Journal of Avian Medicine and Surgery 24(3):174–184, 2010

’ 2010 by the Association of Avian Veterinarians

Avian Vascular Imaging: A Review

Hugues Beaufrère, Dr Med Vet, Romain Pariaut, Dr Med Vet, Dipl ACVIM, Dipl
ECVIM-CA, Daniel Rodriguez, MVZ Esp, Dipl ACVR,
and Thomas N. Tully, DVM, MS, Dipl ABVP (Avian), Dipl ECZM

Abstract: Vascular diseases in birds are not uncommon, according to findings from
postmortem surveys. Although atherosclerosis affecting psittacine birds appears overrepresent-
ed, some degenerative, infectious, neoplastic, and congenital vascular diseases may also occur. A
variety of imaging diagnostic tools may be used to evaluate the avian vascular system, such as
conventional radiography, fluoroscopy, rigid endoscopy, computed tomography, angiography,
transcoelomic, and transesophageal ultrasound examination. The wide array of current
diagnostic imaging tools offers the clinician capabilities to investigate avian cardiovascular
abnormalities. Further research in this domain and constant efforts to apply several, and newer,
vascular imaging modalities in clinical cases are needed to expand our avian cardiovascular
knowledge base. The ability to diagnose vascular pathologic processes in small avian patients
may be improved by recent developments in diagnostic imaging technology.
Key words: vascular imaging, angiography, diagnostic imaging, radiology, ultrasound,
echocardiography, endoscopy, avian

Introduction Avian vascular diseases

Cardiovascular diseases are common in avian
species.1–5 Diagnostic imaging of the cardiovas-
cular system is complicated by the small size of
the patients, the fast heart rates of birds, the
presence of air sacs, and the presence of the keel
bone. The recognition of a high incidence of
atherosclerosis in birds1,2,6,7 has generated an
interest in developing imaging modalities that
will help identify lesions antemortem. Tech-
niques have been developed to image the avian
heart, but avian vascular imaging, itself, is still
in its infancy. This article reviews the vascular
diseases that have been documented in birds and
the diagnostic imaging techniques that have
been investigated in these species. We hope to
stimulate the much-needed research in this field
to develop current and future applications of
avian vascular imaging modalities.
From the Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences,
School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University,
Skip Bertman Dr, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA.
Although birds may present with a variety of
vascular conditions, atherosclerosis is the most
common vascular disease encountered in birds
from various orders (ie, Psittaciformes, Accipi-
triformes, Falconiformes, Coraciiformes, Bucer-
otiformes, Struthioniformes, Galliformes, and
Columbiformes).5 Atherosclerosis is characterized
by calcification, lipid retention, proteolytic injury,
and a chronic inflammatory response of the
arterial wall, resulting in a loss of arterial
elasticity, a risk of atherosclerotic plaque rupture,
or a narrowing of the vessel lumen.1,8 The disease
is well described in captive birds and has
similarities to human atherosclerosis in that it is
more prevalent in aging individuals fed an
unbalanced diet.1 Atherosclerosis has been re-
ported in many birds in the Psittaciformes order,
including Amazon parrots (Amazona species),
African grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus), macaws
(Ara species), and cockatoos (Cacatua species).1
Anecdotally, the disease was diagnosed in several
avian species that were maintained in zoological
collections.4,5,7 In psittaciform species, the report-
ed incidence of atherosclerosis from recent

174
 BEAUFRÈRE ET AL—AVIAN VASCULAR IMAGING
postmortem surveys2,6,9,10 varies between 4.6% to
91%. In pathologic studies of psittacine birds in
Europe, a high incidence of atherosclerosis has
been reported, with an approximately 91%
incidence in African grey and Amazon parrots
in one study and 13% in psittacine birds in
another study.2,6 This contrasts with the reported
incidence in North America of 4.6% and lower.7,10
These differences may be the result of different
environmental and nutritional factors as well as
different histopathologic criteria. In one study,7
atherosclerosis was considered significant enough
to be the cause of death in 26% of the affected
birds. In birds submitted for necropsy from a
zoologic collection, 13.3% of birds with cardio-
vascular lesions had evidence of atherosclerosis.4
Additionally, cardiac complications, such as
congestive heart failure, are frequently reported
in clinical cases of atherosclerosis involving avian
species.11–15 Several avian models have also been
used to investigate cardiovascular disease, includ-
ing Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica), pigeons
(Columba livia), chickens, and turkeys.16 Birds
develop a central form of atherosclerosis, with the
great vessels at the base of the heart being the
primary site of pathologic lesions.1,5,9 Atheroscle-
rosis of the coronary, carotid, and other periph-
eral arteries has rarely been documented in avian
species.17–19
Among other vascular diseases reported in
birds, arterial aneurysm, which may be described
as a focal, blood-filled dilation of the arterial wall
communicating with the arterial lumen, has been
documented in various locations. The underlying
cause of arterial aneurysms may be a weakened
arterial wall or a local disruption of the artery of
origin, which in either case may rupture.20,21
Examples of aneurysms diagnosed in avian
species include a coronary aneurysm identified
in an umbrella cockatoo (Cacatua alba),18 which
apparently developed secondary to atherosclero-
sis, and a mycotic aortic aneurysm in a wild,
female eider duck (Somateria mollissima).22 Aortic
aneurysms are also found occasionally in poultry,
specifically chickens and turkeys, and anecdotally
in ostriches (Struthio camelus).21,23 In turkeys,
aortic aneurysms may develop as a consequence
of aortic atherosclerosis leading to aortic dissec-
tion.24 Copper deficiency has also been suggested
as a cause of dissecting aneurysm and is
considered rare in birds other than turkeys.21,23
Acute ischemic stroke is occasionally seen in
parrots.19 Causes are uncertain but atherosclero-
sis, arterial thromboembolism, or systemic hyper-
tension, as seen in humans, are suspected. One
175
case25 was reported in a yellow-naped Amazon
parrot (Amazona auropalliata) and was associated
with cerebral hemorrhage diagnosed by computed
tomography (CT) scan. Another case26 was
diagnosed and followed by serial magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) in an African grey
parrot.
Vasculitis is relatively uncommon in birds and
is usually associated with a systemic, infectious
process. Vasculitis has occasionally been report-
ed, with Mycobacterium species and Aspergillus
species being identified as the underlying etiologic
organisms.21 Mycobacterial granulomatous arter-
itis is infrequent and has been diagnosed as
primarily affecting the major and coronary
arteries in 6 psittacine birds (budgerigar [Melop-
sittacus undulatus], cockatiel [Nymphicus hollandi-
cus], Moluccan cockatoo [Cacatua moluccensis],
grey-cheek parakeet [Brotogeris pyrrhopterus],
white-capped pionus [Pionus senilis], and rosella
[Platycercus species]).27 Aspergillus species often
colonize the vasculature adjacent to air sac
lesions, which may lead to thrombosis and
emboli.21 Filarioid worms have also been de-
scribed in the great vessels, particularly in the
pulmonary arteries and aorta, of various avian
species. These include filaria of the genus
Splendidofilaria (Anatidae, American crow [Cor-
vus brachyrhynchos]; black-billed magpie [Pica
pica]; and house sparrow [Passer domesticus]),
Sarconema (Anatidae), Paronchocerca (Ciconii-
dae, Odontophoridae), Cardiofilaria (Cacatuidae,
birds of prey), and Chandlerella (Cacatuidae,
Corvidae).28
Vascular tumors are relatively rare in birds.
Although hemangiomas and hemangiosarcoma
are more common in their cutaneous form, they
can also develop on the main arteries. A
hemangiosarcoma arising from the right internal
carotid was diagnosed in a double yellow-headed
Amazon parrot (Amazona ochrocephala oratrix).29
A retrovirus, the avian hemangioma virus, has
been reported to induce multifocal vascular
tumors in chickens.30
Reports of congenital vascular diseases are
scarce in birds. A ventricular septal defect,
diagnosed in an umbrella cockatoo and in a
Moluccan cockatoo, was associated with persis-
tent truncus arteriosus in the first case and with
aortic hypoplasia in the second.31 In these 2 cases,
the diagnosis was obtained by transcoelomic
echocardiography and confirmed at necropsy.
Ventricular septal defects have also been docu-
mented in chickens, turkeys, and in a tundra swan
(Cygnus columbianus).32–34
176 JOURNAL OF AVIAN MEDICINE AND SURGERY
Figure 1. Ventral view of the heart and major arteries
in situ in a Hispaniolan Amazon parrot (Amazona
ventralis). 1, right brachiocephalic trunk; 2, left
brachiocephalic trunk; 3, ascending aorta; 4, pulmo-
nary arteries; 5, carotid arteries; 6, brachial artery.
Other vascular diseases that may have signifi-
cant health implications, but are poorly charac-
terized in birds, are systemic hypertension and
arterial thromboembolism.
Diagnosis of vascular diseases
Currently, little information is available re-
garding the diagnosis, treatment, and manage-
Figure 2. Lateral radiographic view on a palm cockatoo (Probosciger aterrimus) positioned in right lateral
recumbency. 1, brachiocephalic trunks; 2, aorta; 3, pulmonary arteries; 4, pulmonary veins.
ment of avian vascular diseases. Specifically, the
diagnosis of atherosclerosis remains challenging.
Antemortem diagnosis of atherosclerosis is pri-
marily obtained in advanced cases, with severe
calcification of the arteries, or in association with
congestive heart failure.11,14,35 A better knowledge
and use of current and advanced imaging
techniques to assess avian blood vessels may help
in early diagnosis of avian vasculopathy in
general and atherosclerosis in particular.
Vascular diseases target the major arteries in
birds and, fortunately, these arteries are the most
accessible to diagnostic imaging. The blood
vessels that are readily visible on imaging include
the 2 brachiocephalic trunks, which are the largest
arteries in most birds; the ascending aorta, which
arises from the right brachiocephalic trunk; the
abdominal aorta; the 2 pulmonary arteries and
veins; and the 2 carotid arteries that start from the
brachiocephalic trunks (Fig 1). Occasionally, the
jugular veins, cranial and caudal vena cava,
mesenteric artery, and some visceral arteries
may also be visualized.
Radiography: Radiographs are often one of
the first diagnostic tests performed in the avian
patient. The central arteries can usually be well
visualized and delineated (Figs 2 and 3). The
brachiocephalic trunks, aorta, pulmonary arter-
ies, and the pulmonary veins can usually be
localized. On the ventrodorsal view, the ascend-
ing aorta can be visualized on the right of the
midline (Fig 3). Central vessels are more con-
spicuous in large birds and in birds with
hyperinflated air sacs. Radiographs are a rela-
tively insensitive method of detecting vascular
diseases, but significant calcification of the great
 BEAUFRÈRE ET AL—AVIAN VASCULAR IMAGING
Figure 3. Ventrodorsal radiographic view on a
yellow-naped Amazon parrot. 1, brachiocephalic
trunks; 2, aorta; 3, pulmonary arteries.
vessels is occasionally present with atheroscle-
rosis and is fairly specific for this disease.11
Despite the lack of objectivity, the major arteries
may appear prominent on radiographs with
central atherosclerosis.36 A case of mycotic
aneurysm in an eider22 and another of vascular
neoplasia in a double yellow-headed Amazon
parrot29 appeared as large, soft tissue opacities
on the right side of the heart. Although
nonspecific, secondary cardiomegaly may be
seen in birds with atherosclerosis.13,14
Fluoroscopic angiography: Fluoroscopic angi-
ography can visualize the heart and vascular tree
in real time. Under general anesthesia, the bird is
initially positioned in left lateral recumbency on a
fluoroscopy table. A bolus of nonionic iodinated
contrast agent (2 mL/kg IV; iohexol 240 mg/mL;
Omnipaque, GE Healthcare Inc, Princeton, NJ,
USA) is injected, at a rate of 1–2 mL/kg per
second, through a catheter inserted into the
basilic or medial metatarsal vein during video
acquisition at a rate of 30 frames/s for the best
resolution. The same bolus is repeated to obtain
the ventrodorsal view with the bird placed in
dorsal recumbency. The brachiocephalic trunks,
aorta, pulmonary arteries, pulmonary veins, and
caudal vena cava can be seen (Fig 4). The
brachiocephalic trunks and aorta can be seen
pulsating with the heartbeats. Marked lumen
changes can be observed during the cardiac cycle.
177
Figure 4. Fluoroscopic angiography in a black vulture
(Coragyps atratus). 1, brachiocephalic trunks; 2, aorta;
3, pulmonary arteries; 4, pulmonary veins; 5, caudal
vena cava.
The procedure is easy and inexpensive and can be
recorded for further analysis and measurements.
For measurement, to account for different
degrees of magnification, a calibrated marker
should be kept in the field during fluoroscopic
acquisition.
Digital subtraction angiography is a fluoro-
scopic technique used in interventional radiology
to clearly visualize blood vessels in a dense soft
tissue or bone environment. Images are produced
by subtracting a precontrast image from later
images once the contrast medium has been
introduced into the vascular system, which results
in visualizing only the contrast-filled vessels,
without the background. It considerably increases
the outlines of the arteries and the detection of
smaller arteries not seen with conventional
angiography, specifically for extremities, such as
legs, wings, and the head, but the images tend to
be easily degraded by small motions and noise
(Fig 5) (H. B. and R. P., unpublished data,
November 2009). A preliminary, nonenhanced
fluoroscopic image is recorded before administer-
ing a bolus of contrast medium and is digitally
subtracted during the angiography procedure.
The same bolus technique and a similar dose of
contrast medium as used for regular fluoroscopic
angiography are used for digital subtraction
angiography, except that this option is selected
in the machine. Reports of angiography applica-
tions are still limited in birds. A coronary
aneurysm was diagnosed with angiography in an
umbrella cockatoo.18 Angiocardiography has also
been used clinically in a racing pigeon, 2 blue and
178 JOURNAL OF AVIAN MEDICINE AND SURGERY
Figure 5. Digital subtraction angiography of the skull in a barred owl (Strix varia) in ventrodorsal with a
craniocaudal and left to right orientation. 1, internal carotid arteries; 2, jugular veins; 3, external carotid artery; 4,
rete ophthalmicum; arrow, cerebral carotid artery.
gold macaws (Ara ararauna), and a whooper
swan (Cygnus cygnus).13,36,37
Ultrasonography: Echocardiography is, to
date, the most useful diagnostic test in avian
cardiology. Well-established protocols have been
published for transcoelomic and transesophageal
echocardiography.38–41 Images are typically ac-
quired with an 8–11 MHz phased-array trans-
ducer. The base of the aorta and the aortic valves
can be imaged via the vertical view in transcoe-
lomic echocardiography but the resolution is
often poor (Fig 6). Nevertheless, reference ranges
Figure 6. Transcoelomic echocardiography, vertical
view, in an eclectus parrot (Eclectus roratus). The
ultrasound of the heart is from caudal to cranial. The
ventral aspect of the bird is located on the right of the
image. 1, left ventricle; 2, right ventricle; 3, liver; 4,
sternum; arrow, aortic root.
for the aortic root diameter have been reported.39–41
The aortic outflow velocity has also been investi-
gated, and reference ranges have been provided for
several psittacine birds and raptorial species.39,40,42
Transesophageal echocardiography presents an
alternative to the transcoelomic approach and
offers greater details and the possibility of perform-
ing an M-mode examination of the left ventricle and
the aortic root (Fig 7). The transverse and longitu-
dinal views, with the transesophageal echocardiog-
raphy probe placed in a cranial position, provide
adequate details of the aortic root in most species.38
Contrast echocardiography has been evaluated in
several avian species (H. B. and R. P., unpublished
data, November 2009). Ultrasound contrast, con-
sisting of perflutren lipid microspheres (Definity,
Lantheus Medical Imaging Inc, North Billerica,
MA, USA), can be injected slowly, at a dose of
0.1 mL/bird IV, after the contrast is shaken with a
mechanical activating device (Vialmix, Lantheus
Medical Imaging) following manufacturer recom-
mendations. During imaging, a low acoustic power
(mechanical index, 0.2–0.3) should be used to
prevent disruption of the intravascular micro-
spheres. The small size of the microspheres allows
them to go through the pulmonary capillary bed
and they can consequently be visualized in the left
cardiac chambers. This is an advantage over the
injection of a small volume of agitated saline, which
only opacifies the right cardiac chambers but can
also reveal intracardiac and extracardiac right to
 BEAUFRÈRE ET AL—AVIAN VASCULAR IMAGING 179

Figure 7. Transesophageal echocardiography, cranial position, longitudinal view, M-mode on the aorta in a
military macaw (Ara militaris). 1, aorta; 2, left ventricle; 3, aortic wall; 4 aortic valve.

left shunts. The addition of contrast may help better from the right carotid artery that was diagnosed
delineate the endocardial border of the left ventricle with the help of endoscopy in a double yellow-
and provide more accurate measurements of the headed Amazon parrot.
diastolic and systolic ventricular internal diameter CT angiography: A CT examination provides
and aortic root. The contrast is slowly injected via a an excellent assessment of all major arteries and
peripheral catheter while the heart is imaged with their anatomy in psittacine and raptorial birds.
transcoelomic or transesophageal echocardiogra- The addition of contrast media greatly enhances
phy. The contrast lasts several minutes, and the the visualization of the arteries and veins and
microspheres can be destroyed by increasing the their lumen. The patient should be anesthetized
acoustic power if deemed necessary. No adverse for intravenous catheter placement and contrast
effects have been noticed with the use of perflutren administration. We suggest first performing a
in the birds imaged. whole body scout in orthogonal planes, followed
Endoscopy: Several endoscopic approaches
can provide impressive visualization of several
arteries. The standard left and right lateral
approaches43,44 lead to the visualization of the
vessels supplying the abdominal organs in the
abdominal air sacs, such as the abdominal aorta,
iliac arteries, mesenteric artery, renal arteries, the
caudal vena cava, and the ischiatic veins (Fig 8).
Additionally, the pulmonary arteries and veins
can be seen close to the base of the heart in the left
and right cranial thoracic air sacs (Fig 9). The
least commonly used interclavicular approach43,44
provides access to the base of the heart in the
interclavicular air sac and should be considered
the approach of choice to evaluate the great
arteries, carotid arteries, and base of the heart. At
this site, all the major and cranial arteries, such as
the brachiocephalic trunks, the ascending aorta,
the brachial arteries, the carotid arteries, the
pulmonary arteries, and the jugular veins, can
easily be identified (Figs 10 through 12). Accu- Figure 8. Coelioscopy through the left lateral ap-
mulation of fat at the base of the heart can proach in a red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis) placed
significantly impair the visualization of the in right lateral recumbency. The tip of the endoscope is
arteries through the interclavicular approach. located in the left abdominal air sac, and the view is
There is a report29 of a hemangiosarcoma arising looking down at the mesenteric artery.
180 JOURNAL OF AVIAN MEDICINE AND SURGERY

Figure 9. Coelioscopy through the left lateral approach in a great horned owl (Bubo virginianus) placed in right
lateral recumbency. The tip of the endoscope is located in the left cranial thoracic air sac craniodorsal to the heart,
showing the pulmonary artery (Pa) and pulmonary vein (Pv).

by a survey precontrast examination with a built-
in abdominal scan protocol and the following
parameters: standard algorithm in helical scan
mode, 1.25-mm slice thickness, 1.375 pitch,
100 kilovolt (peak), and 150 mA. A dynamic,
axial CT scan is recommended on a predeter-
mined slice with a single initial bolus of iohexol,
1 mL/kg given over 1 second. The starting time of
the dynamic scan must coincide with the initiation
of the contrast administration. Dynamic scans
allow the time of arrival of the contrast medium
(time to enhancement peak) at the aorta or other
selected artery to be determined. The CT angiog-
raphy (CTA) is then performed by the same scan
parameters as the survey precontrast series with
3 mL/kg of contrast media administered over
3 seconds. When performing the angiographic
portion of the series, the start of the contrast

Figure 11. Endoscopy through the interclavicular

Figure 10. Endoscopy through the interclavicular
approach in a red-tailed hawk placed in dorsal
recumbency. The endoscope is inserted at a horizontal
angle in the right lateral aspect of the interclavicular air
sac, looking at the heart and great vessels in a
craniocaudal orientation. The ascending aorta can be
seen coursing deep above the trachea.
approach in a red-tailed hawk placed in dorsal
recumbency. The endoscope is inserted at a horizontal
angle in the left lateral aspect of the interclavicular air
sac, looking at the heart and great vessels in a
craniocaudal orientation. The left brachiocephalic
trunk can be seen coursing to the left (heart is on the
right in the picture).
 BEAUFRÈRE ET AL—AVIAN VASCULAR IMAGING
Figure 12. Endoscopy through the interclavicular
approach in a red-tailed hawk placed in dorsal
recumbency. BT indicates right brachiocephalic trunk;
C, right carotid artery; Ba, right brachial artery; J, right
jugular vein; Tr, trachea; Th, right thyroid gland; PTh,
right parathyroid gland; and V, vagal nerve.
administration should preceed the start of scan-
ning by the time to the enhancement peak
previously determined by the dynamic axial
CT.45 Additional reconstruction series with thin-
ner slices (eg, 0.625 mm) and a soft tissue
algorithm are recommended.
An injection pump may be used, but it can be
problematic with the small injection volume
required in birds, and we prefer manual injection.
In small to medium sized birds, because of their
fast circulation of contrast in the vascular tree, the
time to enhancement peak in the aorta is very
fast, and it is recommended that the CTA scan be
performed immediately after administration of
the contrast.45 Reference ranges have been pub-
lished45 for arterial diameters of the brachioce-
phalic trunks, ascending aorta, abdominal aorta,
and pulmonary arteries (Fig 13). The use of a
mediastinal window or a manual angiography
window is recommended for more accurate and
repeatable measurements. A previously de-
scribed45 technique was performed with a 16-slice,
multidetector CT; and the exact timing for
injection and acquisition of images recommended
for CT machines that are not 16-slice will likely
vary, as will the resolution of the image.
Computed tomography angiography also al-
lows the caudal and cranial vena cava (Fig 14),
the carotid arteries, the mesenteric artery and
181
some of its ramifications, and several of the
smaller arteries of the avian body to be visualized.
In addition, 3-dimensional reformatting and
segmentation on the heart and central arteries
are possible and may help in the diagnosis of
aneurysm and congenital vascular anomalies
(Fig 15). Although no case report, to our
knowledge, documents the use of CTA in a
clinical context in birds, its use may prove to be
invaluable in assessing arterial luminal stenosis,
aneurysm, dilatation of the arteries, and calcifi-
cation of the walls. In humans, CTA remains one
of the preferred methods for measuring arterial
diameters, and multiple studies have investigated
its accuracy.46–49 High-resolution CTA has also
been used in birds to describe normal vascular
anatomy.50
Magnetic resonance imaging: Magnetic reso-
nance angiography has not been investigated in
birds so far. In a study on MRI in healthy
pigeons, the hepatic and renal vasculature were
discernable.51 However, motion artifacts prevent-
ed adequate imaging of the heart. Additionally,
MRI was not of good diagnostic value for the
vascular system because of the fast circulation of
contrast media (gadolinium) through the vascu-
lature and the small size of the vessels to be
investigated. To achieve a diagnostic quality
image in such small vessels, higher magnetic fields
would be required (3 T or higher), which further
limits its clinical use.
Conclusion
A variety of imaging modalities are available
for the avian vascular system. These techniques
are presently underused, despite a significant
incidence of atherosclerosis in the captive bird
population. Angiography by fluoroscopy and CT
scan may become the diagnostic tests of choice to
better characterize gross vascular lesions. Endos-
copy by the interclavicular approach allows direct
visualization of the great arteries but is more
invasive and may be impaired by fat stores in
overweight animals. More studies and clinical
reports are needed to document the usefulness of
vascular diagnostic imaging in birds. As avian
vascular imaging finds inspiration and application
from human cardiovascular imaging and pediat-
ric cardiology, the span of diagnostic tests and
clinical applications will undoubtedly expand. In
the near future, the use of high technology
imaging systems, such as high-speed CTA,
magnetic resonance angiography, smaller and
higher frequency transesophageal ultrasound
182 JOURNAL OF AVIAN MEDICINE AND SURGERY

Figure 13. Computed tomography angiography in a Hispaniolan Amazon parrot. (A) Section at the level of the
brachiocephalic trunks (arrows); (B) section at the level of the ascending aorta (arrow); (C) section at the level of the
abdominal aorta before the celiac bifurcation (arrow); (D) section at the level of the right pulmonary artery (arrow);
and (E) section at the level of the left pulmonary artery (arrow).

probes, and intravascular ultrasound probes will

hopefully advance the resolution and details of
the small arteries of avian patients and improve
the sensitivity available for diagnosing vascular
pathologic processes.

Figure 14. Computed tomography angiography in a tal view obtained through multiplanar reformatting
blue-fronted Amazon parrot (Amazona aestiva). Sagit- showing the caudal vena cava (arrow).
 BEAUFRÈRE ET AL—AVIAN VASCULAR IMAGING
Figure 15. Computed tomography angiography in a
Hispaniolan Amazon parrot, 3-dimensional segmenta-
tion of the heart and central vasculature, craniodorsal
view of the base of the heart. 1, brachiocephalic trunks;
2, ascending aorta; 3, pulmonary arteries; 4, pulmonary
veins; 5, carotid arteries.
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