Estimating settlements in dry sands during earthquakes

W. D. L. FINN
F m r l ofApplied
~ Science, Unive,:si~~
of British Colrrmbirr, Vrrncower, B.C., Cnnrra'n V6T 1 W5
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AND
P. M. BYRNE
Departtnetzt o f Civil Engitzeeritzg, Uniwrsity of Britisl~Columbia, Vmcoiwer, B.C., Catzndn V6T 1 W 5
Received October 10, 1975
Accepted May 26, 1976

An analytical method for predicting the settlement of a horizontal stratum of dry sand subjected
to earthquake excitation is presented. An equivalent linear viscoelastic dynamic analysis is used to
determine the time-history of shear strains at various levels within the stratum. The vertical
strains caused by these shear strains are calculated by an empirical relationship shown to be in
close agreement with laboratory test data over a wide range of relative densities. This allows the
settlement distribution with depth to be calculated as a function of time.
The method was applied to a 50ft (15 m) stratum of sand. A base acceleration corresponding to
0-10 s of the N-S component of El Centro earthquake was used. Settlement distribution 11s.depth,
as well as surface settlements for various relative densities and earthquake scaling factors are
shown. The effect of surcharge loading on settlements is investigated in an approximate manner.
The results may be used to estimate differential settlement of a structure due to an earthquake.
The results show that while the compaction of the upper layers may be sufficient to reduce the
For personal use only.

settlements due to static loads to tolerable amounts, deep-seated settlements will still occur
during an earthquake.

On presente une mithode analytique pour predire le tassement d'une couche horizontale de
sable sec sujette B une excitation seismique. Une analyse equivalente dynamique en
visco-Clasticite lineaire est utilisee pour determiner I'historique des contraintes de cisaillement B
divers niveaux au sein de la couche. Les deformations verticales causies par ces contraintes de
cisaillement sont calculkes par une relation empirique dont on montre l'accord etroit avec les
donnees d'essais de laboratoire dans une large gamme de densites relatives. Ceci permet le calcul
en fonction du temps de la repartition du tassement avec la profondeur.
La methode a ete appliquie a une couche de sable de 50 pieds (15 m) d'epaisseur. On a utiiise
une acceleration de base correspondant a 0-10 s de la composante N-S du tremblement de terre
d'EI Centro. On montre la repartition du tassement avec la profondeur, ainsi que les tassements
de surface pour diverses densites relatives et differents coefficients d'echelle seismique. L'effet
de la surcharge additionnelle sur les tassements est ktudiee d'une maniere approximative.
Les resultats peuvent 2tre utilises pourestimer le tassement differentiel d'une structure d t i un
tremblement de terre. Les r6st1ltatsmontrent qtle, si le compactage des couches superieures peut
6tre suffisant pour reduire les tassements dus aux charges statiques B des quantites tolerables, des
tassements profonds se produiront malgre tout au cours d'un tremblement de terre.
[Traduit par la revue]
Can. Geotech. J . , 13, 355 (1976)

Introduction Ground settlements resulting from ground

Earthquakes can cause considerable settle-
ments in deposits of cohesionless soils. In the
San Fernando earthquake of February 9, 1971,
settlements of 4 to 6 in. (approx. 0.10 to
0.15 m) have been reported under a building
on spread footings on a 40 ft (12.12 m) deep
sand fill (Seed and Silver 1972). Settlements of
up to 2 in. (0.05 m) were noted in other areas
after the same earthquake. Much greater settle-
ment and tilting of buildings due to liquefaction
of saturated sands can occur but these will not
be discussed in this paper.
shaking during earthquakes are rarely uni-
formly distributed and cause differential settle-
ments in structures which can be a major
cause of damage. The severe damage to some
major structures in Skopje during the earth-
quake there in 1963 was considered to result
from differential settlements caused by the
compaction of pockets of loose sand under
the foundations (Seed and Silver 1972).
Settlements of buildings on sands under
static loads are estimated empirically and at
the present time, in most cases, little considera-
 356 CAN. GEOTECH. J. VOL. 13, 1976
tion is given to possible additional settlements
due to ground shaking during earthquakes.
Two semi-empirical approaches have been ad-
vanced for estimating earthquake settlements.
Seed and Silver (1972) suggested a procedure
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for estimating settlements in unsaturated sands,
and Pyke et al. (1975) extended the method
to take into account multi-dimensional shaking.
Lee and Albaisa (1974) have proposed a
similar method applicable to saturated sands.
Seed and Silver (1972) proposed that the
settlement of a sand stratum due to earthquake
loading be obtained by the following steps:
(i) determine the time-history of shear strains
in various layers of the sand using an equiva-
lent linear method of dynamic analysis, (ii)
convert the shear strain history in each layer
to an equivalent number of uniform cycles of
shear strain, (iii) apply these uniform cycles
of shear strain to samples of the sand in a
simple shear test to determine the resulting
volumetric or vertical shear strains, and (iv)
For personal use only.
repeat the above process for each layer of the
sand stratum and integrate the vertical strains
to obtain the surface settlement.
The second step involves an approximation.
It has recently been shown by Martin et al.
(1975) that the effect of an irregular shear
strain history depends not only on the mag-
nitude of the pulses in the record but the order
in which they are applied. The procedure for
determining equivalent cycles of uniform shear
strain does not take this fact into account. The
number of simple shear tests required to cover
the relative density range in a site such as
Niigata (Seed and Idriss 1967) could make
step (iii) time-consuming and expensive.
If the relationship between shear strain and
volume change were expressed analytically
then steps (ii), (iii), and (iv) could be elimi-
nated and the distribution of settlements could
be computed directly in conjunction with the
dynamic analysis in step (i). This type of com-
bined analysis has been made possible by the
development of a general analytical expression
between shear strains and vertical strain by
Martin et al. (1975). The method of analysis
which allows the direct computation of the
settlements in the sand due to a given earth-
quake loading is presented here. It is applicable
to dry or unsaturated sands only.
Mechanism of Settlements
Settlements in cohesionless soils due to
earthquake loading result from volume com-
paction. The compaction is caused by the
dynamic shear strains resulting from the three
acceleration components of the earthquake.
Pyke et al. (1975) conducted an extensive
experimental study of the settlement of sands
under combined horizontal and vertical ac-
celerations. They found that, in general, the
settlements due to the two horizontal com-
ponents of acceleration were about twice that
of one component acting alone. The effect of the
vertical component was more variable and de-
pended very much on the level of vertical
excitation, but in most practical cases it seems
that the additional settlements caused by verti-
cal accelerations would be less than 25% of
the settlements due to the combined horizontal
motions. Therefore, in practical terms, the
basic problem is that of determining the settle-
ments under a single horizontal component of
acceleration. If this is known, an estimate of
the probable maximum settlements will be
obtained by multiplying it by a factor of
about 2.5.
A detailed study of volume changes in sand
caused by cyclic shear strains has been pre-
sented by Martin et al. (1975). Their results
show that the increment in volumetric strain, y ,
depends on the magnitude of y and the total
volumetric strain, cVd, accumulated during the
previous cycles of shear strain. The accumu-
lated volumetric shear strain is an index of the
amount of previous straining or the strain
history of the sand. The volumetric strain
increment may be expressed analytically by
The sand used in the study was Crystal
Silica No. 20 having a Dlo = 0.5 mm and a
uniformity coefficient of 1.5. For this sand at
a relative density, D, = 45%, the constants
are C1 = 0.80, C2 = 0.79, C3 = 0.45, and
C4 = 0.73 when the strains are expressed in
percentages. Volumetric strains computed using
[:I.] were in remarkably close agreement with
measured strains over a wide range of strain
histories at D, = 45%.
Procedures for determining the constants C1
through Ci are given by Martin et al. (1975).
 F I N N AND BYRNE
These constants vary with sand type and rela-
tive density. However, we have found they
need be determined only at one relative den-
sity Drl as the volumetric strain increment at
another relative density Dr2 is given by
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in which R is a parameter that varies with
relative density. When the reference relative
density, D,., = 45% and the accumulated
strain E,.~, in [ I ] is computed also at the same
relative density the following expression for R
was established to agree with the experimental
data presented by Silver and Seed ( 1971) :
The computed and measured values of accu-
mulated volumetric strains after 10 cycles of
various magnitudes of shear strain for D , = 60
and 80% are shown in Fig. 1. The agreement
For personal use only.
between measured and computed values of
accumulated volumetric strain appears ade-
quate for practical purposes.
During an earthquake a sand deposit is
subjected to a train of non-uniform shear
strains. The procedure outlined above for cal-
culating the volumetric strains has been shown
by Martin et nl. (1975) to be applicable to
such a sequence of non-uniform strain cycles.
Therefore the distribution of volumetric
strains in a sand deposit can be determined
Meosured (Seed and Silver 1972)
i8t Predicted
"
0.01 0.1
Sheor S t r o i n in percent
FIG. 1. Comparison o f computed and measured
strains.
357
provided the shear strain histories at various
levels in the deposit can be computed. In
horizontal layers of sand the volumetric strains
are equal to the vertical strains and from the
latter the settlements may be computed.
Calculation of Settlements
A stratum of unsaturated sand resting on
horizontal bedrock is shown in Fig. 2. The
stratum is of thickness, H, and the properties
of the sand are allowed to vary in the vertical
direction only. Shaking is due to shear waves
propagating upwards from the rock base. Un-
der these assumptions, the dynamic response
becomes that of a one-dimensional shear beam.
Since the layer properties may vary vertically
in a random manner, the shear beam can be
approximated by the discrete mass model
shown in Fig. 2. The masses are connected by
appropriate springs and dampers. The stress-
strain characteristics of sands are non-linear,
hysteretic, and strain dependent. These charac-
teristics are introduced into the model by
using the equivalent linear strain dependent
shear moduli and viscous damping ratios de-
fined by Seed and Idriss (1969) and shown in
Fig. 3. The elemental spring stiffnesses, kt, are
based on the current moduli, Gi, at the middle
of each layer of thickness, hi;ki = Gi/hi.
The shear modulus G at any time is given
by
[41 G = 1000 K,(a,,,')'/'
in which is the mean effective normal stress
and K, is a parameter which varies with strain
and relative density as shown in Fig. 3.
1.0
FIG. 2. Discrete mass model o f foundation layer.
 358 CAN. GEOTECH. J. VOL. 13, 1976

where hi = damping in the ith mode and w i =

the ith natural frequency. The equations then
reduce to normal mode equations
[lo1 Yn + 2 X n w n j n + w n Yn = -{4n)T[Mlqt)
2
n
( a l l densities
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:
.- 12
An iterative procedure is used for solving
Q (a) [ICI]. Initial values for shear modulus and
: 8 I/ damping ratio are assumed to be those for a
strain, = The response of the system
to the prescribed base motion is then computed
"lo-4 lo-' 10- 10 -' I over a short time interval At such as 0.5 s
S h e a r Strain in%
80 I I I I I assuming viscoelastic behaviour. The distribu-
tion of average shear strains within the soil
profile is determined. If these strains differ by
more than an arbitrarily prescribed amount
from the strains assumed at the beginning of
the analysis, new values for the moduli and
damping are selected and the system of equa-
tions again solved. The procedure is repeated
until two consecutive sets of strains are ob-
tained which agree within the prescribed toler-
ances. At this stage strain compatible stiffnesses
For personal use only.

and damping ratios have been achieved.

Different compatible stiff nesses and damping
o1 I I ratios will apply in the next time interval be-
IO-~ IO-~ 10-2 1o-l I cause the base excitation will be different. It
Shear Strain in%
is important to ensure that dynamic equilibrium
( F r o m Seed and ldriss 19701
is maintained in the transition from the end of
FIG.3. Moduli and damping ratios for sand. one time interval to the beginning of the next.
The final velocities and displacements of the
The equations of motion of the discrete mass previous time interval become the initial ve-
system are given by locities and displacements of the next but be-
cause of the modifications in the stiffness and
[51 [MHz) + [Cl{k) + [Kl{x) = - [Ml~,(t) damping there will be a corresponding change
in which [MI is the diagonal mass matrix; [C] is in the acceleration. The initial accelerations in
the damping matrix; [K] is the stiffness matrix; the next time interval are determined from the
ii,(t) is one component of base rock acceleration; dynamic equilibrium equations
and, {x), {x), and {x) are the displacements,
velocities, and accelerations of the masses [MI. [Ill [Ml{x)l + [CII{~}I+ [KIl{x)l =
Since an equivalent linear method of analysis [Ml{x), + [CI,{k)l + [KI,{~)I
will be used, the equations are uncoupled by the
transformation in which the subscript 1 indicates 'before
modification of properties,' and subscript 2
[61 {Y>= [+ITIMl{~) indicates after modification. Therefore
in which [+I is such that [I21 {XI, = {XI) + [MI-l(([Cll - [CIZ){kl>
[71 [ + l T [ ~ l [ +=l [I] + ([Kll - [KIz){x),)
in which x2 is the acceleration after the change
in stiffness and damping in each iteration. The
damping matrix for use in [I21 is conveniently
constructed as follows: transformation to nor-
mal co-ordinates requires that
 FINN AND BYRNE 3.59
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in which hl = A~ = A,,
25
N
,
:
c
.-

:: 0
~151 [CI = [MI[+:I[A:I[ + I ~ [ M I
"
L"

Thus {x}, {k), and {f}at the beginning of the m

next time interval are now known and the - 25
0 2 4 6 8 10
integration proceeds as before in normal co- T i m e in s e c o n d s
ordinate space.
FIG.4. Base and surface accelerations.
Results of Analysis
Free Field Settlements
-
a
N - S E L CENTRO (1940)
( M a x Base A C C =. 329 )
Settlements in a sand layer 50 ft (15.2 m )
thick were computed for a range of earthquake
For personal use only.

accelerations. The relative density, A,, of the

sand varied from = 45 to 80%. The first 10 s
of the N-S acceleration component of the
El Centro earthquake in 1940 was used as
input motion at the base of the sand layer.
This earthquake record was scaled by factors
of 0.5, 1.0, and 1.5 to provide three different
acceleration histories with maximum accelera-
tions of 0.16 g, 0.32 g, and 0.48 g respectively.
The base acceleration and the computed sur-
face acceleration for D, = 45% and a,,,,,, =
0.32 g are shown in Fig. 4.
For the purpose of analysis, the layer was
divided into 10 slices each 5 ft (1.52 m) thick.
The dynamic shear stresses and associated
shear strains for a typical slice are shown in
Figs. 5a and 5b. The volumetric strains gener-
ated by the strain history in Fig. 5b were com-
puted using [ I ] and are shown in Fig. 5c. In
a horizontal layer of sand these strains are
equal to the vertical strains and when multi-
plied by the thickness of the slice give the
total settlement of this slice as a function of
time. When similar results for other slices are T i m e in s e c o n d s

summed, the distribution of settlements
throughout the depth of the layer are obtained
as a function of time.
The distribution of total settlements under
shaking by the N-S component of El Centro
(1940) with maximum acceleration of 0.32 g
is shown in Fig. 6 for relative densities D, =
FIG. 5. Dynamic stresses and associated strains.
45, 60, and 8 0 % . The dependence of settle-
ment on relative density is obvious. It should
be noted that even very dense sands (D, =
80% ) can undergo measurable settlement
under strong shaking. In the example shown,
 360
N - S E L GENTRO ( 1 9 4 0 )
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0 0.1
S e t t l e m e n t in f e e t
For personal use only.
FIG.6. Settlement vs. depth for various densities.
the settlement was of the order of 0.25 in
(0.64 cm) when the relative density D, =
80%.
The total settlement in a given sand stratum
depends on the frequency content and magni-
tude of the base input motion, because these
factors have a predominant effect on the dy-
namic response of a given sand layer. Since
the motion is fed in at bedrock or an equiva-
lent stiff layer, the frequency content should
be rather high. This kind of frequency content
is represented reasonably well by the El Centro
record. If necessary the record may be scaled
to higher frequencies.
The effect of variations of the maximum
accelerations are shown as functions of the
relative density in Fig. 7. The non-linear nature
of the response of the sand is clearly evident.
Eflect of a Structure
The settlement of a sand will be affected by
the existence of a structure founded on the
sand. The weight of the structure increases the
mean normal effective stress in the sand and so
increases the shear modulus G, in accordance
with [4]. The increased values of G lead to in-
creased resistance to shearing strain and hence
to volume change. This effect tends to reduce
the total settlement. However, the mass of the
CAN. GEOTECH. J. VOL. 13, 1976
N - S EL CENTRO ( 1940)
0.2 -
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
M a x . B a s e A c c e l e r a t i o n in gravity units
FIG. 7. Surface settlements vs. maximum base
acceleration.
building has an opposite effect. During an
earthquake, the base shear generated in the
building by inertia forces generates additional
shear stresses and strains in the sand and tends
to increase settlements.
A very approximate model of the action of
a structure was used to investigate these effects.
This model took into account only the in-
creased effective pressures between the sand
grains due to the weight of the structure and
the increased shear stresses generated by the
mass of the structure. The flexibility of the
structure and such vibration modes as rocking
were not taken into account as they would be
incompatible with the simple one-dimensional
analysis used.
The effect of a structure on settlements
was modelled by adding an extra slice to the
discrete mass system with a very high stiffness
and a mass sufficient to cause foundation pres-
sures ranging from 2000 to 8000 psf (1 to 4
kg/cm2). The distribution of settlements with
depth caused by the first 10 s of El Centro
(1940) are shown in Fig. 8 for both the free
field case of no surcharge ( a = 0 ) and for a
building causing a surcharge of a = 4000 psf
(2 kg/cm3). The presence of the surcharge

N - S E L CENTRO (1940)
( M a x . B a s e Acc. = . 3 2 g )
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50
0 0.I 0.2
S e t t l e m e n t in f e e t
FIG.8. Effect of surface loads on settlements.
For personal use only.
N-S EL CENTRO(1940)
(Max.Bose A c c . = . 3 2 e 1
0 0.1 0.2
S u r f a c e S e t t l e m e n t in feet
FIG. 9. Effect of surcharge and density on total
settlement.
causes higher settlements. The relationship
between surface settlement and surface load
for a range of relative densities is shown in
Fig. 9. The sharp curvature in the D, = 45%
curve at the higher surface pressures is due
to a significant shift in the fundamental period
of the sand stratum at this relative density due
to the surface pressures and superimposed
mass.
FINN AND BYRNE 361
The effect of the structure in all cases studied
was to increase the total settlement in the sand.
Thus the free field settlements of a sand stra-
tum ~ r o v i d ea lower bound to the settlements
to be expected under a structure during an
earthquake. This conclusion is quite important
because of the difficulty of determining settle-
ments in a combined soil-structure interaction
analysis. However, the conclusion is based on
a very crude model and requires verification by
field data.
Vertical Variation in Sand Density
In all the solutions analvsed above. the sand
was assumed to be of unifbrm relative density.
Sand deposits in the field are rarely uniform.
Site investigation usually reveals variations in
densitv in -both the vertical and horizontaI
directions. Variation in density in the vertical
0.3 0.4 direction presents no difficulty to the computa-
tion of settlements. The shear slices are selected
for the discrete mass model in such a wav that
density variation within the sand depth mod-
elled by each slice is small.
Consider, for example, the case in which it
is decided to minimize static load settlements
by compacting the upper half of the stratum
of sand having D,. = 45% so that the top 25
ft (7.62 m) is now at D, = 80% and the bot-
tom 25 ft (7.62 m ) is at D,. = 4 5 % . The dis-
tribution df settlements with .depth under a
surface pressure of 4000 psf ( 2 kg/cm2) is
shown in Fig. 10 for shaking by the N-S com-
ponent of acceleration of El Centro (1940).
The settlements that would occur if the layer
had a uniform density D, = 45% is shown
also for comparison. It is evident that most of
the settlements are in the underlying looser
portion of the deposit. The compaction of the
0.3 0.4 upper levels of a loose deposit may be effective
in reducing static settlements but may prove
ineffective in preventing significant settlement
during an earthquake.
Difjerential Settlements
When the shear properties vary in the hor-
izontal direction. the shear beam analvsis is
no longer theoretically exact because an under-
lying assumption of the method is that the
sand is uniform in the horizontal direction.
Consider two locations in a sand stratum 30 ft
(9.15 m) apart and let the densities at the
locations be D , = 45 and 60%. The surface
 362
N - S EL C E N T R O ( 1 9 4 0 )
( M a x . B a s e Acc.= .32q)
Surface Load = 2 ~ / f t '
-0
- /
/ response of saturated sands in the drained and
/-D,: 45% throuqhout
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I0 -
/ the f u l l depth o f
-
/ the L a y e r
-
m
Z 20-
/'
/
D,=SO%
.-
a
3 0
40
Surface Settlement in feet
FIG. 10. Settlement distribution in non-uniform
For personal use only.
sand.
settlements at these locations during shaking
by the N-S acceleration component of El
Centro (1940) are, from Fig. 6, 1.94 in.
(4.92 cm) and 0.94 in. (2.39 cm). Since the
sand is not uniform, each of these computed
values is somewhat in error; however, except
in the neighborhood of a sharp discontinuity
in properties, the percentage magnitude of the
error is likely to be about the same in each
case. Thus the error in the computation of the
differential settlement, which is the difference
between these values, is likely to be very much
smaller. For this reason, it is our opinion that
useful estimates of differential settlements for
practical purposes may be derived using the
method outlined above.
All the settlements computed above were
generated by one horizontal component of an
earthquake. As was pointed out earlier, to
obtain estimates of total maximum probable
settlements due to all three components of
earthquake acceleration, these settlements
should be multiplied by a factor of 2.5.
The above results were obtained for dry or
unsaturated sand. In the case of saturated
sands from which drainage is impeded, the
pressures in the pore-water will increase during
shaking. The increase in pore-water pressure
reduces the mean effective normal stress and
CAN. GEOTECH. J. VOL. 13, 1976
changes the value of G. In this case, a more
complicated dynamic analysis must be carried
out. This analysis has been described by Finn
- et al. (1975). The analysis shows that the
undrained state are almost identical until the
- pore-water pressures in the undrained sands
-
rise above 30% of the overburden pressures.
The settlement of the saturated sands would
be delayed until dissipation of these excess
pore pressures occurred. For higher pore-
water pressures, settlements can also be com-
puted, but at such higher water pressures there
is more concern about a possible foundation
failure or complete liquefaction than with
settlements.
Conclusions
An analytical method has been presented
for computing estimates of the settlements of
strata of unsaturated sand during an earth-
quake when the sand is uniform in a horizontal
direction. These uniform settlements will not
cause structural damage, but an estimate of
their magnitude may be important in low-
lying areas where subsidence could cause
flooding.
When conditions vary in the horizontal
direction, the method may be used to estimate
the differential settlements as well as the total
settlement. In this case the differential settle-
ments are likely to be more accurate than the
total settlements.
Differential settlements can occur not only
because of a variation in soil properties but
also because of different pressures and masses
superimposed on the sand layer by the founda-
tions of structures. Using a crude model of
the structure, the proposed method can take
these masses and pressures into account in the
computation of settlements.
Compaction of the upper levels of a loose
deposit of sand may be effective in reducing
the settlements due to static load but may be
quite ineffective in reducing the settlements
due to earthquake loading. This is because the
zone of significant settlement for static loading
is within a depth equal to that of the smallest
dimension of the loaded area, whereas for
earthquake loading significant settlements take
place within the full depth of the deposit.
The results of the analyses of many cases
 FINN AND B Y R N E 363

show that the relative density of the sand, the 1969. Influence of soil conditions on ground mo-
time history of earthquake accelerations, and tions during earthquakes. ASCE, J . Soil Mech. Found.
Div. 95(SM1), pp. 99-137.
the surface masses and pressures of structures 1970. Soil moduli and damping factors for dynamic
are the primary factors affecting the settle- response analyses. Rep. No. EERC 70-10, Univ. Calif.
ments. E a r t h q ~ ~ a kEng.
e Res. Cent.. Berkeley, Calif.
The procedure and results described above SEED, H. B. and S I L V E RM. , L. 1972. Settlement of dry
Can. Geotech. J. Downloaded from www.nrcresearchpress.com by SAVANNAHRIVNATLABBF on 11/23/14

sands during earthquakes. ASCE, J . Soil Mech. Found.

are directly applicable to saturated sands pro- Div. 98(SM4), pp. 381-397.
vided the pore-water pressure does not increase S I L V E RM. , L. and SEED,H. B. 1971. Volume changes in
beyond 30% of the effective overburden pres- sands during cyclic loading. ASCE, J. Soil Mech.
sure. For higher pore-water pressures, the pos- Found. Div. 97(SM9), pp. 1171-1 182.
sibility of a foundation failure due to liquefac- Notation
tion or high pore pressure becomes more
likely, and a different kind of analysis is nec- The following notation has been used in the
essary. paper.
[C] = damping matrix
Acknowledgement D, = relative density in percent
The research described above was sup- G = shear modulus
ported by the National Research Council of H = stratum thickness
Canada under grants NRC 1498 and NRC hi = thickness of the ith slice
A5 109. [K] = stiffness matrix
k , = shear modulus factor
k i = stiffness of ith spring
For personal use only.

, D. L., BYRNE,P. M., and MARTIN,G. R. 1975.

F I N N W. [MI = diagonal mass matrix
Seismic response and liquefaction of sands. Soil Mech. R = conversion factor for volumetric strain
Ser. No. 24, Univ. British Columbia, Vancouver, B.C.
LEE, K. L. i ~ n dALBAISA,A. 1974. Earthquake induced
{ x ) = displacement vector
settlements in saturated sands. ASCE, J . Geotech. Eng. (2) = velocity vector
Div. 100(GT4), pp. 387-405. {x) = acceleration vector
MARTIN,G. R., F I N N ,W. D. L., and SEED, H. B. 1974. y = shear strain in percent
Fundamentals of liq~~efactionunder cyclic loading. AE,,, = increment in volumetric strain in percent
ASCE, J. Geotech. Eng. Div. lOl(GT5). pp. 423-438.
Also in Soil Mech. Ser. No. 23. Univ. British Columbia, E,, = volumetric (and vertical) strain in per-
Vancouver, B.C. 1974. cent
PYKE,R., SEED,H. B., and CHAN,C. K. 1975. Settlement Xi = critical damping ratio in ith mode
of sands under multidirectional shaking. ASCE, J. a = surcharge pressure
Geotech. Eng. Div. 101(GT4), pp. 361-378.
SEED,H. and IDRISS,I. M. 1967. Analysis of soil liquefac- a,' = mean effective normal stress
tion: Niigata Earthquake. ASCE, J. Soil Mech. Found. [+] = mode shapes
Div. 93(SM3), pp. 83-108. wi = ith natural frequency