medium of instruction at the
beginning. With regard to textbooks,
there were no textbooks prepared
beforehand in these languages.
36
Information on languages on for
education and the media was provided
by Ato Tamirat Sisay , Head of the
Radio Division, Amhara Mass
Coomunication Agency.
37
Interview with Ato Fanta Moges ,
Deputy Head, the Education Bureau of
the Amhara National Regional State.
Getachew A. and Derib Ado 53
Therefore, the preparation of the
textbooks was made by translating the
textbooks prepared in Amharic to the
other languages. This in turn was very
problematic due to shortage of
manpower in the region. The other
problem seen was shortage of teachers,
especially those who can teach those
who can speak Xamta. The regional state
used priests and other local people who
38
were educated up to grades 8 or 6.
3.2.3 The implementation of
language policy in Oromiya
National Regional State
The Oromiya National Regional State
recognizes that all languages have equal
recognition by the state. The official
language of the state is Afan Oromo.
Afan Oromo is used in education,
administration, justice and the media
apart from being the lingua franca in the
vast wide areas in the country.
In Education, Afan Oromo is used as a
medium of instruction in informal
education, primary education (up to 2nd
cycle), and in the colleges of primary
38
Interview with Ato Tekil Wolde
Kidan, Head, Educational programs,
Education Bureau, Amhara National
Regional State.
Ethiop. J. Educ. & Sc.
school teachers education at 10+1, 10+3
levels. It is also offered as a subject from
grade one up to postgraduate level.
Currently there are first degree programs
in Afan Oromo, at Jimma University and
Haromaya (Alemaya) University and
Afan Oromo minor programs at Addis
Ababa Unversity and Mekele University.
Primary school education is also
available in Amharic in most of the
towns in the Oromiya National Regional
State to satisfy the needs of the non-
Afan Oromo speaking nationalities.
According to an official in the Oromiya
Educational Bureau, efforts are
underway to offer primary education in
Somali in cooperation with the Somali
National Regional state in the boarder
areas of Oromiya that are close the
Somali National Regional State.
According to the same official, the
suggestion by the federal government to
offer 2nd cycle primary education in
English, which is now the medium of
instruction at secondary schools and
given as a separate subject at all levels
from grade one, was rejected as a survey
made by the region in cooperation with
the Addis Ababa University showed that
there is a great demand for the society
Vol. 2 No. 1 September 2006 54
that both cycles of primary education be
39
given in Afan Oromo.
All the newspapers, magazines, brief
communications, the regional state’s
constitution and legal documents are
produced in Afan Oromo, which makes
use of the Latin script. The region has a
TV and radio programs in Afan Oromo.
3.2.4 The implementation of
language policy in the South
Nations, Nationalities and
Peoples Regional State
More than 70% of the languages in
Ethiopia are spoken in the South
Nations, Nationalities and Peoples
Regional State. The Regional State
recognizes that there are about 56
nations, nationalities and peoples and
more than this number of languages in
the state.
The amended constitution of the state, in
Article 5, states that
39
Information on the use of language in
education, specially in primary
education and related issues is
gathered from Ato Dagne Bulcha,
Head of the Curriculum Division,
Oromiya Education Bureau.
Language policy in Ethiopia: History
1. all languages in the region
shall enjoy equal state
recognition
2. Amharic should be the
official working language
of the regional state
3. zones and special woredas
may determine their respective
working languages in their own
40
councils.
The constitution of the federal
government has been translated into
Sidama, Gedeo, Hadiya, Kambata,
Wogagoda, Kafa, Kistane and Silti. The
four languages that made up the
Wogagoda (Wolayta, Gamo, Gofa and
Dawro) and the rest of the languages that
are mentioned earlier are used in the
justice system in the zones and woredas
they are spoken. Any one in the region
has the right to use Amharic or get a
translator if he/she does not speak the
languages that are used in the justice or
the administration. Of these languages
only Kistane and Silti, which are Semitic
languages use the Ethiopic script, while
40
The SNNPR 2001.
Getachew A. and Derib Ado 55
the rest of the languages are written in
the Latin script.
A dozen of languages are also employed
in the education area in the SNNPR.
Currently, including Amharic, 12
languages are used as medium of
instruction at primary schools from
grades 1-4. The languages are Sidama,
Gedeo, Wolayta, Gamo, Gofa, Dawro,
Konta, Kafa, Silti, Kambata and Hadiya.
Amharic is used in towns and cities as
an alternative for those who do not speak
the languages that are used in education
in their area. All the languages that are
used as media of instruction at primary
school (1st cycle) are offered as separate
subjects from grads 1-8. These
languages are also used in the teacher
41
training institutions in the region.
An attempt to use Kebena and Koorete
as media of instruction at 1st cycle
primary schools failed mainly because of
printing cost and shortage of skilled
human power. In the weredas where
41
Due to the small number of the
Konta trainees, however, Konta
would be teachers are trained in
Wolayta with Wolayta would be
teachers. The training of teachers
in Gamo and Gofa also takes place
in one institute or in the institute.
Ethiop. J. Educ. & Sc. Vol. 2 No. 1 September 2006 56

Kebena and Koorete are spoken, According to the officials in the

Amharic is used as per the decision of Education Bureau of the SNNPR State,
the respective woreda councils. The the serious problems that the region
region states that preparations are faced during the implementation of the
underway to offer primary school multilingual language policy include
education in other languages such as a. a problem of choice of
Bench and Sheka. languages in areas where there
are societies that speak two or
The language that is used as a medium
more languages and in boarder
of instruction at 2nd cycle primary school
areas
(grades 5-8) is English since September
b. unwillingness of people to send
2005 per the decision of the regional
their children learn in their
council. Before 2005, all primary school
mother tongue
education was given either in the local
c. high cost of printing textbooks
languages which are now used at 1st
in each language because the
cycle primary school or in Amharic.
number of copies needed in
The implementation of the multilingual
each languages is small
language policy has faced a very serious
d. presence of many languages in
problem in the SNNPR than in other
a very small area
regional states, specifically in the area of
e. confusion between dialects and
education. This is mainly due to small
languages
number of speakers for the majority of
the languages. At the beginning, the
Among these problems, the ones that are
problem was in preparing textbooks in
stated in (c) and (d) arose mainly due to
the various mother tongues. There was
the absence of routine practices that
accurate shortage of skilled human
should be done in language planning.
power to prepare the texts, and as a
First of all the people were not asked
result the texts for first cycle primary
whether they needed education in their
education were first prepared in Amharic
mother tongues or not. In other words,
and then translated into the mother
the first step in language planning, i.e.
tongues by teachers who speak them.
need assessment was overlooked in
Language policy in Ethiopia: History Getachew A. and Derib Ado 57
favor of political decisions. Some The four languages that make up the
minority societies were forced to educate Weogagoda are highly intelligible, and
their children in a language that is can be considered as a dialect of one
neither their mother tongue nor the language. However the speakers of these
default alternative (Amharic). As languages identify themselves as a
McNabb (1989) puts it, there was some separate ethnic group or nationality, and
form of imposition on these minority hence any ‘foreign’ sound or word was
groups. considered an invasion into their
identity. In the areas where these
The absence of conscious language
languages are spoken, despite linguistic
planning also made the region pay a
similarity, the social definition of
huge cost. A political decision to form a
language dominated, mainly due to the
blended language called Wogagoda
contemporary political thinking.
(from Wolayta, Gamo, Gofa and Dawro)
and introduce it into the primary school Immediately after the opposition,
education resulted in burning of Wolayta on one hand and Gamo, Gofa
textbooks worth 40 million birr, death of and Dawro, all three as one language, on
seven people, transfer of hundreds of the other hand continued to be the
teachers, and chaos that resulted in the medium of instruction at primary
demolition of infrastructures and even schools in the then North Omo Zone.
42 Currently, all the four languages are
hotels. These problems could have
been avoided easily, as a chief in Dorze used separately in the zones they are
put it, if the government asked whether spoken, though Gamo and Gofa still use
the people needed education in such a the same material.
43
language or not.
In very pluralist societies like the

The confusion between languages and SNNPR, given the countries’

dialects, which contributed a great deal socioeconomic development, it would be

to the introduction of the Wogagoda, quite impossible to implement the

was also a major problem in the region. multilingual language policy and satisfy
the society at the individual level.
42 Choosing one language over the other,
Daniel Abera 2001
43
Ifoyta November-December 1992
Ethiop. J. Educ. & Sc. Vol. 2 No. 1 September 2006 58

thus, is inevitable. Clear criteria for about 5 languages in addition to

selection of languages, need assessments Amharic (Afar, Aderi(Harari), Afan
conscious language planning in general Oromo, Tigrignya and Somali) are used
would help reduce such problems to a as official languages at regional level.
great extent. There are also about (Sidama, Kambata,
Kafa, Hadiya, Gamo, Gofa, Wolayta,
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Dawro, Silti, Gedeo) languages that are
used as official languages at zone and
It is clear that Ethiopia has showed a
woreda level. Primary education is
significant change in terms of
available in more than 20 languages.
developing and implementing language
Books, newspapers and radio broadcasts
policy from the reign of Tewodros to
are available in a lot of languages as
date. The covert language policies that
well. In general, there is a possibility for
were implemented by Tewodros II,
the society to appreciate and use the
Minilik II, Haile Sellasie I and the Derg
language it chooses for any purpose.
all promoted the use of one language. At
paper level, though it was late in the
Despite the achievements in the
reign of Haile Sellasie I that a clear
implementation of the multilingual
language policy came out. The language
language policy, the current practice is
policy that the Derg developed seemed
not totally righteous. Patterns of
to give a hope for the development of
acceptance and recognition of the
many Ethiopian languages, but ended up
language policy has been evidenced in
in vain as the implementation was just a
many parts of the country. In very
continuation of the use of one language.
pluralist societies like the SNNPR, there
is a need to follow a conscious language
A movement towards the
planning practice if the policy is to
implementation of a multilingual
succeed and produce the desirable
language policy came into the scene in
results. So far it seems that political
Ethiopia since 1994 with the rule of the
decision took over the conscious
EPRDF (the Ethiopian Peoples
planning and consultation with
Revolutionary Democratic Forces) after
professionals. The implementation of a
the downfall of the Derg. Currently
Language policy in Ethiopia: History Getachew A. and Derib Ado 59
multilingual language policy without Oxford: Oxford University
careful planning would result in a Press.
disaster as seen in the case of the ________ 1976 "Language in the court."
introduction of the Wogagoda. In Bender, ML, JD Bowen,
CA Cooper, and CA
Ferguson. (Eds.).

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