Cheese: Processing and Sensory Properties

JM Kongo, INOVA, Instituto de Inovação Tecnológica dos Açores, Ponta Delgada, Açores, Portugal
FX Malcata, LEPABE/Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
ã 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Introduction added as a preservative, flavor enhancer, and syneresis promoter,

Cheesemaking implies the elimination of whey (the watery por-
tion of milk) after coagulation of milk, thus resulting in the
concentration and preservation of the most important milk
nutrients – protein, fat, and minerals. For many cheeses, namely,
those undergoing the process of ripening, the optimization of
coagulation and whey elimination (syneresis) are obtained by
first adding a lactic acid bacteria (LAB) starter culture to milk. At
this initial phase, the starter culture is expected to cause a slight
and rapid acidification of milk through the production of lactic
acid, with the consequent decrease in milk pH. Next, rennet (an
acidic enzyme) is added to coagulate the milk, and this, with the
contribution of the subsequent cheesemaking steps, leads to
formation of the initial texture and the almost insipid flavor of
the cheese. Ripening, a slow process that may last from 1 to 24
months depending on the cheese variety, is the final step that
imparts the final and most significant changes of cheese flavor.
Thus, the final sensorial features of a cheese are more or less a
consequence of the combined actions of all steps involved in its
processing. Consequently, understanding and controlling the
effect of each of the processing steps during cheesemaking is
crucial toward directing the process to deliver the final product
in mind. Also, due to the key role the sensorial factors play in the
cheese consumer’s choice, attempts to understand and control
the dynamics of the development of texture and flavor have been
an important part of the activity in the field of food science.
reducing also the aw of the curd. Finally, the pressed curds are put
to the ripening process so that the required biochemical reac-
tions that lead to specific flavors will occur.
Fresh, soft, or hard cheeses are made essentially by the same
process with slight differences in one or more of the steps
described (see Figure 1). Thus, while fresh cheeses are ready
for use as soon as the manufacturing process is complete, hard
cheeses are allowed to mature in temperature- and humidity-
controlled rooms from 1 to 24 or more months depending on
the type of cheese.
From coagulation, cutting, and pressing, the pH of the
curds will usually change markedly (see Figure 2). Later, dur-
ing ripening, the pH will usually keep dropping in most cheese
varieties as shown in Table 1, and the pH of the final cheese
will usually vary between 4.8 and 5.4 as a result of the contin-
uous acidification by the starter culture, which also contributes
to the release of volatile components in the ripening curd.
Cheese Texture
Texture can be defined as the sensory manifestation of struc-
ture of the food and the manner in which this structure reacts
to applied forces. Texture affects the immediate perception of a
consumer to the quality of a product, through vision, kinesthe-
sia, and hearing, making it a key flavor indicator. The final

Manufacturing Ripening
Milk Fresh Curd Cheese
Cheese Processing and Starter Cultures Selection of milk 1 to 24 months
Acidification
The basic principles involved in cheese manufacture have
remained the same for over 1000 years. Basically, milk must be Figure 1 Essential steps involved in most cheese processing.
first heat treated to kill the harmful bacteria that it may harbor.
Starter cultures, usually LAB, are then added to the milk and their
growth ‘ripens’ the milk and later helps to develop the desired
flavors and aromas in the cheese. For raw milk cheeses, in case a 6.6
starter culture is added, it can be of a pure or mixed undefined
(whey from previous day) type. The starter culture produces 6.4
lactic acid, a natural preservative that, besides acting on cheese 6.2
taste, will cause the pH of milk to drop, thus creating optimal
6.0
conditions for the activity of rennet that is usually added after-
pH

ward. This will cause the coagulation of the main protein present 5.8
in milk - casein - by lowering its solubility, leading to its precip- 5.6
itation and formation of a gel that will separate into curds and
5.4
whey. LAB may later have a different number of metabolic
activities, namely metabolizing citric acid, acting on the break- 5.2
down of the protein (in conjunction with the rennet and
Milk Cutting Pressing day 1
enzymes from milk), as well as on the breakdown of the diglyc-
erides formed from the milk triglycerides, and in some cheeses, Cheese processing step
on the breakdown of hippuric acid to benzoic acid. The formed Figure 2 Evolution of pH (average þ standard deviation) in an
curds are then heated according to the type of cheese, and salt is experimental cheese.

748 Encyclopedia of Food and Health http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-384947-2.00136-7

 Cheese: Processing and Sensory Properties 749

Table 1 Typical pH versus time profiles for several cheese varieties (time is in minutes unless otherwise noted)

Swiss-type Gouda Cheddar Feta Cottage

Operations Time pH Time pH Time pH Time pH Time pH

Add starter 0 6.60 0 6.60 0 6.60 0 6.60 0 6.60

Add rennet 15 6.60 35 6.55 30 6.55 75 6.50 60 6.50
Cut 45 6.55 70 6.50 75 6.50 115 6.4 300 4.80
Drain or dip into forms 150 6.35 100 6.45 195 6.3 130 NA 360 5.0
Milling NA NA NA NA 315 5.45 NA NA NA NA
Pressing 165 6.35 130 390 5.40 NA NA NA NA
Demolding 16 h 5.30 8h 5.40 10 h 5.20 24 h 4.6 NA NA
Minimum pH 1 week 5.20 1 week 5.20 1 week 5.10 1 week 4.4 NA NA
Retail 6 months 5.6 6 months 5.6 4 months 5.3 6 weeks 4.4 2–14 days 5.2

texture of a cheese is developed throughout ripening, a slow
process involving the concerted series of biochemical,
microbiological, and chemical reactions, which are predeter-
mined by the manufacturing processes. Generally, a cheese
may be classified as having a typical soft, semisoft (medium),
or hard texture, and the said classification is related to the
cheese water and fat contents, to which many factors will
contribute.
As previously stated, processing conditions – temperature
of coagulation, cutting and cooking the curds, pressing, salting,
and ripening – will affect directly the cheese texture or hard-
ness. The pH at drain determines the retention of rennet
(which participates in hydrolysis of as1-casein) and the amount
of plasmin (a native milk proteinase that is responsible for
much of casein breakdown in the curd), while the salt-to-
moisture ratio affects the amount of intact casein. Finally,
the changes in body and texture that transform the rubbery,
elastic mass of curd to a cheese with a firm close texture
are essentially the results of the three primary biochemical
processes – glycolysis, lipolysis, and proteolysis – occurring
mainly during ripening. With aging, the cheese texture will
also change as a result of the evaporation of available water
on the surface, leading to a ‘drier,’ harder, and less deformable
cheese. Finally, the storage temperature (or ripening tempera-
ture) impacts the rate of proteolysis, namely, proteolysis of
as1-casein hydrolysis.
In general, cheese texture will change markedly in the first
1–2 weeks of ripening as the hydrolysis of a small fraction of
as1-casein by the rennet to the peptide as1-I results in a general
weakening of the casein network. The following and usually
relatively slow (occurs over a period of months) change in
texture is often associated with the rate of proteolysis, which
in turn is controlled largely by the proportion of residual
rennet, plasmin, microflora peptidases, salt-to-moisture ratio,
and storage temperature.
Cheese composition also affects the final texture, as both
dissolved calcium in the cheese serum and calcium bound to
the protein network have been shown to affect the rate of
proteolysis, and cheeses having a higher fat content are less
firm and more elastic.
Sodium chloride affects both the matrix and the serum
phases of the cheese, which, in turn, affects the overall texture.
It is known that brine-immersed cheeses show dramatic
changes in texture during the early stages of aging. Many soft
cheeses are obtained by a combination of a low degree of
Table 2 Definitions of textural properties attributed to cheeses and
other dairy products
Textural
properties Definition
Adhesiveness Work necessary to overcome the forces between
dissimilar materials
Chewiness Energy required for masticating a solid food material
until it is ready for swallowing
Cohesiveness The strength of the internal bonds making up the body
of the product or degree to which the sample
deforms before rupture
Gumminess Energy required to disintegrate a semisolid food
material to a state ready for swallowing
Hardness Force necessary to attain a given deformation
Resilience How well a product fights to regain its original position
Springiness Degree or rate at which the sample returns to its
original shape/size after partial compression
between tongue and palate
syneresis and the use of specific types of vegetable curds
(such as cardosin) or starter cultures (viz., specific fungi of the
group Penicillium), which are highly proteolytic and thus will
contribute to loosening the matrix formed by casein to peptides
and amino acids, involving high fat content and water.
In conclusion, the texture of a cheese is a reflection of its
microstructure, formed essentially by the casein matrix entrap-
ping fat globules and bounded to water, forming a structure
that is affected by the biochemical activities occurring during
ripening, which change the amount, type, and physicochemi-
cal relation of the said components.
A cheese may have several important textural properties as
listed in Table 2.
Flavor in Cheese
While the perception of a cheese texture also contributes to its
general flavor, texture may be seen as a simpler contact by
means of the sense of touch, while flavor usually requires a
more profound use of our senses of vision, taste, and smell
with the food product.
As previously stated, the initial fresh curds from any cheese
type taste more or less the same. It is only during ripening that
the biochemical processes occurring by the action of LAB and
750 Cheese: Processing and Sensory Properties

milk native enzymes present in the curd will cause the main Glycolysis
contribution to cheese flavor development. Those primary
The fermentation of lactose is one the first LAB activities that
changes are followed and overlapped by a host of secondary
contribute to flavor in cheese. The general simplified pathway
catabolic changes, including deamination, decarboxylation,
of lactose metabolism (glycolysis) by LAB (starter and
and desulfurylation of amino acids and b-oxidation and ester-
nonstarter LAB (NSLAB)) in cheese is shown in Figure 3.
ification of fatty acids. While the primary reactions are mainly
Lactose can be metabolized to lactate and then to acetate
responsible for the basic textural changes of the curd and for
and diacetyl by strains of Lactococcus lactis diacetylactis and
the basic flavor of cheese, the secondary transformations are
Leuconostoc spp. and CO2, which is responsible for the
responsible for the finer aspects of cheese flavor and also
characteristic eyes of many cheeses, and to citrate that contrib-
modify the texture. A number of metabolites, important con-
ute to flavor.
tributors to a cheese’s flavor, are formed from the three main
In the case of many traditional cheeses, a mixed culture of
milk components during ripening, as shown in Tables 3 and 4.
unknown composition is used in the so-called back slop
It can thus be stated that a cheese flavor is composed of a
method.
complex large number of dissolved volatiles of low-molecular-
weight compounds and ions, which act synergistically in the
perception of flavor, and their sensory contribution may not be Lipolysis
directly dependent on their comparative concentration. If in
excess, any of these metabolic products may also result in an Lipolysis in cheese is important as a process leading to the
off-flavor appearance in cheeses. formation of many flavor metabolites due to the activity of
Many of the enzymes involved in the said processes may be
dependent on cooperation between strains, making the meta-
bolic processes by LAB important in flavor formation. Lactose

Starter culture
Biochemical Reactions and Cheese Flavor Development

Cheese flavor is a direct result of three biochemical reactions

L- Lactate
generally known as glycolysis, lipolysis, and proteolysis.

Table 3 Flavor compounds formed from main milk components

NSLAB
during ripening

Casein Milk fat Lactose and citrate

DL- lactate
Peptides Fatty acids Lactate
Amino acids Keto acids Pyruvate
Acetic acid Methyl ketones CO2
Ammonia Lactones Diacetyl
NSLAB
Pyruvate Acetoin
Aldehydes 2,3-Butanediol
Alcohols Acetaldehyde Acetate
Carboxylic acid Acetic acid
Sulfur compounds Ethanol
Figure 3 Simplified pathway of lactose metabolism in LAB.

Table 4 Some key flavor components in known variety of cheeses

Cheese variety

Metabolism of Gouda Cheddar Camembert Swiss-type

Peptides/amino acids 3-Methylbutanal 3-Methylbutanal 3-Methylbutyrate Methional

Methanethiol Isovaleric acid Methanethiol 3-Methylbutanal
Dimethyl sulfide Methanethiol Benzaldehyde Skatole
Methylpropanol
Sugar Diacetyl Propanoic acid 2,3-Butanedione Propanoic acid
Diacetyl Diacetyl
Fat Butyric acid Butyric acid Butyric acid Ethyl butyrate
Butanone Acetic acid 1-Octen-3-ol Ethyl hexanoate
Hexanal Butanone 2-Undecalactone Ethyl-3-methylbutanoate

Source: Smit G, Smit BA, and Engels WJM (2005). Flavour formation by lactic acid bacteria and biochemical flavour profiling of cheeses products. FEMS Microbiology Reviews 29:
591–610.

Triglycerides
Fatty acids
Secondary alcohols Free fatty acids
Flavor compounds
Figure 4 A simplified pathway of milk triglyceride and fatty acid flavor compound formation during cheese ripening.
such enzymes as lipases and esterases. The hydrolysis of tri-
glycerides, which constitutes more than 98% of cheese fat, is
the main biochemical transformation of fat occurring during
ripening and causes the production of short-chain free fatty
acids (FFAs) that contribute to the aroma of cheese, depending
on the amount of the aqueous phase and the pH of a cheese.
LAB play an important role in this process that leads to the
formation of flavor. The presence of specific FFA can give the
perception of flavor such as rancid, sharp, goaty, soapy, and
coconut-like. FFA can be further hydrolyzed to methyl ketones,
which are responsible for the characteristic aroma of blue
cheeses. Lactones have also been identified as possessing
strong aroma that may be important in overall cheese flavor.
A simplified pathway of milk fat metabolism is shown in
Figure 4.
Proteolysis
Proteolysis is probably the most important biochemical event
in cheese ripening accounting for the development of a num-
ber of organoleptic features, encompassing both flavor and
texture.
Thus, early-stage hydrolysis (primary proteolysis), that
leads to the formation of large specific peptides, and the
later-stage proteolysis (secondary proteolysis) will occur
when the said peptides are digested into smaller ones and
even free amino acids by enzymes from starter or nonstarter
microorganisms, leading to changes in texture and taste of the
cheese. Generally, the rate of breakdown of as1-casein is greater
at lower storage pH than the rate of breakdown of b-casein,
thus, changes in pH during storage affect the rate of proteolysis
and consequently texture.
Proteolysis in cheese is defined as changes in b-, g-, and
s-casein peptides and other minor proteins that lead to the
formation of large water-insoluble peptides and smaller
water-soluble peptides from the action of rennet (chymosin),
milk native proteases, and peptidase enzymes from starter and
NSLAB. The hydrolysis of casein to high-molecular-weight
peptides is thought to be primarily the result of chymosin
and plasmin, while the subsequent hydrolysis of high-
molecular-weight peptides is primarily the result of proteolytic
enzymes from LAB. In general, many proteolytic compounds
contribute to the typical aroma of a cheese. They are a result of
different reactions including deamination, transamination,
decarboxylation, and cleavage of the amino acid side chain
Cheese: Processing and Sensory Properties 751
Lipases
Lactones Acids Alcohols
by the microflora. Products such as keto acids, aldehydes or
carboxylic acids, ketones, lactones, esters, alcohols, aldehydes,
pyrazines, sulfurous compounds, carbonyl compounds, FFAs,
free amino acids, and salts have been detected and reported to
contribute to cheese aroma. In general, different nitrogen
catabolisms will result from different starter cultures, and
such products as 3-methylbutanal, an important volatile com-
pound formed during the ripening of Parmesan cheese, or
methyl alcohols and methyl aldehydes derived from the
branched-chain amino acids, leucine, isoleucine, and valine,
may be formed. A general overview of proteolysis and the
pathway of formation of methylbutanal are shown in Figures 5
and 6.
As consequence of the dynamic of activity of LAB through-
out ripening, cheese taste and texture will obviously change
with aging, as more biochemical reactions occur and because
moisture and salt content and pH also change throughout
ripening.
Cheese Microflora and Flavor Development
Fermentation with LAB is a cheap and effective food preserva-
tion method that can be applied even in more rural/remote
places and leads to improvement in texture, flavor, and nutri-
tional value of many food products. LAB have a long and safe
history of application and consumption, namely, in cheese
processing, thus, being generally recognized as safe.
Cheesemaking is based on the application of LAB in the
form of defined or undefined starter cultures that are expected
to cause a rapid acidification of milk through the production of
lactic acid, with the consequent decrease in pH, thus, affecting
a number of aspects of the cheese manufacturing process and
ultimately cheese composition and quality.
Traditionally, mixed or undefined strain starter cultures
composed of a number of strains of Lactococcus spp., Lactoba-
cillus, and even Enterococcus spp. were used.
The earliest productions of cheeses were based on
spontaneous fermentation, resulting from the development
of the microflora naturally present in the raw milk and its
environment. The quality of the end product was a reflex of
the microbial load and spectrum of the raw material. Sponta-
neous fermentation was later optimized through backslop-
ping, that is, inoculation of the raw material with a small
quantity of whey from a previously performed successful
752 Cheese: Processing and Sensory Properties
Milk
Lactose
LAB
Casein
+ acid
Rennet
Figure 5 General view of proteolysis during cheese processing.
proteolysis transamination
Casein Leucine
Figure 6 3-Methylbutanal formation by LAB during ripening of cheese.
fermentation, and the resulting product characteristics
depended on the best-adapted strains dominance. Today,
backslopping is still used to produce many artisanal raw milk
cheeses, namely, those bearing the PDO (Protected Designa-
tion of Origin) status, which are considered to be an important
source of LAB genetic diversity. The starter culture applied in
this, so-called natural fermentation, is usually a poorly known
microflora mix that, although having a predominance of LAB,
may also contain non-LAB microorganisms, and its microbial
diversity and load are usually variable over time.
Moreover, traditional cheeses also obtain their flavor inten-
sity from the NSLAB, which are not part of the normal starter
flora but develop in the product, particularly during matura-
tion, as a secondary flora.
In the high-output cheese industry, defined cultures are
rather used, optimizing the process, namely, the lactic acid
formation. Bacteria existing in the processing environment –
the so-called nonstarter lactic acid bacteria – often contaminate
the cheeses, thus, having also a role in flavor development. For
specific varieties of cheese, such as ‘blue cheeses,’ a starter
culture made up of specific molds such as the Penicillium spp.
is also used. Due to a lower diversity of the microflora in
industrial cheeses, they are commonly recognized as develop-
ing weaker flavors.
The starter culture in cheesemaking is thus very important
for two obvious reasons of producing lactic acid via metabo-
lism of lactose: lowering the pH of the curd (recall that at lower
pH values, undesirable bacteria have more difficulties to grow
and therefore the pH history during processing of the cheese is
a good indicator of the actual product safety) and producing
the distinctive flavors and textures via metabolism of fat,
lactose, and protein.
Cheese
LAB, Plasmin, and residual rennet
αs1 and β-casein residues
Flavor and
Proteins, Peptides, and free amino aroma
formation
Free fatty acids
Lactones, and other components
descarboxylation
caproic acid 3-methyl butanal
Undesirable flavors, namely, bitterness, may develop in
cheeses, often as consequence of combined excessive activity
of rennet and mesophilic starter cultures. Bitterness is consid-
ered a result of excessive accumulation of bitter peptides (usu-
ally of 2–23-amino-acid residues), predominantly containing
hydrophobic amino acids. Excessive use of certain types of
rennet and starter cultures with high proteolytic activity can
lead to formation of bitterness and it has been shown that this
defect often occurs in cheeses made without NaCl and in low-
fat cheeses. Also, it seems that fast acid producers, heat-tolerant
strains grown under uncontrolled pH conditions, are more
prone to producing high levels of bitter components. Off-
flavors such as rancidity may develop due to excessive or
unbalanced lipolysis caused by lipases/esterases from starter
or NSLAB, from enzymes produced by psychrotrophic bacteria,
or from indigenous milk lipoprotein lipase. Finally, late gas
blowing and other off-flavors in certain hard cheeses result
from the metabolism of lactate (or glucose) by Clostridium sp.
to butyric acid and H2.
Texture and Flavor Analysis
While texture (mouthfeel) of a food product may be subjective,
it plays a key role in consumer acceptance and market value of
a food product, namely, cheeses. The sensory measurements of
a cheese may be taken by consumers (say, in shopping malls,
supermarkets, or any other area having a large number of
consumers) or by a trained panel. The purpose of a consumer
taste test is usually for a general evaluation (acceptance/
rejection) of a dairy product, while the trained panels are
 Cheese: Processing and Sensory Properties 753

trained to detect a specific food characteristic (bitterness, sand-
iness, and crumbliness) with a high degree of reproducibility.
However, attempts have been made to standardize mea-
surements of texture and flavor. In fact, food texture character-
ization is rooted on human sensory evaluation; however, many
instrumental methods have been developed to analyze some
physical and chemical properties in finished products, allow-
ing for corrections and control of the manufacturing and stor-
age processes in order to consistently deliver the expected final
product.
The evolution of a cheese microstructure can be followed by
microscopy techniques, generally known by such acronyms as
TEM, SEM, and CLSM, imaging techniques, and infrared
spectroscopy, while mechanical properties such as firmness
and hardness (texture profile analysis (TPA)) may be evaluated
by mechanical methods using a testing machine such as the
Instron model (Figure 7), a penetrometer, or a rheometer.
Figures 8 and 9 are results of a study of texture characterization
of samples of São Jorge cheeses at different ripening periods.
Due to good separation efficiency and versatility, gas chro-
matography methods have found increasing acceptance and
application in food science and in technology for separation
and identification of a large variety of compounds. These tech-
niques are thus helping to elucidate and understand the mech-
anisms and chemistry of flavor formation in cheeses.
A cheese map developed for cheddar cheeses is shown in
Figure 10. Different cheddar cheeses from around the world
can be placed in the map due to their specific flavors.
In conclusion, cheese flavor and texture are complex and
slow processes resulting from the extent of the biochemical
pathways of glycolysis, lipolysis, and proteolysis, which are

90 days 120 days 210 days

6.0

Stress (kPa) 5.0

4.0

3.0

2.0

1.0

0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Strain
Figure 9 Stress–strain curves of São Jorge cheese with 90, 120, and
210 days of ripening.

Figure 7 Texture testing machine Instron model 4501, series H3279.

1.2

1.0
0.662 a
0.8 0.690 a
Hardness (kg)

0.556 b 90 days

0.6 120 days

210 days
0.4

0.2

0.0
Ripening time (days)
Figure 8 Hardness of São Jorge cheese (average  standard deviation,
n ¼ 154) by 90, 120, and 210 days of ripening. Different superscript
letters represent mean values that are statistically different for p < 0.05. Figure 10 Cheddar cheese flavor map.
754 Cheese: Processing and Sensory Properties
affected by the cheesemaking specificities and the microflora
(starter and NSLAB) present in the curd and by the native
enzymes of milk and rennet. Studies and attempts to control
cheese flavor are important activities in food science due to the
key role flavor and texture play in the consumer’s choice of a
cheese.
See also: Cheese: Chemistry and Microbiology; Cheese: Composition
and Health Effects; Cheese: Types of Cheese – Medium; Cheese: Types
of Cheeses – Hard; Cheese: Types of Cheeses – Soft; Fermented
Foods: Fermented Milks; Lactic Acid Bacteria.
Further Reading
Adams MR and Moss MO (1995) Food microbiology. Guildorf: Royal Society of
Chemistry, University of Surrey.
Araujo VS, Pagliares VA, Queiroz MLP, and Freitas-Almeida AC (2002) Occurrence of
Staphylococcus and enteropathogens in soft cheese commercialized in the city of
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Journal of Applied Microbiology 92: 1172–1177.
Eck A (1987) O Queijo (Le Fromage). Portugal: Europa America Publisher.
Garabal JI (2007) Biodiversity and survival of autochthonous fermented products.
International Microbiology 10: 1–3.
Kosikowski FV and Mistry VV (1997) Cheese and fermented milk foods, 3rd ed.
Brooktondale, NY: F.V. Kosikowski and Associates.
Lin H, Boylston TD, Luedecke LO, and Shultz TD (1999) Conjugated linoleic acid
content of cheddar-type cheeses as affected by processing. Journal of Food Science
64: 874–878.
McSweeney PLH (2007) Cheese problems solved. Cambridge: CRC Press.
Moatsou G, Massouras T, Kandarakis I, and Anifantakis E (2002) Evolution of
proteolysis during the ripening of traditional Feta cheese. Lait 82: 601–611.
Mullan, W. M. A. (2005). Role of cheese starters (online). Available from: http://www.
dairyscience.info/index.php/cheese-starters/225-role-of-starters.html (accessed 20
May 2014).
Nollet LML and Toldra F (2010) Handbook of dairy foods analysis. Boca Raton, FL: CRC
Press.
Sigh TK, Drake MA, and Caldwallader KK (2003) Flavor of Cheddar cheese: a chemical
and sensory perspective. Comprehensive Reviews in Food and Science and Food
Safety 2: 139–161.
Relevant Websites
http://www.cheese.com/.
http://www.cheesesociety.org/ – American Cheese Society.
http://dairyscience.info/cheese-starters/49-cheese-starters.html – Dairy Science and
Food Technology.
http://www.ehow.com/how-does_4571415_how-cottage-cheese-made.html – eHow.
http://www.foodprocessing.com/articles/2008/047/ – Food Processing.
http://www.thedairysite.com/articles/2875/european-cheese-market – The Dairy Site.
https://www.uoguelph.ca/foodscience/ – University of Guelph.