CHILD PSYCHOLOGY (EDEP 7605)

THE BIOLOGICAL
FOUNDATIONS
OF DEVELOPMENT

❏ Nor Najatul Simaa bt Mohtar Rudin G 1817956

❏ Mariani binti Ahmad Basri G 1818226

❏ Mohd Hasyrie Rusydi bin Kamaruzaman G 1816571

Introduction
❏ The video shown stimulate us to think about our
genetic heritage and the biological foundations of our
existence.
❏ However, organisms are not like billiard balls, moved
by simple external forces to predictable positions on
life’s table.
❏ Environmental experiences and biological foundations
work together to make us who we are.

HUMAN = BIOLOGICAL FOUDATIONS + ENVIRONMENTAL EXPERIENCES

 CHAPTER OUTLINE

1. The Evolutionary Perspective

2. Genetics Foundations of Development
3. Reproductive Challenges and Choices
4. Heredity and Environment Interaction :
The Nature-Nurture Debate
 NATURAL ● Darwin’s
SELECTION observation
AND ADAPTIVE ● All organism
must adapt in
BEHAVIOR life

THE EVOLUTIONARY
PERSPECTIVE

EVOLUTIONARY
PSYCHOLOGY
Natural Selection and Adaptive Behavior
The evolutionary process by which those
NATURAL SELECTION individuals of a species that best adapted are the
ones
 Behavior that promotes an organism’s survival in
ADAPTIVE BEHAVIOR
the natural habitat.

example

attachment between a caregiver and a baby

ensures the infant’s closeness to a caregiver for
feeding and protection from danger, thus increasing
the infant’s chances of survival.
Evolutionary Psychology

● Emphasizes adaptation, reproduction, and survival of the

fittest in shaping behavior.

● Evolutions explains human physical features and

behaviors .
 Multiple
Evolutionary Natural Selection
Forces Underlie Applies to
All Human Behavior.
Behavior.
5
foundational
concepts
in
evolutionary
psychology.
The Importance
of Human
Strategic
Universals.
Pluralism.

Evolutionary
Mismatch.
Evolutionary Developmental Psychology
Evolutionary developmental psychology was defined by
Bjorklund and Pellegrini (2002) as:

“the study of the genetic and environmental mechanisms that

underlie the universal development of social and cognitive
competencies and the evolved epigenetic (gene-environment
interactions) processes that adapt these competencies to local
conditions; it assumes that not only are behaviors and cognitions that
characterize adults the product of selection pressures operating over
the course of evolution, but so also are characteristics of children's
behaviors and minds.”
- extended childhood period might have evolved because humans require time to develop a
large brain and learn the complexity of human societies. Humans take longer to become
reproductively mature than any other mammal (see Figure 2.1). During this extended
childhood period, they develop a large brain and have the experiences needed to become
competent adults in a complex society.
 Evaluating Evolutionary Psychology

Albert Bandura Acknowledges the important influence of evolution on

(The Social Cognitive Theorist human adaptation

however

● He rejects the ‘one sided evolutionism’- which sees social

behavior as strictly the product of evolved biology
● An alternative is a bidirectional view - environmental and
biological conditions influence each others.
 The
Collaborative Genetic
Gene Principles

GENETIC
FOUNDATIONS
OF
DEVELOPMENT

Cromosomal
Genes and and Gene -
Chromosome Liked
Abnormalities
 THE COLLABORATIVE GENE

● DNA : Deoxyrebonucleic Acid

● Chromosomes - Threadlike
structure
● Genes - Units of hereditary
Cell, Chromosomes, Genes and DNA
● Mitosis : Cell nucleus duplicates
● Meiosis : Cell division forms gametes
● Fertilization : Egg and sperm form zygote.
- Genetic variability in the population
- X and Y chromosomes determine sex.
● Genes and chromosomes :
- Identical and fraternal twins
- Mutated gene
- Genotype - All of one’s genetic make up
- Phenotype - Observable characteristics
 THE COLLABORATIVE GENE
one gene of a pair always exerts its effects; it is
Dominant - Recessive
dominant, overriding the potential influence of the
Genes Principle
other gene, called the recessive gene.

● a trait in which a gene is located on a sex

Sex-Linked Genes chromosome. In humans, the term generally
refers to traits that are influenced by genes on
the X chromosome.
● In a sex-linked disease, it is usually males who
are affected because they have a single copy
of X chromosome that carries the mutation. In
females, the effect of the mutation may be
masked by the second healthy copy of the X
chromosome.
Sex-Linked Genes

Example :
 THE COLLABORATIVE GENE

Genetic Imprinting ● occurs occurs when genes have differing

effects depending on whether they are inherited
from the mother or the father
● Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome, a growth
disorder, and Wilms tumor,

● Most characteristics determined by the

Polygenic Inheritance interaction of many different genes - which
called polygenically determined
● Eg : Height - reflect the interaction of many
genes
 CHROMOSOMAL AND GENE - LINKED
ABNORMALITIES
Chromosomal Abnormalities
Gene - Linked Abnormalities
 Dealing with Genetic Abnormalities

● Genes are not destiny - but genes that are missing, non -
functional, or mutated can be associated with disorders.

● Identifying the flaws genes - full genome analysis

● Doctors can predict an individual’s risks
● Doctors recommend healthy practices, and prescribe the
safest and effective drugs
Reproductive
Challenges & Choices
Some important reproductive
challenges and choices

I.Prenatal diagnostics tests

II.Infertility and reproductive biology
III.Adoption
 Prenatal Diagnostics Tests
1. Ultrasound Sonography 2. Fetal MRI

3. Chorionic Villus Sampling 4. Amniocentesis

5. Maternal Blood Screening 6. Noninvasive Prenatal Diagnosis (NIPD)

7. Fetal Sex Determination

 Prenatal Diagnostics Tests
Ultrasound Sonography
An ultrasound test is often conducted
seven weeks into a pregnancy and at
various times later in pregnancy.
Ultrasound sonography is a prenatal
medical procedure in which high-
frequency sound waves are directed
into the pregnant woman’s abdomen
(Chitty & others, 2013).
Fetal MRI
MRI, which stands for magnetic
resonance imaging, uses a powerful
magnet and radio images to
generate detailed images of the
body’s organs and structure.
Currently, ultrasound is still the first
choice in fetal screening, but fetal
MRI can provide more detailed
images than ultrasound. In many
instances, ultrasound will indicate a
possible abnormality and then fetal
MRI will be used to obtain a clearer,
more detailed image (Koeblinger &
others, 2013).
A 6-month-old infant poses with the ultrasound
sonography record taken four months into the
baby’s prenatal development. What is
ultrasound sonography?

A FETAL MRI, WHICH IS INCREASINGLY

BEING USED IN PRENATAL DIAGNOSIS OF
FETAL MALFORMATIONS
 Prenatal Diagnostics Tests
Chorionic Villus Sampling
At some point between 9.5 and 12.5 weeks
of pregnancy, chorionic villus sampling may
be used to detect genetic defects and
chromosomal abnormalities, such as the
ones discussed in the previous section
(Bauland & others, 2012). Diagnosis takes
approximately 10 days. Chorionic villus
sampling ( CVS) is a prenatal medical
procedure in which a small sample of the
placenta (the vascular organ that links the
fetus to the mother’s uterus) is removed
(Akolekar & others, 2011). There is a small
risk of limb deformity when CVS is used.
Amniocentesis
Amniocentesis is a prenatal medical
procedure in which a sample of
amniotic fluid is withdrawn by syringe
and tested for chromosomal or
metabolic disorders (Athanasiadis &
others 2011). The amniotic fluid is
found within the amnion, a thin sac in
which the embryo is suspended.
Ultrasound sonography is oft en used
during amniocentesis so that the syringe
can be placed precisely.
 Prenatal Diagnostics Tests
uMaternal Blood Screening
Maternal blood screening identifies
pregnancies that have an elevated risk for
birth defects such as spina bifida (a defect
in the spinal cord) and Down syndrome
(Ballard, 2011). The current blood test is
called the triple screen because it
measures three substances in the mother’s
blood. After an abnormal triple screen
result, the next step is usually an
ultrasound examination. If an ultrasound
does not explain the abnormal triple
screen results, amniocentesis is typically
used.
Noninvasive Prenatal Diagnosis (NIPD)
NIPD has mainly focused on brain imaging
techniques, the isolation and examination of
fetal cells circulating in the mother’s blood,
and analysis of cell-free fetal DNA in
maternal plasma (Geaghan, 2012; Papasavva
& others, 2013). Researchers already have
used NIPD to successfully test for genes
inherited from a father that cause cystic
fibrosis and Huntington’s disease.
 Prenatal Diagnostics Tests
Fetal Sex Determination

Chorionic villus sampling has oft en been used to determine the sex of
the fetus at some point between 11 and 13 weeks of gestation. Recently,
though, some noninvasive techniques have been able to detect the sex of
the fetus at an earlier point (Kolialexi, 2012; Moise & others, 2013). A
recent metaanalysis of studies confi rmed that a baby’s sex can be
detected as early as 7 weeks into pregnancy (Devaney & others, 2011).
Being able to detect an off spring’s sex as well as the presence of various
diseases and defects at such an early stage raises ethical concerns about
couples’ motivation to terminate a pregnancy (Lewis & others, 2012).
Infertility and Reproductive Technology

● In United States, more than 2 million couples seek help for infertility every
year.
● In some cases of infertility, surgery may correct the cause.
● In others; hormone-based drugs may improve the probability of having a
child.
● By far the most common technique used is In Vitro Fertilization (IVF), in
which eggs and sperm are combined in a laboratory dish.
A technician using a micro-needle to
inject human sperm into a human egg
cell as part of an in vitro fertilization
procedure.
The injected sperm fertilizes the egg,
and the resulting zygote is then grown
in the laboratory until it reaches an
early stage of embryonic development.
Then it is implanted in the uterus.
 Adoption
● Although surgery and fertility drugs can sometimes solve the infertility
problem, another choice is to adopt a child (Baldwin, 2011; Scott,
Roberts, & Glennen, 2011).

● Adoption is the social and legal process by which a parent-child

relationship is established between persons unrelated at birth.

● Children who are adopted very early in their lives are more likely to
have positive outcomes than children adopted later in life (Bernard &
Dozier, 2008).
An increasing number of Hollywood celebrities are
adopting children from developing countries.
Actress Angelina Jolie ( above ) carries her
adopted daughter Zahara with adopted sons
Maddox and Pax walking beside them.
 Parenting Adopted Children
● Infancy
Researchers have found few differences
in the attachment that adopted and
non-adopted infants form with their
parents.
Can become problematic if parents
have unresolved fertility issues or the
child does not meet the parents’
expectations
● Early childhood
Some parents (although not as many as in
the past) decide not to tell their children
about the adoption. This secrecy may
create psychological risks for the child if
he or she later finds out about the
adoption.
 ● Middle and late childhood
As they grow older, children may
develop mixed feelings about being
adopted and question their adoptive
parents’ explanations. It is
important for adoptive parents to
recognize that this ambivalence is
normal.
● Adolescence
Adolescents are likely to develop more
abstract and logical thinking processes,
to focus their attention on their bodies,
and to search for an identity.
As they explore their identity, adopted
adolescents may have difficulty
incorporating their adopted status into
their identity in positive ways.
What are some strategies for
parenting adopted children at
different points in their
development?
 Heredity and Environment
Interaction :
The Nature-Nurture Debate
 Nature VS Nurture
•The nature-nurture issue involves the debate about whether
development is primarily influenced by nature or by nurture.
• Nature refers to an organism’s biological inheritance,
•Nurture to its environmental experiences.
•Almost no one today argues that development can be
explained by nature alone or by nurture alone.
●In line with the concept of a collaborative gene, Gilbert Gottlieb (2007) emphasizes
the epigenetic view, which states that development is the result of an ongoing,
bidirectional interchange between heredity and the environment

●A baby inherits genes from both parents at conception. During prenatal development,
toxins, nutrition, and stress can influence some genes to stop functioning while others
become stronger or weaker.

●During infancy, environmental experiences such as toxins, nutrition, stress, learning,

and encouragement continue to modify genetic activity and the activity of the nervous
system that directly underlies behavior.

●Heredity and environment operate together—or collaborate—to produce a person’s

intelligence, temperament, height, weight, ability to pitch a baseball, ability to read,
and so on (Gottlieb, 2007; Lickliter, 2013; Meaney, 2010; Moore, 2013).
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qcGgfBYiwX0
Nature VS Nurture
 REFERENCES
● Santrock, J. W. (2013). Child Development (14th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.
● Darwin, evolution, & natural selection. (2012).
https://Www.Khanacademy.Org/Science/Biology/Her/Evolution-and-Natural-Selection/a
/Darwin-Evolution-Natural-Selection
● Geher, G. (2014). Evolutionary Psychology 101 (Psych 101). Springer Publishing Company.