DEV PSYCH

Module 2:
Beginnings

This module focused on the foundation of the biological aspects of development. Biological processes,
guided by genes, influence an individual development in every period of the human life span. And how strongly
development is influence by heredity (nature) and the environment (nurture).

Lesson 1: The Evolutionary Perspective

Humans are relatively newcomers to earth in evolutionary time. As our earliest ancestors left
the forest to feed on the savannahs and then to form hunting societies on the open plains, their minds
and behaviour changed and they established humans as the dominant species on Earth.
Evolutionary perspective on life-span development includes:

1. Natural Selection and Adaptive Behaviour-Natural selection is an evolutionary process by which

those individuals of a species that are best adapted are the ones that survive and leave the most fit
offspring while Adaptive Behaviour promotes an organism’s survival in its natural habitat.
2. Evolutionary Psychology- emphasizes the importance of adaptation, reproduction and “survival of the
fittest” in shaping behaviour.

Lesson 2: Genetic Foundations of Development

Genetic influences on behaviour evolved over time across many species. The many traits and
characteristics that are genetically influenced have a long evolutionary history that is retained in our DNA
(Brooker & others,2018). Our DNA is not just inherited from our parents it includes what we inherited as a
species from other species that were our ancestors.

Genes that influence human development:

1. The Collaborative Gene-Short segments of DNA constitute genes, the units of hereditary information
that help cells to reproduce and manufacture proteins. Genes act collaboratively, not independently.

2. Genes and Chromosomes-Genes are passed on to new cells when chromosomes are duplicated
during the processes of mitosis and meiosis, which are two ways in which new cells are formed. 
Despite this transmission of genes from generation to generation, variability is created in several ways,
including through the exchange of chromosomal segments during meiosis, through mutations, and
through environmental influences.

3. Genetic Principles-Genetic principles include those involving dominant-recessive genes, sex-linked

genes, genetic imprinting, and polygenic inheritance.
 4. Chromosomal-Chromosomal abnormalities produce Down syndrome, which is caused by the
presence of an extra copy of chromosome 21.

Lesson 3: Reproductive Challenges and Choices

Meiosis, genetics and genetic abnormalities are a small part of the recent explosion of knowledge about
human biology. This knowledge not only helps us understand human development but also opens up many
new choices to prospective parents-choices that can also raise ethical questions.

Some important reproductive challenges and choices are:

1. Prenatal Diagnostic Tests-One choice open to prospective mothers is the extent to which they will
undergo prenatal testing. A number of tests can indicate whether a fetus is developing normally,
including ultrasound sonography, fetal MRI, chorionic villus sampling, amniocentesis, and maternal
blood screening.
2. Infertility and Reproductive Technology-Recent advances in biological knowledge have also opened
up many choices for infertile individuals (Dorfeshan & others, 2018; Liebermann, 2017; Florencio &
others, 2018; Silber, 2017). Approximately 10 to 15 percent of U.S. couples have infertility problems,
some of which can be corrected through surgery or fertility drugs. An additional option is in vitro
fertilization.
3. Adoption-A majority of adopted children adapt effectively. When adoption occurs very early in
development, the outcomes for the child are improved. Because of the dramatic changes that occurred
in adoption in recent decades, it is difficult to generalize about the average adopted child or average
adoptive family.

Lesson 4: Heredity-Environment Interaction: The Nature- Nurture Debate

Perhaps the most fundamental property of all living things is the ability to reproduce. All organisms
inherit genetic information specifying their structure and function from their parents. Likewise, all cells arise
from preexisting cells, so the genetic material must be replicated and passed from parent to progeny cell at
each cell division. How genetic information is replicated and transmitted from cell to cell and organism to
organism thus represents a question that is central to all of biology. Consequently, elucidation of the
mechanisms of genetic transmission and identification of the genetic material as DNA were discoveries that
formed the foundation of our current understanding of biology at the molecular level.

Behaviour Genetics-Behavior genetics is the field concerned with the influence of heredity and environment
on individual differences in human traits and development. Research methods used by behavior geneticists
include twin studies and adoption studies.

Heredity-Environment Correlations-In Scarr’s heredity-environment correlations view, heredity directs the

types of environments that children experience. She describes three genotype-environment correlations:
passive, evocative, and active (niche-picking). Scarr argues that the relative importance of these three
genotype-environment correlations changes as children develop.

The Epigenetic View and Gene-Environment Interaction-The epigenetic view emphasizes that development
is the result of an ongoing, bidirectional interchange between heredity and environment. Gene × environment
interaction involves the interaction of a specific measured variation in the DNA and a specific measured aspect
of the environment.

 Conclusions about Heredity-Environment Interaction-Behaviors are influenced by genes and

environments in a way that gives people a propensity for a particular developmental trajectory. The actual
development requires both genes and an environment, and that environment is complex
Lesson 5: Prenatal Development and Birth

At one time you were an organism floating in a sea of fluid in your mother’s womb. We will be exploring
what your development was like from the time you were conceived through the time you were born.

Prenatal Development includes:

The Course of Prenatal Development-Prenatal development is divided into three periods: germinal
(conception until 10 to 14 days later), embryonic (two to eight weeks after conception), and fetal (from two
months after conception until about nine months, or when the infant is born).

Teratology and Hazards to Prenatal Development-Teratology is the field of study that investigates the
causes of congenital (birth) defects. Any agent that causes birth defects is called a teratogen. While,
prescription drugs that can be harmful include antibiotics, Nonprescription drugs that can be harmful include
diet pills, aspirin, and caffeine. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders are a cluster of abnormalities that appear in
offspring of mothers who drink heavily during pregnancy. Cigarette smoking by pregnant women has serious
adverse effects on prenatal and child development, including low birth weight. Environmental hazards include
radiation, environmental pollutants, and toxic wastes. Syphilis, rubella (German measles), genital herpes, and
AIDS are infectious diseases that can harm the fetus.

Prenatal Care and Normal Prenatal Development-Prenatal care varies extensively but usually involves
health maintenance services with a defined schedule of visits. 

While you might think of child development as something that begins during infancy, the prenatal period is also
considered an important part of the developmental process. Prenatal development is a time of remarkable
change that helps set the stage for future psychological development. The brain develops throughout the
prenatal period, but it will continue to go through more changes during the early years of childhood

Germinal Stage (1-2 weeks)

This is the first two weeks of development. Soon after conception, the one-cell zygote begins to duplicate,
divide, and differentiate. Cell division continues at a rapid rate during the approximately week-long journey
from the fallopian tube to the uterus wall. The cells develop into what is known as a blastocyst. The blastocyst
is made up of three layers, each of which develops into different structures in the body

1. Ectoderm: Skin and nervous system

2. Endoderm: Digestive and respiratory systems
3. Mesoderm: Muscle and skeletal systems

Embryonic Stage (3-8 weeks)

This begins in the third week as the formless mass becomes a distinct being, now referred to as an embryo.
After five weeks, the arm and leg buds appear. Approximately four weeks after conception, the neural tube
forms. This tube will later develop into the central nervous system including the spinal cord and brain. The
neural tube begins to form along with an area known as the neural plate. The earliest signs of development of
the neural tube are the emergence of two ridges that form along each side of the neural plate. Over the next
few days, more ridges form and fold inward until a hollow tube is formed. Once this tube is fully formed, cells
begin to form near the center. The tube begins to close and brain vesicles form. These vesicles will eventually
develop into parts of the brain, including the structures of the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.
Fetal Stage (9-40 weeks)

Once cell differentiation is mostly complete, the embryo enters the next stage and becomes known as a fetus.
The fetal period of prenatal development marks more important changes in the brain. This period of
development begins during the ninth week and lasts until birth. This stage is marked by amazing change and
growth.

Other terminologies:

 Age of viability – the curial factor that the fetus needs to attain to survive
 Teratology – the study of birth defects
 Teratogens – include such substances or condition as viruses, drugs, chemicals,
stressors, and environmental hazards that can impair prenatal development and lead to birth defects,
even death.
 Behavioral Teratogens – teratogens that tried to harm the prenatal brain
 Threshold effect – for other teratogens there is a threshold effect, that is, the substance
is virtually harmless until exposure reaches a certain level. However, the interaction effect of teratogens
occurs when one teratogen intensifies the impact of one another.
 Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) – is the leading know prenatal cause of birth defects and
mental retardation.
 Apgar scale is used to assign a score of between 0 and 2 to the newborn’s heart rate,
breathing, muscle tone, color, and reflexes at one minute after birth and again at five minutes.
 Cesarean Section - a surgical operation for delivering a child by cutting through the wall
of the mother's abdomen.
 Postpartum Depression - Postpartum” means the time after childbirth. Most women get
the “baby blues,” or feel sad or empty, within a few days of giving birth. For many women, the baby blues
go away in 3 to 5 days. If your baby blues don't go away or you feel sad, hopeless, or empty for longer
than 2 weeks, you may have postpartum depression
 Low birth weight (LBW) is defined as a birth weight that is less than 5 ½ pounds (2,400
grams) Babies who weigh less 3 pounds, 3 ounces (1,500 grams) are classified as Very low birth weight
(VLBW), those who weigh less than 2 pounds. 3 ounces (900 grams) are classified as extremely low birth
weight (ELBW). Low birth weight infants who are born 3 or more weeks early are called preterm. Others,
born close to the due date but weighing less than most full-term newborns, are called small for
gestational age (SGA).

The quality of the birth experience depends on many factors, including the mother’s preparation for birth, the
physical and emotional support provided by others, the position and size of the fetus, and the cultural context.