DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

Chapter# 3:Prenatal Development

BY: SHUMAILA REHMAN

 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 Explain the prenatal development phases

 Explain the importance of genetics and environmental influences in
prenatal Development
 Discuss the impacts of maternal stress on prenatal development
 Discuss the impacts of maternal depression on prenatal development
 Prenatal Development

 Lecture#1: Prenatal development phases

 Lecture#2: Genetic influences in development
 Lecture#3: Prenatal environmental influences
 Lecture#1: Prenatal development phases

 Prenatal development
 Introduction
 Prenatal development phases
1. Germinal (Weeks 1–2)
2. Embryonic (Weeks 3–8)
3. Fetal (Weeks 9–40)
 INTRODUCTION

 Prenatal development is the process that occurs during the 40 weeks prior to
the birth of a child, and is heavily influenced by genetics. Every person is
made up of cells containing chromosomes, which are the genetic material
that determines many things about a person, such as eye and hair color,
biological sex, and personality traits.
Key Terms
 Chromosome: A structure in the cell nucleus that contains DNA, histone
protein, and other structural proteins.
 conception: The fertilization of an ovum by a sperm to form a zygote.
 Fertilization : sperm cell successfully meets an egg cell in the fallopian tube.
 embryo: An organism in the earlier stages of development; in humans, usually
the cell growth up to the end of the seventh week in utero.
 neural tube: A hollow longitudinal dorsal tube formed in the folding and
subsequent fusion of the opposite ectodermal folds in the embryo that gives
rise to the brain and spinal cord.
 zygote: A fertilized egg cell.
 Utero: the length of time that a fetus is in the uterus of the pregnant female.
 Prenatal Development

 Developmental psychologists consider the process of human

development as it relates to physical, cognitive, and
psychosocial development. This lifespan development is
organized into different stages based on age
 Prenatal development refers to the process in which a baby
develops from a single cell after conception into an embryo
and later a fetus.
 The average length of time for prenatal development to
complete is 38 weeks from the date of conception.
 During this time, a single-celled zygote develops in a series of
stages into a full-term baby.
Prenatal development phases
 Prenatal development phases

 There are three stages of prenatal development:

1. Germinal Stage (Weeks 1–2)
2. Embryonic Stage (Weeks 3–8) 
3. Fetal Stage (Weeks 9–40). 
 Germinal Stage (Weeks 1–2)

 A mother and father’s DNA is passed on to the child at the

moment of conception. Conception occurs when sperm
fertilizes an egg and forms a zygote
 At the moment of conception, the mother’s and father’s DNA are
passed on to; the genetic makeup and sex of the future fetus
are set at this point.
 During the first week after conception, the zygote rapidly
divides and multiplies, going from a one-cell structure to two
cells, then four cells, then eight cells, and so on. This process
of cell division is called mitosis.
 After 5 days of mitosis there are 100 cells, and after 9 months
there are billions of cells.
Germinal Stage (Weeks 1–2)
 Embryonic Stage (Weeks 3–8)

 During the first week of the embryonic period, the embryonic disk
separates into three layers: the ectoderm, mesoderm,
 and endoderm. 
1. The ectoderm is the layer that will become the nervous system
and outer skin layers.
2. the mesoderm will become the circulatory system, skeleton,
muscles, reproductive system, and inner layer of skin.
3. the endoderm will become the respiratory system and part of
the digestive system, as well as the urinary tract.
 The first part of the embryo to develop is the neural tube, which
will become the spinal cord and brain. As the nervous system
starts to develop, the tiny heart starts to pump blood, and other
parts of the body—such as the digestive tract and
backbone—begin to emerge. In the second half of this period,
growth is very rapid. The eyes, ears, nose, and jaw develop; the
heart develops chambers; and the intestines grow.
 Fetal Stage (Weeks 9–40)
 The remainder of prenatal development occurs during the fetal
stage, which lasts from week 9 until birth (usually between 38 and
40 weeks). When the organism is about nine weeks old, the
embryo is called a fetus. At this stage, the fetus is about the size
of a kidney bean and begins to take on the recognizable form of a
human being. Between 9 and 12 weeks, reflexes begin to appear
and the arm and legs start to move (those first movements won’t
be felt for a few weeks, however). During this same time, the sex
organs begin to differentiate. At about 16 weeks, the fetus is
approximately 4.5 inches long. Fingers and toes are fully
developed, and fingerprints are visible. By the time the fetus
reaches the sixth month of development (24 weeks), it weighs up
to 1.4 pounds. Hearing has developed, so the fetus can respond to
sounds. The internal organs, including the lungs, heart, stomach,
and intestines, have formed enough that a fetus born prematurely
at this point has a chance to survive outside of the womb.
 Fetal Stage (Weeks 9–40)


 LECTURE#2
Lecture#2
Genetic influences in development
 Genetic influences in development
 Introduction
 Gene Expression
 Genetic Abnormalities
 Sex Chromosome Abnormalities
 Down Syndrome
 Genetic influences in development

 At its very beginning, the development of a child starts when

the male reproductive cell, or sperm, penetrates the protective
outer membrane of the female reproductive cell, or ovum. The
sperm and ovum each contain chromosomes that act as a
blueprint for human life.
 The genes contained in these chromosomes are made up of a
chemical structure known as DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) that
contains the genetic code, or instructions, that make up all life.
Except for the sperm and ova, all cells in the body contain 46
chromosomes.
 As you might guess, the sperm and ova each contain only
contain 23 chromosomes. This ensures that when the two cells
meet, the resulting new organism has the correct 46
chromosomes.
 Gene Expression

Gene is expressed depends on two different things:

 the interaction of the gene with other genes
 The continual interaction between the genotype and the
environment.
 Genetic Interactions
 Genes can sometimes contain conflicting information, and in
most cases, one gene will win the battle for dominance.
Some genes act in an additive way.
 For example, if a child has one tall parent and one short
parent, the child may end up splitting the difference by being
of average height. In other cases, some genes follow a
dominant-recessive pattern.
 Eye color is one example of dominant-recessive genes at
work. The gene for brown eyes is dominant and the gene for
blue eyes is recessive. If one parent hands down a dominant
brown eye gene while the other parent hands down a
recessive blue eye gene, the dominant gene will win out and
the child will have brown eyes.
 Gene-Environment Interactions
 The environment a child is exposed to both in utero and
throughout the rest of his or her life can also impact how
genes are expressed.
 For example, exposure to harmful drugs while in utero can
have a dramatic impact on later child development. Height is
a good example of a genetic trait that can be influenced by
environmental factors. While a child's genetic code may
provide instructions for tallness, the expression of this
height might be suppressed if the child has poor nutrition or
chronic illness.
 Genetic Abnormalities
 Genetic instructions are not infallible and can go off track at
times. Sometimes when a sperm or ovum is formed, the
number of chromosomes may divide unevenly, causing the
organism to have more or less than the normal 23
chromosomes. When one of these abnormal cells joins with a
normal cell, the resulting zygote will have an uneven number
of chromosomes.
 Researchers suggest that as many as half of all zygotes that
form have more or less than 23 chromosomes, but most of
these are spontaneously aborted and never develop into a
full-term baby.
 In some cases, babies are born with an abnormal number of
chromosomes. In every case, the result is some type of
syndrome with a set of distinguishing characteristics.
 Sex Chromosome Abnormalities
 The vast majority of newborns, both boys and girls, have at
least one X chromosome.
 In some cases, about in every 500 births, children are born
with either a missing X chromosome or an additional sex
chromosome, examples of abnormalities involving the sex
chromosomes.
 Klinefelter syndrome
 Fragile X syndrome
 Turner syndrome
 Sex Chromosome Abnormalities

 Kleinfelter's syndrome is caused by an extra X chromosome and is

characterized by a lack of development of the secondary sex
characteristics and as well as learning disabilities.
5

 Fragile X syndrome is caused when part of the X chromosome is

attached to the other chromosomes by such a thin string of
molecules that it seems in danger of breaking off. It can affect both
males and females, but the impact can vary. Some with Fragile X
show few if any signs, while others develop mild to severe
intellectual disability.
6

 Turner syndrome occurs when only one sex chromosome (the X

chromosome) is present. It affects only females and can result in
short stature, a "webbed" neck, and a lack of secondary sex
characteristics. Psychological impairments associated with Turner
syndrome include learning disabilities and difficulty recognizing
emotions conveyed through
 Down Syndrome

 The most common type of chromosomal disorder is known as

Down syndrome. In this case, the child has three chromosomes
at the site of the 21st chromosomes instead of the normal two.
 Down syndrome is characterized by facial characteristics
including a round face, slanted eyes, and a thick tongue.
 Individuals with Down syndrome may also face other physical
problems including heart defects and hearing problems.
 Nearly all individuals with Down syndrome experience some
type of intellectual impairment, but the exact severity can vary
dramatically.
 Lecture#3
Prenatal environmental influences
 Prenatal environmental influences
 Introduction
 Teratogens that affect prenatal development
 Maternal Stress
 Maternal Depression
 Conclusion
 Prenatal environmental influences
 During prenatal development, environmental factors can significantly
affect the development of the child. Most everything the mother
ingests, including food, liquid, and even medication, travels through
the placenta to the fetus; anything the mother is exposed to in the
environment affects the fetus.
 Key Terms
 sudden infant death syndrome: The sudden and unexplained death of
an infant aged one month to one year, normally while sleeping.
 fetal alcohol syndrome: Any of a spectrum of birth defects that
result from excessive alcohol consumption by the mother during
pregnancy.
 teratogen: Any agent or substance which can cause malformation of
an embryo or birth defects.
 zygote: A fertilized egg cell.
 placenta: A vascular organ in mammals, present only in the female
during gestation, that supplies food and oxygen from the mother to
the fetus and passes back waste.
 Prenatal environmental influences
 During each prenatal stage, environmental factors affect the
development of the fetus.
 The developing fetus is completely dependent on the mother for
life, and it is important that the mother receives prenatal care,
which is medical care during pregnancy that monitors the health
of both the mother and the fetus.
 When the zygote attaches to the wall of the uterus, the placenta
is formed. The placenta provides nourishment and oxygen to the
fetus. Most everything the mother ingests, including food, liquid,
and even medication, travels through the placenta to the
fetus—hence the common phrase that a mother “eats for two.”
Anything the mother is exposed to in the environment affects the
fetus; if the mother is exposed to something harmful, the child
can show life-long effects.
 Teratogens

 A teratogen is any environmental substance or

agent—biological, chemical, or physical—that can have a
detrimental effect on a developing fetus. Exposure to
teratogens during the prenatal stage can significantly raise
the risk of birth defects.
 Teratogens that affect prenatal
development

 There are several known teratogens that expectant mothers are

advised to avoid during pregnancy, including alcohol, prescription
and/or illegal drugs, and tobacco.
Alcohol and most drugs cross the placenta and affect the fetus.
Alcohol use during pregnancy has been found to be the leading
preventable cause of mental disabilities in children
Prescription and/or Illegal Drugs: use of any type of drug—whether
illegal, prescription, or over-the-counter—can be dangerous during
pregnancy. Illegal drugs such as heroine, cocaine, and
methamphetamine can cause a myriad of problems for the developing
fetus: babies can be born addicted to certain drugs and are also more
likely to be born prematurely.
Smoking tobacco is also considered a teratogen because nicotine
travels through the placenta to the fetus. When the mother smokes,
the developing baby experiences a reduction in blood oxygen levels.
 Maternal Stress
 prenatal stress felt by the mother can have negative effects
on various aspects of fetal development, and can cause harm
to both mother and child. When a mother is under stress,
physiological changes occur in the body that could harm the
developing fetus.
  When a mother is under stress, physiological changes occur
in the body that could harm the developing fetus.
 Maternal Depression
 Prenatal depression is often caused by the stress and worry
that pregnancy can bring, only at a more severe level. Other
factors that can put a person at risk for prenatal depression
include unplanned pregnancy, difficulty becoming pregnant,
history of abuse, and economic or family problems.
 Depression itself is independently associated with negative
pregnancy outcomes. Negative consequences of a mother
going off prescription antidepressants during pregnancy,
which may adversely effect her health in other ways.
 Conclusion

 genetic influences have an enormous influence on how a child

develops.
 Genetics is just one piece of the intricate puzzle that makes
up a child's life.
 Environmental variables including parenting, culture,
education, and social relationships also play a vital role.
 References
 Slater, A., & Bremner, J. G. (2011). An introduction to
developmental psychology. Chichester, West Sussex: British
Psychological Society and Blackwell Pub.
 Gillibrand, R., Lam, V., & Donnell, V. L. (2016). Developmental
psychology, Second edition. Pearson Education Limited Pub.
Thank you