Central Luzon Doctors’ Hospital-Educational Institution

Department of Graduate Studies

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN NURSING

COURSE TITLE: HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATION

TOPIC: Chapter IV: UNDERSTANDING AND MOTIVATION

1. Perception of Equity Theory

2. Expectancy Theory of Motivation

3. Reinforcement Theory of Motivation

REPORTER: JOMAR M. TEOFILO, RN

SECTION: MSN 1-E

I. LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this chapter, we should be able to:

1. Differentiate the various process theories of motivation and indicate how each

can be helpful in analysing a given motivational situation.

2. Compare and contrast the various approaches to reinforcement.

3. Describe how fairness perceptions are determined and consequences of

these perceptions.

4. Understand the importance of rewards and punishments.

5. Apply motivation theories to analyze performance problems.

II. INTRODUCTION

We all want to be more productive but getting motivated enough to actually get

things done can seem impossible.

Social scientists have been studying motivation for decades, trying to find out

what motivates our behaviour, how and why. Dozens of theories of motivation have

been proposed over the years.

Here are the process theories of motivation that can help you increase workplace

productivity.
 Central Luzon Doctors’ Hospital-Educational Institution
Department of Graduate Studies
MASTER OF SCIENCE IN NURSING

III. LEARNING CELL

PROCESS THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

PROCESS THEORIES

- Motivation theories that specify the details of how motivation occurs.

1. EQUITY THEORY (J STACY. ADAMS)

 A process theory which argues that perception of unfairness leads to tension,

which then motivates the individual to resolve that unfairness.

 Stacy Adams said that we are motivated to act in situations which we perceive to

inequitable or unfair.

 Adams proposed that we compare our rewards (pay, recognition and contributions

(time, effort, ideas) with the outputs and inputs of others. Equity thus exist when

these ratios are equal:

Four Major Elements of Equity Theory

1. Outcome / Input Ratio

- Employees often perceive in terms of the ratio of their personal outcomes

to inputs.

2. Comparison Other

- Employees often make comparison with others.

- Comparisons may be made of three levels: Comparison to specific other

individuals, Comparison to another reference groups and Comparison to

general occupational classifications.

3. Equity evaluation

- Employees form an equity evaluation the moment they identified their

outcome / input ratio and make distinctions with other’s ratio.

 Central Luzon Doctors’ Hospital-Educational Institution
Department of Graduate Studies
MASTER OF SCIENCE IN NURSING

4. Consequences of inequality

- Propositions relating to the consequences of inequitable pay are as

follows:

a. Given payment by time, over rewarded employees will produce more

than will equitably paid employees.

b. Given payment by quantity of production, over rewarded employees

will produce fewer but higher quality, units than will equitably paid

employees.

c. Given payment by time, under rewarded employees will produce less

or poorer quality of output.

d. Given payment by quantity of production, under rewarded employees

will produce a large number of low quality units in comparison with

equitably paid employees.

Six Possible Ways in Reducing Feelings of Inequity

1. Changing inputs

- Under rewarded workers tend to reduce their effort and performance if the

outcomes would not affect their pay check. Overpaid workers sometimes

increase their inputs by working and producing more.

2. Changing outcomes

- Employees with under reward inequity would ask for more desired

outcomes such as increase of pay.

3. Changing perceptions

- Employees may deceive inputs and outcomes to maintain equity feelings.

4. Leaving the field

- Employees try to reduce inequity feelings by getting away from the

inequitable situation.

5. Acting on the comparison other

- Employees are sometimes restored their equity feelings by changing the

comparison others inputs or outcomes.

 Central Luzon Doctors’ Hospital-Educational Institution
Department of Graduate Studies
MASTER OF SCIENCE IN NURSING

6. Changing the comparison other

- When employees could not change the outcome / input ratio through other

means, they would consequently restore the comparison other with

someone having a more equitable outcome / input ratio.

- Four referent comparison used by an employee:

a. Self-inside

o An employee’s experiences in a different position inside his or her

current organizations.

b. Self-outside

o An employee’s experiences in a situation or position outside his or

her current organization.

c. Other-inside

o Another individual or group of individuals inside the employee’s

organizations.

d. Other-outside

o Another individual or group of individuals outside the employee’s

organization.

Managerial Implications of Equity Theory

 Perceived underpayment will have a variety of negative motivational

consequences for the organization.

 Attempting to solve organizational problems through overpayment might

not have the intended motivational effect.

2. EXPECTANCY THEORY (VICTOR VROOM)

 Expectancy Theory proposes that people will choose how to behave depending on the

outcomes they expect as a result of their behaviour.

 In other words, we decide what to do based on what we expect the outcome to be. At

work, it might be that we work longer hours because we expect a pay rise.
 Central Luzon Doctors’ Hospital-Educational Institution
Department of Graduate Studies
MASTER OF SCIENCE IN NURSING

 Therefore, according to Expectancy Theory, people are most motivated if they

believe that they will receive a desired reward if they hit an achievable target. They

are least motivated if they don’t want the reward or they don’t believe that their

efforts will result in the reward.

Expectancy Theory Is Based On Three Elements

1. Expectancy – the belief that your effort will result in your desired goal. This is

based on your past experience, your self-confidence and how difficult you think

the goal is to achieve.

2. Instrumentality – the belief that you will receive a reward if you meet

performance expectations.

3. Valence – the value you place on the reward.

Ways of Manager to influence three perception

3. REINFORCEMENT THEORY (B.F. SKINNER)

 Reinforcement theory is based on the work of Ivan Pavlov on behavioral conditioning

and the later work of B. F. Skinner on operant conditioning.

 According to reinforcement theory, behavior is a function of its outcomes.

 Central Luzon Doctors’ Hospital-Educational Institution
Department of Graduate Studies
MASTER OF SCIENCE IN NURSING

 Reinforcement theory is based on a simple idea that may be viewed as common

sense.

Four Types of Operant Conditioning

1. Positive Reinforcement

- Positive reinforcement is a method of increasing the desired behavior.

- Positive reinforcement involves making sure that behavior is met with positive

consequences.

2. Negative Reinforcement

- Negative reinforcement is also used to increase the desired behavior.

- Negative reinforcement involves removal of unpleasant outcomes once desired

behavior is demonstrated.

3. Punishment

- Punishment is another method of reducing the frequency of undesirable behaviors.

- Punishment involves presenting negative consequences following unwanted

behaviors.

4. Extinction

- Extinction is used to decrease the frequency of negative behaviors.

- Extinction is the removal of rewards following negative behavior.

- Sometimes, negative behaviors are demonstrated because they are being

inadvertently rewarded.
 Central Luzon Doctors’ Hospital-Educational Institution
Department of Graduate Studies
MASTER OF SCIENCE IN NURSING

Application of Reinforcement Theory

 A systematic way in which reinforcement theory principles are applied is called

Organizational Behavior Modification

 Stages of Organizational Behavior Modification

IV. EVALUATION

1. Equity Theory

Scenario:

Imagine that you are paid $10 an hour working as an office assistant. You have held this

job for 6 months. You are very good at what you do, you come up with creative ways to

make things easier around you, and you are a good colleague who is willing to help

others. You stay late when necessary and are flexible if requested to change hours. Now

imagine that you found out they are hiring another employee who is going to work with

you, who will hold the same job title, and who will perform the same type of tasks. This

particular person has more advanced computer skills, but it is unclear whether these will

be used on the job. The starting pay for this person will be $14 an hour.

Questions:

a. How would you feel?

b. Would you be as motivated as before, going above and beyond your duties?

c. How would you describe what you would be feeling?

2. Expectancy Theory

Scenario:

Let’s assume that you are working in the concession stand of a movie theater. You have

been selling an average of 100 combos of popcorn and soft drinks a day. Now your

manager asks you to increase this number to 300 combos a day. Would you be motivated

to try to increase your numbers?

 Central Luzon Doctors’ Hospital-Educational Institution
Department of Graduate Studies
MASTER OF SCIENCE IN NURSING

Question:

What will you think to be motivated in relation of the three elements?

a. Expectancy

b. Instrumentality

c. Valence

3. Reinforcement Theory

Question:

Some practitioners and researchers consider Organizational Behavior Modification

unethical because it may be viewed as a way of manipulation. What would be your

reaction to such a criticism?

V. REFERENCES

 Apruebo, Dr. Roxel (2006). Essentials of Organizational Behavior First

Edition. Educational Publishing House.

 Buchanan, David and Hucynski, Andrzej (2002). Organizational Behavior:

An Introductory Fifth Edition. Pearson Education, Ltd.

 Adams, J. S. (1965). Inequity in social exchange. In L. Berkowitz

(Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology: Vol. 2(pp. 267–299). New

York: Academic Press.

 Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 54, 81–103;

Schmidt, D. R., & Marwell, G. (1972).

 Porter, L. W., & Lawler, E. E. (1968). Managerial attitudes and performance.

Homewood, IL: Irwin; Vroom, V. H. (1964). Work and motivation. New

York: Wiley. 

 Beatty, R. W., & Schneier, C. E. (1975). A case for positive reinforcement. 

 Stajkovic, A. D., & Luthans, F. (1997). A meta-analysis of the effects of

organizational behavior modification on task performance, 1975–

1995. Academy of Management Journal, 40, 1122–1149.