MA. RAYSOLYN E.

NATIVIDAD
ENS 203 – Advanced Aquatic Ecology

STATE OF KNOWLEDGE ON PHILIPPINE FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS

I. Introduction

The Philippines is an island country which has a total area of 300,000 square
kilometers (115,831 square miles) comprising originally of 7,107 islands, which is now
7,641 islands. It is bounded on the north by the Luzon Strait, on the east by the
Philippine Sea, on the west by the West Philippine Sea, and on the south by the
Celebes Sea.

It has a total coastline of 36, 289 kilometers or 22,549 square miles (CIA World
Factbook, 2020) with an exclusive economic zone covering about 2,263,816 square
kilometers (874,064 square miles), which is three times its land area (Sea Around Us,
2016).

The country also has a total territorial marine waters of 2,200,000 square kilometers
with coastal waters accounting for 266,000 square kilometer and oceanic resources of
1,934,000 square kilometers. It has roughly 1,083,000 hectares of wetlands
categorized as lakes, estuaries, freshwater marshes, aquaculture ponds, man-made
reservoirs, and mangroves (Baconguis, et al, 1990).

It is also visited by an average of 20 typhoons per year with an average annual

precipitation of 2,400 millimeters (PAGASA, 2019). The distribution of rainfall is
different from one region to another, depending on the wind direction and the mountain
systems location.

It has 17 political regions and 12 water resources regions (see Figures 1 and 2).

Figure 1. Political Regions of the Philippines Figure 2. Water Resources Regions of the Philippines
Photo: https://www.pinterest.co.uk Photo: NWRB

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II. Freshwater Resources in the Philippines

The freshwater resources of the Philippines came from both groundwater and surface
water. Groundwater are water held underground in the soil or in rock crevices, consists
largely of surface water that has seeped into the ground. On the other hand, surface
water are waters located on top of the Earth’s surface such as rivers, lakes, and
wetlands.

The Philippines has a total freshwater resources of 146.0 billion cubic meters, with
surface water accounting for 125.8 million cubic meter, and groundwater accounting
for 20.2 million cubic meter (NEDA, 2019). Table 1 shows the breakdown of freshwater
resources distribution per region in the Philippines.
Table 1. Water Balance in the Philippines, 2018 (Source: NWRB, 2019)

However, in spite of the country’s abundant water supply, the Philippines is already
considered water stress, with only 1,446 cubic meter of water available per person,
way below the threshold of 1,700 cubic meter per person annual water supply (NEDA
2019). As of 2018, the country has already 9 water-stressed cities: Metro Manila, Metro
Cebu, Bacolod City, Angeles City, Baguio City, Davao City, Cagayan de Oro City,
Zamboanga City, and Iloilo City (Figure 3).

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Figure 3. Map of Water Stress Cities, Philippines (NWRB, 2019) Table 2. Water Stress Political Regions,
Philippines (NWRB, 2019)

In 2013, the Department of Environment and Natural Resources Environmental

Management Bureau had classified 688 water bodies in the Philippines according to
their usage and water quality. There were 313 principal rivers, 301 minor rivers, 16
lakes, and 58 coastal and marine waters that were classified. The distribution of these
water bodies per region is presented in Figure 4.
Figure 4. Distribution of Classified Water Bodies in the Philippines (Source: EMB, 2013)

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A. Lakes

The word “lake” comes from an old French word “lac” and Latin word “lacus” meaning
“pool” or “basin”. Lakes are natural inland bodies of standing water (Guerrero, 1999).

Most of the lakes in the Philippines are formed through volcanic and tectonic activities.
However, some lakes are developed through the blockage of drainage courses due to
landslides, lava flows, and volcanic ejecta. According to Guerrero (1999), there are
three types of lakes in the country: tectonic lakes, kettle lakes, and maar lakes.
Tectonic lakes are the result of the deformation of land due to the lateral and vertical
movement of the earth’s crust. On the other hand, kettle lakes occupied the craters of
extinct volcanoes while maar lakes are formed through violent steam explosions of hot
magma coming in contact with shallow ground water.

There are 79 lakes (NWRB, 2019) in the country occupying a total area of 200,000
hectares (BFAR, 2018). These water bodies vary in area and depths. The largest lake
is Laguna de Bay situated between Laguna and Rizal provinces with a total area of
90,000 hectares, and is Southeast Asia’s third largest freshwater lake. The deepest
lake is Lake Pinatubo in Botolan, Zambales with a depth of 600 meters (Yang, et al,
2005), while the highest lake is Lake Bulalacao (Lake Ambulalacaw) in Mount Tabayoc
of Kabayan, Benguet with an altitude of 2,845 meters above sea level.

The area and location of lakes occupying more than 100 hectares is shown in Table 3.
Table 3. Area and Location of Major Lakes in the Philippines (BFAR, 2018)

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B. Rivers and River Basins

Rivers are natural streams of water flowing towards an ocean, sea, lake or
another river. In the Philippines, rivers occupy a total area of 31,000 hectares. The
longest river in the Philippines is Cagayan River, which has 505 kilometers in length.

On the other hand, river basins are areas of land flowed by a river and its tributaries.
There are 421 principal river basins, wherein 18 are major river basins, in 119
proclaimed watersheds in the country, with drainage areas that range from 40-25,000
square kilometer.

The river ecosystems are the most vulnerable among the freshwater ecosystems to
pollution due to their accessibility and proximity to urban and industrial centers.

Table 4 presented the river length and catchment areas of the 18 major river basins
while Figure 5 showed the location of these river basins.

Table 4. Length and Catchment Areas of Major River Basins Figure 5. Location Map of Major River Basins

Source: EMB, 2013 Source: EMB, 2013

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C. Swamps, Marshes, and Peatlands

Swamps and marshes are wetlands that are partially or intermittently covered with
water, and with woody vegetation. While the vegetation in swamps are predominantly
shrub and woody plants and trees, those in marshes are mostly grasses, reeds and
sedges. Marshes are also shallower than swamps. Both swamps and marshes served
as nursery grounds for fish.

On the other hand, peatlands are wetlands whose soils are made up of organic matter
called “peat” which are formed from dead and decaying materials that are waterlogged
and with low oxygen conditions. Peatlands act as carbon sink for greenhouse gases.

Swamplands in the Philippines has a total area of 246,063 hectares, where 106,328
hectares are freshwater and 139,735 hectares are brackishwater (BFAR, 2018).

The biggest freshwater swamp in the country is the Liguasan Marsh located in North
and South Cotabato provinces with 220,000 hectares, of which 30,000 hectares has
been declared as a game refuge and bird sanctuary.

The Candaba Swamp located in Bulacan and Pampanga provinces with 32,000
hectares is the biggest swamp in the Philippines. it is an important area where ducks
stay for winter, especially during the months of October and November when the
swamp is filled with thousands of migratory birds.

The Sab-a basin in Leyte and Agusan Marsh in Agusan del Sur are confirmed
peatlands in the country (DENR-PAWB, 2013).

Table 5. Major Swamps/Marshes in the Philippines (DENR-PAWB, 2013)

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D. Reservoirs

Reservoirs are man-made dams constructed primarily for irrigation and power
generation purposes. As of 2018, reservoirs in the Philippines has a total area of
19,000 hectares (BFAR, 2018).

As of 2017, there are 15 large dams in operation with a total water storage volume of
8.67 x 109 cubic meter (Hydropower.com). A dam is considered large when the storage
capacity exceeds 50 million cubic meter and the structural height is more than 30
meters (FAO, 2011). The reservoir capacity of large dams in the country is presented
in Table 6.
Table 6. Reservoir Capacity of Large Dams in the Philippines (FAO, 2011)
Name of Dam Location River Completed/ Dam Height Reservoir
Operational (meters) Capacity (MCM)

Caliraya Laguna Lumot - Caliraya 1949 90 12

Ambuklao Dam CAR Agno 1956 129 327
Binga Dam CAR Agno 1960 107 91
La Mesa NCR 51
Ipo III 36
Agus V Mindanao Agus 27.7*
Agus IV Mindanao Agus
Agus II Mindanao Agus
Angat Dam III Angat-Pampanga 1968 131 1,065
Masiway Nueva Ecija Upper Pampanga 1977 25 6
Pantabangan Dam III Pampanga 1977 107 2,310
Magat Dam II Magat-Cagayan 1983 114 1,250
Pulangi IV X Pulangi 1985 115 287
San Roque I Agno 2002 200 850

* - combined capacity of Agus II, Agus IV, and Agus V

E. Fishponds and Small Impoundments

Fishponds are reservoirs or artificial lakes built for growing fish and other aquatic
species. The fishponds water supply come from rivers, irrigation, and groundwater. As
of 2018, existing fishponds have a total area of 253,854 hectares, wherein 14,531
hectares are freshwater and 239,323 hectares are brackishwater (BFAR, 2018).

On the other hand, small water impoundments are dugout ponds or earthen dams
constructed for storing rainwater and for controlling flood and erosion in the uplands. It
has a height of 5 meters to a maximum of 15 meters and a service area of 25 hectares
to 150 hectares.

In the Philippines, there are 350 units of small water impoundments with an average
capacity of 270, 000 cubic meter, accounting for a total of 94.5 million cubic meter
(FAO, 2011). The small water impounding projects (SWIP) are managed by the Bureau
of Soils and Water Management, the National Irrigation Administration and the
Department of Agrarian Reform.

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III. USES OF FRESHWATER RESOURCES

A. Agriculture Water Use

The Philippines has a total agricultural land of 13.32 million hectares with an estimated
irrigable land of 3.13 million hectares, of which only 1.89 million hectares have irrigation
facilities as of 2017 (PSA, 2018). As of 2013, the agriculture sector consumed 70% of
the total water resources in the country (ADB, 2013), estimated to be around 67.753
million cubic meters (NWRB-JICA, 1998).

An irrigation facility (Photo: http://image.livemint.com)

B. Industrial Water Use

Industrial processes and industrial machines use large amounts of water. Processes
such as paper manufacturing, mining, textile production, and chemical pulping needed
an exclusive water source. Industries also utilizes water for purification methods in both
the supply and discharge of water. In 2013, the industrial sector consumed 20% of the
total water resources of the country (ADB, 2013), estimated to be around 9.054 million
cubic meters (NWRB-JICA, 1998).

An industrial facility (Photo: http://image.sustainablemfr.com)

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C. Domestic Use

Domestic water use refers to the everyday usage of water in the home, which include
drinking, hygiene, food preparation, laundry, washing dishes, watering the plants in the
lawns and gardens, and sanitation (waterencyclopedia.com).

In the Philippines, the domestic sector consumed 10% of the total water resources as
of 2013 (ADB, 2013), estimated to be around 6.597 million cubic meter (NWRBJICA,
1998). On average, a person needs 54 liters of water a day for drinking, hygiene,
sanitation, food preparation, and laundry. But in 2014, the actual water use by an
individual Filipino was pegged at 98 liters per person per day, almost double the
average amount of water consumption (PDI, 2016).
Figure 6. Filipino Families with Access to Safe Water by Region and Service Level, 2015 (NEDA, 2019)

Because of the problem of insufficient access to safe and potable water, the national
government put into effect the Sagana at Ligtas na Tubig Para sa Lahat (SALINTUBIG)
Project that aimed to deliver water supply facilities to the 455 waterless municipalities
and barangays, and to capacitate LGUs and service providers in planning and
operationalizing these water supply systems. The project was initially administered by
the National Anti-Poverty Commission in 2011, but was turned over to the Department
of Interior and Local Government in 2012.

Since the SALINTUBIG program begun, a total of 307 or 67% of the 455 municipalities
and 1,067 or 79% of the 1,353 barangays have graduated from being waterless as of
2018 (DILG, 2018).

As of 2018, there were also 24,993 registered water utilities in the Philippines as listed
in NWRB’s Listahang Tubig. Most of these utilities provide only water, while sanitation

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 is regarded as a private responsibility. Table 7 showed the distribution of registered
water utilities and the level of water infrastructures these utilities provide.
Table 7. Number of Water Utilities Registered per Level of Water Systems (NWRB, 2018)
Level of Water No. of Water Water Systems Description
Systems Utilities Registered
Level I 14,007 Stand-alone water points (e.g. hand
pumps, shallow wells, rainwater
collectors) that served an average of 15
households within a 250-meter distance
Level II 5,585 Piped water with a communal water
point (e.g. borewell, spring system) that
served an average of 4-6 households
within a 25-meter distance
Level III 5,401 Piped water supply with a private water
point (e.g. house connection) based on
a daily water demand of more than 100
liters per person
Total 24,993

D. Power Generation

Power generation also needs water. Hydroelectric power gets its energy from the force
of the continuously flowing water going downstream, controlling a turbine connected to
a generator. It is a low-cost, environmentally friendly, renewable energy source.
However, it requires the creation of a large artificial lake. The impact of water
withdrawal on the biodiversity of the artificial lake varies significantly depending on the
design of the powerplant.

The Philippines has a total installed capacity of about 22,728 MW, of which 3,627 MW
are hydropower. The renewables (hydro, solar, wind, geothermal and biomass)
generated a combined capacity of 23,183 GWh, which is equivalent to 24.6% of the
total generated capacity, in which hydropower constitutes 9,605 GWh.

In 2017, the Independent Power Producers (IPPs) generated 90,613 GWh or 96% of
the total output. The rest was produced by the National Power Corporation and other
off-grid generators.

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IV. ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

A. Land Use Conversion

Wetlands conversion into other land uses is one of the threats that the wetlands are
dealing with. Wetlands that are converted to aquaculture farms, resorts and
reclamation areas will lead to further destruction due to the indiscriminate use of
artificial feeds and overstocking (PAWB-DENR, 2005).

Currently, land use is regulated by local governments under the authority granted by
Section 20 of Republic Act 7160 (Local Government Code of 1991), and the Joint
Memorandum Circular No. 54-1995. These laws gave a city or municipality the
authority to reclassify lands when it is considered unfit for their original purpose or use.
The limits of reclassification are 15% of total land area for highly urbanized and
independent component cities, 10% for component cities and first to third class
municipalities, and 5% for fourth to sixth class municipalities.

B. Resources Use and Exploitation

Over fishing and over harvesting of freshwater products are two examples of
exploitation of freshwater resources. Deforestation causes the deterioration of 2.6
million hectares of critical watersheds in the Philippines (Paragas,___). Watersheds
are valuable not only because of its water resources, but also because of forests,
biodiversity, and other natural resources found therein.

The excessive withdrawal of groundwater also caused saline water intrusion, which
reduces the availability of water for domestic use (which includes drinking water) and
for agricultural use.

Greenpeace also reported that out of the 421 rivers in the Philippines, 50 are assessed
to be dead and unable to carry any but the most robust of life (Marrone, 2016).

C. Domestic, Industrial and Agricultural Pollution and Climate Change

Domestic, industrial and agricultural pollution could cause water quality problems such
as massive algal blooms and oxygen depletion (PAWB-DENR, 2005).

Groundwater in the Philippines are contaminated by leaching of industrial,

agrochemicals and animal wastes, discharges from latrines and septic tanks, and
intrusion of polluted urban run-off.

The three connected wetlands of Manila Bay, Laguna Lake and the Pasig River are
also dealing with drainage, run-off and sewerage problems around the Metropolitan
Manila Area (Mendoza, 2009).

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 The Agusan Marsh Wildlife Sanctuary is also affected by pollution coming from mining
operation upstream (PAWB-DENR, 2013).

Climate change has a large impact to wetlands as it can affect the ability of the
wetlands to provide its benefits. It can also lead to the reduction in the goods and
services provided by these wetlands (PAWB-DENR, 2013).

D. Fragmented Institutional Structure of the Water Sector

More than 30 government institutions are engaged in the management of the water
resources of the country. The mandates of these agencies deals with water quality and
quantity, water resources management, and water services. They have also varying
institutional functions which, in some cases, overlapped with each other. The multitude
of government actors in the water sector and the plurality of their mandates become a
serious political factor in getting things done and in policy decision-making.
Table 8. Agencies Involved in Philippine Water Resources Sector (NEDA, 2019)

E. Numerous and Conflicting Laws and Policies at the National and Local Levels

At the national level, there are 8 legal frameworks that regulated the water sector of
the country (Rola et al, 2015). These are the following:
(1) Presidential Decree 1067 (Water Code of 1976);
(2) Presidential Decree 198 (Provincial Water Utilities Act of 1973);
(3) Presidential Decree 522 (1974) prescribing sanitation requirements for the
travelling public;
(4) Republic Act 7586 (National Integrated Protected Area System Act of 1992);
(5) Republic Act 8041 (National Water Crisis Act of 1995);
(6) Republic Act 8371 (Indigenous Peoples Rights Act of 1997);

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 (7) Republic Act 9275 (Clean Water Act of 2004); and
(8) Republic Act 8435 (Agriculture and Fisheries Modernization Act).

At the local level, the LGUs governance function include monitoring the waterworks
facilities and water quality. However, the LGU officials’ decisions and areas of
intervention are limited and confined to the authorities at the national level, which cause
conflicts between the national and local water governance systems.

V. REFERENCES:
1) Asian Development Bank (ADB). 2013. Asian Water Development Outlook 2013.
2) Baconguis, Santiago R. Cabahug, Dexter M. Jr. Alonzo-Pasicolan, Simplicia N.
June 1, 1990. Identification and Inventory of Philippine Forested-Wetland
Resource. Forest Ecology and Management. Volumes 33–34. Philippines
3) Bureau of Agriculture and Fisheries Standards (BAFS). 2017. Philippine National
Standard: Rainwater and Runoff Management–Small Water Impounding System.
Philippines.
4) Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR). 2018. Philippine Fisheries
Profile 2018. Quezon City, Philippines.
5) CIA World Factbook. October 2020. Philippines Country Profile.
6) Department of Environment and Natural Resources-Environmental Management
Bureau (DENR-EMB). National Water Quality Status Report 2006-2013. Quezon
City, Philippines.
7) Department of Environment and Natural Resources-Protected Areas and Wildlife
Bureau (DENR-PAWB). 2013. The National Wetlands Action Plan for the
Philippines 2011-2016. Quezon City, Philippines.
8) Department of Interior and Local Government (DILG). 2018. DILG Annual Report
2018. Philippines.
9) Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). 2011. Aquastat Country Profile
Philippines.
10) Guerrero, Rafael D. Ill. 1999. Philippine Lakes: Status and Strategies for
Sustainable Development. Transactions of National Academy of Science and
Technology. Philippines.
11) Jimenez-David, Rina. April 15, 2016. El Nino and Water Use. Philippine Daily
Inquirer. Philippines.
12) Marrone, Rhonda. October 2, 2016. Water Pollution in the Philippines: Causes and
Solutions. Borgen Magazine.
13) Mendoza, M. 2009. National Report on Wetlands in South China Sea-Philippines,
Quezon City, Philippines. Department of Environment and Natural Resources
(DENR). Quezon City, Philippines.
14) National Water Resources Board (NWRB). 2019. National Water Summit.
Philippines.
15) National Water Resources Board (NWRB). 2018. Annual Report 2018. Quezon
City, Philippines.

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16) National Water Resources Board-Japan International Cooperating Agency
(NWRB-JICA). 1998. Master Plan Study on Water Resources Management in the
Philippines. Department of Public Works and Highways. Philippines.
17) Paragas, Vicente S. Manzano, Juanito A. Jr. and Cacanindin, Danilo C. ____. Land
Use Planning Strategies on Watershed Management and Disaster Reduction in
the Philippines. Energy and Wetlands Research. Indian Institute of Science. India
18) Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical, Astronomic Services Administration
(PAGASA). 2019. Philippines.
19) Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA). 2018. Agricultural Structure and Resources.
Report No. 2018-2. Philippines.
20) Rola, et.al. December 2015. Challenges of Water Governance in the Philippines.
Philippine Journal of Science. Vol. 144 No. 2. Philippines.
21) Sea Around Us website. 2016.
22) Sespeñe, Shemelyn M. Maniquiz-Redillas, Marla. Lee-Hyung Kim Yun-wook
Choo. August 2016. Characteristics, Threats and Management of Philippine
Wetlands. Journal of Wetlands Research Vol. 18, No. 3.
23) The International Journal on Hydropower and Dams. February 13, 2019.
Philippines Country Profile.
24) Water Encyclopedia.com. Uses of Water.
25) Yang, Pucai. Yokoyama, Noboru. Inque, Kimio. and Amino, Kousuke. 2005.
Preliminary Investigation of the Crater Lake Breach at Mt. Pinatubo, Philippines.
Journal of the Japan Society of Engineering Geology. Vol.46, No.5. Japan.

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