The space surrounding a magnet where it produces a magnetic force is called a magnetic field.

Type of magnetic Description Examples Uses

material

hard retains magnetism hard steel permanent magnets,

well, but difficult to compass needles,
magnetize in the first loudspeaker magnets
place

soft easy to magnetize, soft iron cores for

but readily loses its electromagnets,
magnetism transformers, and
radio aerials

A typical electromagnet is made from a coil of copper wire. A coil like this is sometimes called a
solenoid. When a current flows through the wire, there is a magnetic field around the coil.
Copper wire is often used, because of its low resistance, though other metals will do. The coil
does not have to be made from a magnetic material. The point is that it is the electric current
that produces the magnetic field.

There are three ways to increase the strength of an electromagnet:

• increase the current flowing through it – the greater the current, the greater the strength of the
field
• increase the number of turns of wire on the coil – this does not mean making the coil longer,
but packing more turns into the same space to concentrate the field
• add a soft iron core. An iron core becomes strongly magnetized by the field, and this makes
the whole magnetic field much stronger.

Soft magnetic materials are easy to magnetize and demagnetize. Hard magnetic materials are
difficult to magnetize and also difficult to demagnetize.

electron charge = −1.6 × 10−19 C C (Coulombs)

proton charge = +1.6 × 10−19 C

When one object is rubbed against another, it may gain opposite electrostatic charges. Charged
objects exert forces on each other: like charges repel; unlike charges attract.

An electric field exists anywhere where a charged object experiences a force. Objects gain an
electrostatic charge when they gain or lose electrons.
 Electrons have a negative charge, so an object that gains electrons becomes negatively
charged. The object that loses electrons becomes positively charged.

A charged object may attract an uncharged object. Electrons in the uncharged object move
slightly so that the object becomes charged by induction.

Electric charge is measured in coulombs, C.

a current that flows in the same direction all the time is called a direct current (d.c.).

A current is a flow of electric charge

• Ammeters are connected in series so that the current can flow through them.
• Voltmeters are connected across a component, to measure the p.d. across the component.

one ohm is one volt per amp 1 Ω = 1 V/A

The greater the resistance in the circuit, the smaller the current that flows.

The greater the p.d. in a circuit (or across a component), the greater the current that flows.

• The longer a wire, the greater is its resistance.

• The greater the diameter of a wire, the less is its resistance

• The resistance of a wire is proportional to its length.

• The resistance of a wire is inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area.

for resistors in series:

• the combined resistance is equal to the sum of the resistances
• the current is the same at all points around the circuit

for two resistors in parallel:

• the effective resistance is less than the resistance of either resistor
• the current from the source is greater than the current through either resistor

Fuses and circuit breakers protect the mains wiring in a house and the people who use them.

The process of generating electricity from motion is called electromagnetic induction.

• Reverse the magnet to use the opposite pole, and the current flows in the opposite direction. •
Hold the magnet stationary next to the wire or coil and no current flows. Th ey must move
relative to each other, or nothing will happen.

A transformer changes the voltage of an alternating supply