Research article
State of the art of modelling
two-phase flow in fractured rock
Z. Wanfang 7 H. S. Wheater 7 P. M. Johnston
Abstract Two-phase flow in fractured rock is an
important phenomenon for a range of practical
problems, not the least of which is non-aqueous
phase liquid (NAPL) contamination of groundwa-
ter. Although multiphase systems have long been
studied in the petroleum field, in the hydrogeologi-
cal field progress has only just reaches the point
where models are being developed. Scale effect is
one of the main issues of concern. Although mod-
els presented in this paper have the potential to
provide useful predictions, they can only be used to
investigate a variety of possible scenarios with pa-
rameters being specified in the form of distribution
of values. The calibration and validation of all but
the simplest of these models poses a formidable
task, with great demands on hydrogeologists and
geophysicists to provide adequate data.
Key words Two-phase flow 7 Mathematical
model 7 Fractured rock 7 Fractures
Introduction
In principle, the mathematical model that describes the
single-phase or multi-phase flow through a porous me-
dium can be stated for every point within the considered
phase at the microscopic level. The problem is that this
model cannot be solved at this level, since the detailed
geometry of the surface that bounds the fluid phase is
not known and/or is too complex to be described. Also,
we cannot measure values of variables at points within a
Received: 20 May 1996 7 Accepted: 19 August 1996
Z. Wanfang (Y)
P. E. LaMoreaux and Associates, 106 Administration Road,
Oak Ridge, TN, 37830, USA
H. S. Wheater
Department of Civil Engineering, Imperial College, London,
SW7 2BU, UK
P. M. Johnston
Department of Civil, Structural and Environmental Engineering, can be extended to include problems involving fractured
Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland
phase in order to validate a flow or transport model and
to determine model parameters. As a consequence, the
complete description and solution of a fluid flow problem
at the microscopic level is impossible. To circumvent
these difficulties, the fluid flow problem has to be trans-
formed from the microscopic level to a macroscopic one,
at which the fluid flow is reformulated in terms of aver-
ages of the microscopic values. These average values are
measurable quantities. We usually refer to this approach
as the continuum approach.
In the continuum approach, the real porous medium do-
main, consisting of one or more than one phases, is re-
placed by a model in which each phase is assumed to be
present at every point within the entire domain. Each
phase, thus, behaves as a continuum that is present in
the entire domain (Bear 1993). For every point, average
values of phase and component variables are taken over
an elementary volume, centered at a point, regardless of
whether this point falls within the considered phase or
not. The average values are referred to as macroscopic
values of the considered variables. At the same time, if a
sample centered at a point is to represent what happens
at that point and at its close neighborhood, it is obvious
that the size of the sample should not be too large. The
volume of a sample that satisfies these conditions was de-
fined as a representative elementary volume (REV) of the
considered porous medium domain at the given point
(Bear 1972). By traversing the porous medium domain
with a moving REV, a field of the average values for ev-
ery variable is obtained.
With the introduction of the concept of the REV, the
mathematical model has become an important potential
tool in the investigation of a fluid flow problem that is
not directly observable. Two-phase flow problems in frac-
tured rock have been handled by using 1) equivalent por-
ous medium models, 2) dual-porosity models, and 3) dis-
crete fracture models.
Equivalent porous medium models
When the fracture density is high at the scale of interest,
fractured rocks are often assumed to behave as non-frac-
tured systems. Then the use of porous medium models
rock. Since the fractures are considered as part of the
Environmental Geology 31 (3/4) June 1997 7 Q Springer-Verlag 157
 Research article
primary porosity, ignoring the difference in porosity scale
between the fractures and the rock matrix, these kind of
models are known as equivalent porous medium models.
This approximation seems to be reasonable because at
the grain scale, even the porous medium can be consid-
ered as fractured (Barker 1991). In the porous medium
approximation, the mathematical models are based on
Darcy’s law and the mass continuity equation. Darcy’s
law is used to express fluid flux as a function of hydrau-
lic gradient and the equivalent permeability tensor (Gel-
har and Axness 1983; Hsieh and others 1985):
K gij K gr, b if bg K gij K gr, b iP bg
q gi, b p P
mb ixj
pP
mb 1 ixj
c b
where subscript b denotes fluid phase (wetting or non-
wetting phase) and superscript g denotes the medium
(fracture network or matrix blocks); i and j range from n,
where n is the number of spatial dimensions being con-
sidered; qi is the phase fluid flux in direction i
(ML P2 T P1); x represents the partial coordinate system;
K is the element of the equivalent permeability tensor
(L 2); Kr, b is the phase relative permeability to phase b; f
is the fluid potential (ML P1 T P2); P is the fluid pressure
(ML P1 T P2); z is the elevation (L); is the fluid density
(ML P3); m is the fluid dynamic viscosity (ML P1 T P1);
and g is the gravitational acceleration constant (LT P2).
The mass continuity equation expresses the requirement
that all mass within the system be accounted for
throughout the spatial and temporal extent of the simula-
tion. For a system of immiscible fluids the mass continui-
ty equation is (Bear 1972):
i i
P (q gi, b)cq b/g p (d g S bg )
ixi it
where S bg is the phase saturation in medium g ; d g is the
porosity of the medium; and q’ bg represents the source
(sink) function (T P1).
The above equations require the definition of a pressure
and a saturation for each phase at every point in the so-
lution domain. The pressures are linked at fluid-fluid in-
terface through the capillary pressure, P gc , defined by
Bear (1972):
P gc pP gnwPP gw
where subscripts nw and w denote non-wetting and wet-
ting phase fluids respectively. The phase saturation is
linked by the assumption that the sum of phase satura-
tions is equal to 1. In a two-phase system, we have:
S gnwcS gwp1. 0
The solution of the above equations cannot be obtained
until additional expression for capillary pressure and re-
lative permeability are determined. Conventionally, they
are expressed as functions of phase saturation. As these
relationships are nonlinear in nature, the equations must
be solved either by basing capillary pressure and relative
permeability on previously determined saturation values
or by employing iterative solution techniques (Barenblatt
158 Environmental Geology 31 (3/4) June 1997 7 Q Springer-Verlag
and others 1990). However, it must be pointed out that
possibilities of obtaining relative permeability or capillary
pressure information from field data on two-phase flow
are very small, because it is difficult if not impossible to
simultaneously measure flow rates, pressure gradients
and phase saturations in the subsurface. Alternatively,
some simple relationships such as those obtained by
Romm (1972) in fractures or empirical relationships ob-
tained in porous media (Faust and others 1989) have to
be used. Under such circumstances, some uncertainties
are inevitably involved in the two-phase flow simulation
using equivalent porous medium models.
iz
g
ixj 2 (1) The equivalent porous medium representation has been
used to simulate non-aqueous phase liquid (NAPL) mi-
gration from landfill sites in fractured dolomite rock (Os-
Born and Sykes 1986; Faust and others 1989). After com-
paring with the field investigations, Faust and others
(1989) showed that some of the NAPL behavior predicted
from the equivalent porous medium model was reasona-
ble. However, to what extent the fractured rock can be
represented by porous medium models is an issue open
to discussion. In principle, the fractured rock can be con-
sidered as an equivalent porous medium as long as a
REV can be determined for the specified problem and
domain (Bear 1993). Long and others (1982) used the
theory of flow through fractured rock and homogeneous
anisotropic porous media to determine when a fractured
rock behaves as a continuum. In their opinion, a frac-
tured rock can be said to behave like an equivalent por-
ous medium when 1) there is an insignificant change in
the value of the equivalent permeability with a small ad-
dition or subtraction to the test volume, and 2) an equi-
valent permeability tensor exists which predicts the cor-
(2)
rect flux when the direction of a constant gradient is
changed. Long and Witherspoon (1985) further studied
the effects of fracture density, scale measurements, aper-
ture distribution and fracture orientation on the behavior
of fractured rock. They proposed that the porous me-
dium model is acceptable provides a plot of the mea-
sured directional permeability has the form of an ellip-
soid. Pankow and others (1986) compared two contami-
nated sites in fractured rock and concluded that the com-
bination of characteristics made only one suitable for
(3) modelling using the equivalent porous medium model.
Khaleel (1989) considered fractured basaltic rocks where
the fractures are defined by the columns of matrix mate-
rial. For uniform fractures he concludes that the porous
medium model is applicable at a scale of about six times
the column diameter, but for a lognormal aperture distri-
(4) bution this could be 20–30 times the diameter. In sum-
mary, fractured rock tends to behave more like an equi-
valent porous medium when 1) fracture density is in-
creased, 2) fracture apertures are constant rather than
distributed, 3) fracture orientations are distributed rather
than constant, 4) larger domain sizes are simulated, and
5) fluid transport mechanisms tend to be similar.
 Research article

Dual porosity models ratio and linear fractional flow in fractures while the em-
pirical transfer functions do not account for the interplay
among pressure gradients, gravity, capillary, and viscous
A more complex conceptualization of two-phase flow in
forces in the matrix (Kazemi and others 1989). Saidi
fractured media involves distinguishing between the rock
(1987) studied the basic equations that control the proc-
matrix porosity and the fracture porosity. In spite of the
esses of water imbibition and gas invasion in the matrix
fact that fluid may mainly flow through fractures in frac-
block surrounded by fractures. As far as non-wetting
tured rock, it is recognized that a detailed study of the
phase invasion is concerned, potential differences domi-
interaction of the fracture and the matrix block is essen-
nate the penetration process and the length of the matrix
tial when a significant proportion of the total storage ca-
block has a great influence on oil recovery. Even though
pacity of the system is provides by the rock matrix while
NAPLs are considered as non-wetting fluids, as are gases,
the fractures provide the dominant path for regional
they have different physicochemical properties. Moreover,
transport (Barker 1991). When two immiscible phase li-
the reported mass exchange process in petroleum engi-
quids exist in fractured rock, the mass exchange process
neering is often for imbibition processes (Barenblatt and
between fractures and the matrix becomes very compli-
others 1990), whereas the scenario about which we are
cated. Not only the characteristics of the medium but
concerned, in terms of penetration of NAPL into the ma-
also the properties of the liquids and the interaction be-
trix, is drainage.
tween liquids and the medium should be taken into ac-
In contaminant hydrology, water imbibition processes
count (Saidi 1987). Especially, when NAPLs are penetrat-
from fractures to the matrix have also been addressed, in
ing in fractured rocks, the mass exchange between frac-
particular, in the unsaturated zone (Moench 1984; Thoma
tures and the matrix can occur not only when molecular
and others 1992). Groundwater flow in unsaturated frac-
diffusion carries the dissolved solvent into the pore water
tured rock may be dominated by the porous matrix com-
(Chilton and others 1989) but also when the immiscible
ponent as the water flowing in fractures can be rapidly
phase physically penetrates into the matrix pores beneath
imbibed into the rock matrix by capillary suction forces.
the fractures (Longstaff and others 1992). The former
In order to investigate the effect of water imbibition from
phenomenon is called matrix diffusion while the latter is
fractures into the matrix on fluid flow in fractures, Tho-
referred to as matrix penetration. The matrix diffusion
ma and others (1992) derived a mass transfer function
process has been widely studied by researchers including
between fractures and the matrix based on the simplest
Rowe and Brook (1989) using Fick’s law, and Black and
Washburn equation. Using this transfer function, they
Kipp (1983) using a quasi-steady state, mass transfer
were able to study the impact of the fracture coating
equation. However, as indicated by Barker (1991), diffu-
properties and matrix properties on the travel time and
sion is a process of the dissolved contaminants, having a
9 10 travel depth of water flowing down a single fracture.
characteristic time of as long as 10 –10 s (diffusive
In dual porosity models, the permeability in the fracture
transport over a distance of one meter). As far as the
network is considered much larger than that in the ma-
movement of immiscible liquids is concerned, the effects
trix blocks. The dual permeability concept reported by
of matrix diffusion are neglected while matrix penetra-
Hill and Thomas (1985) allows both matrix-to-matrix and
tion is the issue to be emphasized.
fracture-to-fracture flow between blocks. Dual permeabili-
In dual porosity models, each porosity region is often
ty models require much greater computing time than the
treated as an independent porous medium flow system
dual porosity models. Gilman and Kazemi (1988) used
but is related to the other through pressure and mass
the dual permeability idealization to develop an efficient
continuity expressions (Murphy and Thomson 1993).
algorithm to account accurately for the gravity effects
Equations 1 and 2 are used in both media, where gpf
both in the fractures and the matrix. They also accounted
denotes the fracture medium and gpm denotes the ma-
for viscous displacement in matrix blocks caused by pres-
trix medium. The mass continuity equations are then
sure gradient in the fracture network. Recent work has
coupled by the source (sink) function or mass transfer
g shown that transfer functions using pseudo-capillary
function q’ b with opposite sign in different media, i.e.
m f pressure curves can be used (Rossen and Shen 1989; Ka-
q’ b pPq’b (Bear 1993). Since the fluid displacement in
zemi and Gilman 1993) to enable coarse-grid dual porosi-
the matrix is very slow, compared with the fluid displace-
ty models to mimic fine-grid results.
ment in the fracture medium, equation (2) is often sim-
The dual porosity model has been used to simulate mul-
plified as (Barenblatt and others 1990):
tiphase flow in oil reservoirs (Rossen and Shen 1989; Bar-
iS m
b enblatt and others 1990) and in unsaturated flow (Thoma
q /m
b pd
m
(5) and others 1992). But no literature is available to the au-
it
thor’s knowledge concerning the application of dual po-
As water/oil imbibition and gas/oil drainage are two im- rosity models to the simulation of NAPL–water flow in
portant processes to recover oil from the matrix blocks fractured porous media. One of the main reasons is con-
in fractured reservoirs (Saidi 1987), the mass transfer sidered to be the lack of the knowledge of the mass
function has been given some attention and expressed in transfer processes between fractures and the matrix block
analytical and empirical forms (Rossen and Shen 1989). in the NAPL–water system. Lawrence and Foster (1987)
However, the analytical solution requires a unit viscosity appear to be the first to realize the importance of matrix

Environmental Geology 31 (3/4) June 1997 7 Q Springer-Verlag 159

 Research article

penetration of NAPL into the porous matrix. They indi-
cated that a key factor controlling the persistence of
NAPL in fractured aquifers, and the difficulties presented
to aquifer clean-up, would be the extent to which the
NAPLs displace pore water from the finer-grained parts
of the porous matrix in fractured aquifers.
Both equivalent porous medium models and dual porosi-
ty models are based on the continuum approach. The
continuum approach requires that the non-wetting phase
flow has the same importance as the wetting phase flow
on the scale of interest. This may be the case in petro-
leum reservoirs (Barenblatt and others 1990) and in con-
tamination sites where NAPL spillage is significant (Faust
and others 1989). However, if the contamination source is
limited, the area through which the non-wetting phase li-
quid moves is much smaller than the water flow region
in fractured aquifers (Lloyd and others 1991). The hetero-
The development of discrete fracture models lags behind
that of porous medium continuum models. This is not
only due to difficulties in identification of fracture aper-
ture location, extent, and connectivity, but also the diffi-
culty of formulating a tractable mathematical representa-
tion. In most of the developed discrete fracture models,
the investigators start with the common assumptions that
the single fracture is the basic unit for the fractured me-
dium and that each fracture is presented by a parallel-
plate flow model assuming a constant aperture. The aver-
age flow rate for any single phase fluid through a single
fracture has been described by the “cubic law”, or the
plane Poisseuille equation (Neuzil and Tracy 1981) pro-
vides the flow is linear-laminar (de Marsily 1986):
W f b 3 if fb W f b 3 iP fb iz
Q fi, b p P
12 mb ixj
pP 1
12 mb ixj
c b g
ixj 2 (6)

geneity of the fractured rock makes the immiscible con-

where superscript f denotes the fracture medium; Q is the
taminants more non-uniformly distributed. Detailed phy-
volumetric flow rate in fractures (MT P1); b and W f are
sical characteristics of local heterogeneity in fractured
fracture aperture and width respectively (L).
rock become of greater significance than those in equi-
Comparison of the cubic law (Eq. 6) with Darcy’s law
valent groundwater flow or solute transport. Under such
(Eq. 1) reveals the following isotropic relationship be-
circumstances the REV can hardly be defined (Domenico
tween fracture permeability, K f, and aperture (de Marsily
and Schwartz 1990). As a result, when the scale of inter-
1986):
est is relatively small or the water-bearing fractures are
few or the NAPL discharge is small, it will not be a good b2
approximation to define the entire fractured medium by Kf p (7)
12
averaging quantities such as the equivalent permeability
tensor and relative permeabilities. Witherspoon and others (1980) studied the validity of the
cubic law and they found that the cubic law seems to be
valid even for a closed fracture under stress. As a result,
until the 1980s, researchers in the field of fracture flow
Discrete fracture models and transport used to consider a single fracture as a pair
of parallel plates separated by a distance b, in describing
In the case where the scale is small, the water-bearing fluid flow and transport in fractures (Tsang 1992).
fractures are few, or the non-wetting phase discharge is However, more recent experimental and theoretical work
not significant, a discrete representation of the fractures focusing on the aperture variability within the fracture
has been used in the problem of single phase flow (Long and the impact of this on flow and transport, has indi-
and Witherspoon 1985; Endo and others 1984), solute cated that the parallel-plate model seems to be inade-
transport (Schwartz and others 1983; Rasmuson 1985; Ca- quate in describing either the fluid flow or solute trans-
cas and others 1990a and 1990b; Dverstorp and others port processes. Brown and Kranz (1986) measured the
1992), and two-phase flow (Rasmussen 1991; Kwicklis and roughness of natural fracture surfaces and found that real
Healy 1993). On the basis of distributions of fracture fracture surfaces are quite rough and that the surfaces are
aperture, fracture length, fracture spacing, and fracture in contact in some areas of the fracture plane. Pyrak-
orientation they generate a statistical model for the frac- Nolte and others (1988) observed tortuous flowpaths in
ture network. In order to make the statistical models ap- the laboratory after injecting molten Wood’s metal into a
proach reality, as much as possible, they may be condi- fracture in granite under various confining pressures. The
tioned by fracture data measured either on the rock out- two-dimensional imaging technique from replicas of the
crop (Dershowitz and others 1991) or in boreholes (An- pore space of single fractures helps determine the varia-
dersson and others 1984). Since the physical laws govern- bility of apertures in both directions and flow paths in
ing the flow and transport through a pair of smooth pa- fractures (Gale 1987). In spite of the different techniques,
rallel plates are known, transport and flow through the all the laboratory experiments revealed that fracture aper-
fracture network can be computed. Unlike the continuum ture is variable and fluid flow does not appear to be
approach which emphasizes the effect of the equivalent evenly distributed within the fracture plane.
parameters on fluid flow, the discrete fracture approach Field scale experiments at the extensively studied Stripa
emphasizes the effect of the medium structure, in parti- mine in Sweden (Rasmuson and Neretnieks 1986) and in
cular the geometry of fractures on fracture flow (Dersho- Cornwall (Heath 1985; Bourke 1987) confirmed the chan-
witz and others 1992). nelling flow behavior in in situ fractures. Large areas
within a fracture plane did not appear to carry water and

160 Environmental Geology 31 (3/4) June 1997 7 Q Springer-Verlag


flow was isolated to only 5–20 percent of the fracture
plane. Field experiments at Chalk River, Ontario (Nova-
kowski and others 1985; Raven and others 1988) and in
the Silurian dolomite in northeastern Illinois (Shapiro
and Nicholas 1989) have found that hydraulic- and trans-
port-derived fracture aperture estimates are not consis-
tent. Their results imply that solutes and fluids may not
necessarily flow in exactly the same paths in fractures. If
the fracture aperture variability were small enough for
the parallel-plate model to be valid, the hydraulic- and
transport-derived fracture apertures should be consistent.
Several theoretical studies have also focused on the effect
of aperture variability on transport in a fracture. Brown
and Kranz (1986) used a fractal model to generate frac-
ture surfaces and assumed local validity of the cubic law
to calculate the two-dimensional areal velocity distribu-
tion across the fracture plane. They found that solutes
tend to be channelled through large apertures. All the
evidence obtained from laboratory experiments, in situ
tests and theoretical analyses indicates that the parallel-
plate fracture representation fails to recognize the spatial
heterogeneity in the fracture aperture.
Fluid flow in single fractures
In order to enable accurate modelling of the flow of one
or more phases and transport in fractured domains, us-
ing discrete fracture or continuum approaches, a great
deal of effort has been directed towards studying the be-
havior of flow within a single fracture with variable aper-
tures. The primary concern of these efforts is to examine
the impact of aperture variation on the flow of one or
more fluid phases, and hence the impact on aqueous-
phase contaminant transport (Moreno and others 1988;
Pruess and Tsang 1990). However, the difficulty arises
from the fact that flow within fractures is dominated by
preferential pathways (Abelin and others 1991a). In order
to address this problem a number of investigators have
presented models which incorporate the concept of a
non-uniform fracture aperture. An aperture density dis-
tribution f(b) which gives the relative probability of the
occurrence of a given aperture is used instead of a single
aperture value (Tsang 1984). To date, most of the re-
search effort has been focused on the problems of single
phase flow with the exception of the work by Pruess and
Tsang (1990), Pyrak-Nolte and others (1990, 1992) and
Murphy and Thomson (1993), and to a great extent the
differences between different numerical models in use re-
flect different conceptualizations of the geometry of frac-
tures under consideration. The fracture conceptualiza-
tions available in the literature include 1) channel mod-
els, 2) two-dimensional heterogeneous porous-medium
models, and 3) one-dimensional variable aperture frac-
ture models.
Research article
Channel models
The channel model was proposed by Tsang and Tsang
(1987) on the basis of theoretical and experimental obser-
vations discussed above. They used a system of statisti-
cally equivalent one-dimensional flow paths as channels
to simulate the flow and convection processes in a frac-
ture. The parameters used to characterize the channel
models are the aperture density distribution, the effective
channel length and width, and the aperture spatial corre-
lation length which gives the spatial range within which
the aperture values are correlated. The aperture channels
were generated by geostatistical methods, providing both
variable channel density and variable apertures along in-
dividual flow channels. They found that the simulated
tracer breakthrough curves displayed features that agreed
well with experimental data. Comparison with the simpli-
fied case of constant aperture channels led to the conclu-
sion that flow and transport could not both be repre-
sented accurately by networks of constant aperture chan-
nels. Tsang and Tsang (1989) later presented more de-
tailed studies of their one-dimensional channel model; in
both forward and inverse application the one-dimension-
al system of channels replicated two-dimensional simula-
tions by Moreno and others (1988) quite well. Results
from these studies seem to suggest that one need consid-
er only the flow and convection in the system of channels
in a fracture, as the areas of the fracture outside the
channels contribute little to the advective transport pro-
cess.
Even though for any problem involving single-phase flow
it is possible to conceptualize a single fracture as a set of
interconnected channels, however, these channel models
are not suitable for two-phase flow modelling. This is be-
cause the presence of one phase in a fracture can block
the other, forcing each phase to use different flow chan-
nels. Definition of these channels would be impossible,
since the connected region for each phase would vary
with changes in saturation and potential gradient (Mur-
phy and Thomson 1993).
Two-dimensional heterogeneous porous-medium
models
By comparing the preferential channel flow that arises as
a consequence of spatially varying permeability in a het-
erogeneous porous medium (Hsieh and others 1985) with
the preferential channel flow that arises as a result of
aperture variation in single fractures, Moreno and others
(1988) presented a numerical model for steady state flow
and transport by conceptualizing the fracture as a strong-
ly heterogeneous porous medium. The fracture plane was
discretized into a square mesh to which variable aper-
tures were assigned. The spatially varying apertures of
each single fracture were generated using geostatistical
methods, based on a given aperture probability density
distribution and a specified spatial correlation length. Us-
ing this model they have studied the channelling behav-
ior of flow and convection in fractures. As the distribu-
tion of apertures within a fracture is analogous to the
distribution of pore throat radius in a porous medium, in
Environmental Geology 31 (3/4) June 1997 7 Q Springer-Verlag 161
 Research article
the two-dimensional heterogeneous porous-medium frac-
ture model (Moreno and others 1988), fluids flow in in-
tersecting channels with varying apertures. As a result,
such a conceptualization of a fracture can be used to si-
mulate two-phase flow in variable aperture fractures.
Pruess and Tsang (1990) presented a model for examin-
ing two-phase flow phenomena in single variable aper-
ture fractures using the conceptualization presented by
Moreno and others (1988). Locally, in small regions, the
fluid flow rates were calculated by Eq. 6. Approximations
to wetting and non-wetting phase relative permeabilities
were calculated by numerically simulating single phase
flows separately in the respective void spaces. Although it
incorporated the flow of two immiscible fluid phases, it
was not designed to represent true two-phase flow but
rather was designed as a tool for examining relative per-
meability and capillary pressure relationships in fractures.
The basis of the model was that for a specified capillary
pressure P cf in the fracture, defined in Eq. 3, all grid ele-
ments with aperture smaller than the corresponding cu-
toff aperture bcp2s /P cf (where s is the interfacial tension
between two immiscible fluids (MT P2)) were occupied by
the wetting phase and all larger apertures were occupied
by the non-wetting phase. A critical assumption that is
incorporated in their model is that of phase accessibility.
To assign a phase to a region based only on the aperture
dimension ignores the fact that many such regions will
be isolated from a source of that phase by apertures cor-
responding to the other phase. Assigning a phase to iso-
lated regions will not affect the relative permeability cal-
culation for that phase with a given capillary pressure,
since these regions are not connected to flowing regions.
It will, however, result in saturation values for that phase
being too high and relative permeability and saturation
being too low for the other phase. As a result, the relative
permeability curves produced from their models (Pruess
and Tsang 1990) do not attribute a permeability to the
non-wetting phase until extremely large values of non-
wetting phase saturation have been attained. Mendoza
(1992) improved the theory of Pruess and Tsang (1990)
by incorporating the inlet accessibility and fluid trapping
criteria. Since percolation theory was used in both of
their models, the flow behavior obtained from their mod-
els may be approached when the displacement is domi-
nated by capillary pressure and the driving forces may be
negligible. However, when the driving forces are large,
they may allow the non-wetting phase to invade small
aperture regions without having to first invade all large
aperture regions. This would bring about continuous
path ways of non-wetting phase liquid at intermediate or
even small non-wetting saturations.
Pyrak-Nolte and others (1990, 1992) presented a variation
of the fracture models using a “stratified continuum per-
colation model” in order to study the effect of fluid trap-
ping on two-phase flow in a single variable aperture frac-
ture that was not taken into account by Pruess and Tsang
(1990). Their fracture void patterns are based on a fractal
construction that produces spatially-correlated contact
area distributions and aperture densities with an approxi-
162 Environmental Geology 31 (3/4) June 1997 7 Q Springer-Verlag
mately lognormal distribution. Phase occupancy within
the fracture domain is governed by a specific capillary
pressure similar to the representation of Pruess and
Tsang (1990). Flow through a connected pathway was cal-
culated using simplified relationships based on the aper-
ture magnitude at the critical neck of the pathway and
the degree of phase saturation in the aperture. Their
models provide insight into two-phase flow behavior in
fractures, in particular, the effect of ignoring inlet acces-
sibility and trapping constraints as was done by Pruess
and Tsang (1990). They found that fluid trapping has a
significant effect on the relationships between capillary
pressure and saturation, and relative permeability and sa-
turation. This model, however, does not incorporate the
dynamic effects of two-phase flow nor does it incorporate
the effects of aperture variation upon fluid flow.
Kueper and McWhorter (1991) examined the behavior of
NAPLs at the macroscopic scale in a vertical fracture
which was conceptualized as a heterogeneous porous me-
dium. The aperture distributions were generated using a
two-dimensional lognormal distribution together with an
exponential covariance. In their models, Eq. 1 and 2 were
used as the basic equations where the source function
equals zero. Due to the lack of data in fractured media,
Kueper and McWhorter (1991) based the capillary pres-
sure and relative permeability on previously determined
saturation values that were found in porous media. Math-
ematically, the model developed by Kueper and
McWhorter (1991) is similar to the equivalent porous
medium model in fractured media. The only difference is
that the equivalent porous medium models require the
permeability distribution in the solution domain while
the model developed by Kueper and McWhorter (1991)
requires the aperture distribution and then calculates the
permeability values using an equation modified from Eq.
7. From their simulations, it is demonstrated that NAPL
migrates through the largest regions of the fracture and
has the potential to enter progressively smaller aperture
fractures with depth as it migrates. The effects of some
system parameters such as pressure gradients, fracture
orientations, and NAPL densities on the time for a NAPL
to travel through a vertical fracture in an aquitard, have
been presented.
Murphy and Thomson (1993) presented a dynamic two-
phase flow model through a single variable aperture frac-
ture. The fracture is conceptualized as a two-dimensional
heterogeneous porous medium similar to that of Moreno
and others (1988). They defined shape factors, that are
determined by invasion history, to represent all possible
fluid occupation states of each computational cell. The
dynamic processes for multiphase flow such as the pinch-
ing off of non-wetting globules and movement of single
fluid globules due to pressure gradients in the surround-
ing fluid, were addressed in this model. In principal, this
model is similar to the network models which have been
widely used in porous media for examining multiphase
flow at the pore scale (Chandler and others 1982). The
major difference between the fracture model proposed by
Murphy and Thomson (1993) and the network models
 Research article

used in porous media is in the basis for capillary pres- an adequate description of fluid flow. Neretnieks and
sure and fluid volume calculations. The network models others (1982) used this fracture model to describe a series
base the capillary pressure and fluid volume calculations of solute migration experiments in a single fracture in
on pore throat radii and pore radii, while the fracture granite. They showed that the model reproduced experi-
model bases the calculation of capillary of fluid volume mentally measured breakthrough curves and solutes were
on the five-spot finite volume method in fracture cells. only transported in a limited number of channels. More-
Using network models, various investigators have repre- over, some tracer tests conducted in in situ fractures in
sented the process of one fluid displacing another in two- granite were interpreted with the fracture model by Abe-
or three-dimensional networks of pores and pore throats lin and others (1991b). Because information such as
(Lenormand and others 1988). These network models are breakthrough curves can usually be fitted to a given con-
able to incorporate the physical relationship between ceptual model, the validity of this one-dimensional frac-
pore throat and capillary pressure. They can also be ex- ture model was investigated by Shapiro and Nicholas
tended to study the macro-scale behavior of two-phase (1989). By comparing the results of the one-dimensional
flow in porous media such as the effects of capillary fracture model to the results from pumping and tracer
number and mobility on relative permeability curves. In tests in a single fracture, they concludes that either the
most network models, an iterative procedure has to be fracture model has a poor representation of flow and
employed in which only one node is assumed to be in- transport in fractures, or the number of flow channels in-
vaded by the displacing fluid at each time step (Chen and cluded in the system under study is too small to provide
Wilkinson 1985). Even though the fracture model of Mur- a reasonable representation of the aperture distribution.
phy and Thomson (1993) includes dynamic processes, the As discussed by Abelin and others (1991b), an important
effects of fluid properties like mobility ratios and the ef- feature of the one-dimensional fracture model is that
fects of aperture variation on two-phase flow are not in- fluid may deflect around narrow portions of the fracture,
corporated. In addition, because the analytical solution of and flow in the large apertures between the inlet and the
two-phase flow for their fracture model is not obtainable outlet. As a result, individual flow paths may not meet
and the experimental work in such fractures is not avail- and their fluid may not mix over a significant distance.
able, the simulation results cannot be effectively vali- This behavior has been observed in the Stripa Mine.
dated. Tracer tests indicated non-mixing flow over migration
A key factor in the existing two-phase flow simulation distances from a few meters to as much as 150 m (Abelin
models in fractures is that fractures are conceptualized as and others 1991b; Dverstorp and others 1992). In each
two-dimensional porous media. Even though some prop- connected flow path, fluid flow is controlled by the smal-
erties of two-phase flow in variable aperture fractures are lest aperture along its flow path (Pyrak-Nolte and others
investigated, however, in the authors’ opinion, it is of 1992). Consequently, on average, the collection of flow
doubtful value to analyze NAPL behavior in fractures by paths in a fracture conduct flow in a manner analogous
conceptualizing fractures as porous media. Firstly, the in- to several attached conduits of different sizes. Moreover,
terface movement between two fluids is mainly in the the preferential flow through large apertures and deflec-
openings of the fracture, which are the main contribution tion around small apertures result in the reduction of
to the void volume of fractures. In porous media, the in- aperture variation along a flow path. The work done by
terface moves mainly in pore throats and pores contri- Iwai Cited in Neuzil and Tracy (1981) suggests that if the
bute very little to the fluid flow but the volume of pores aperture variation along a flow path is not large the flow
is very important in calculating the void volume. Second- is well approximated by the parallel-plate flow in an
ly, the interfacial tension in porous media does not act opening equal to the mean flow path aperture. Conse-
via the macroscopic curvatures of interfaces in a number quently, the experimental observations in Stripa Mine
of flow channels. Rather, at the microscopic scale, it acts (Abelin and others 1991b) seem to suggest that it is the
via the curvature of individual menisci in the throats of second conclusion made by Shapiro and Nicholas (1989)
the porous media (Dawe personal communication). And that may be true rather than the first one. The one-di-
thirdly, fractures are often more structured than porous mensional fracture model may have a reasonable repre-
media, especially in fractures where a strong channelling sentation of the flow and transport in fractures.
phenomenon is observed. Zhou (1995) applied the one-dimensional fracture model
to two-phase flow simulation, in which the aperture dis-
One-dimensional variable aperture fracture models tribution was described by a two-parameter lognormal
The one-dimensional variable aperture fracture model distribution. The effects of aperture variation, mobility
was initially developed by Neuzil and Tracy (1981). In ratio, fracture roughness, and contact area on NAPL be-
this model, a fracture is conceptualized as having a con- havior were investigated, and, for the first time, the rela-
stant aperture in the direction of flow but variable aper- tive permeabilities and saturations were analytically ex-
tures in the direction normal to flow. The aperture varia- pressed (Zhou and Wheater 1995). In order to reproduce
tion is described by an aperture density distribution f(b). the experimental results by Pyrak-Nolte and others
As a result of comparison of their results with the experi- (1992), Zhou (1995) arranged the flow channels into a
mental results in single fractures, Neuzil and Tracy (1981) two-dimensional grid. It seemed that fracture tortuosity
concluded that the one-dimensional fracture model gave has a significant effect on non-wetting liquid migration.

Environmental Geology 31 (3/4) June 1997 7 Q Springer-Verlag 163

 Research article
It depresses the production rate of non-wetting liquid
and causes wetting fluid to be trapped in the fracture.
The depression of fluid flow increases with the decrease
of contact area in the fracture and the fluid trapping be- el is applicable in cases where the system under consider-
comes more significant as the aperture variation and mo-
bility ratio increase (Zhou 1995). The large discrepancy
between different arrangements of flow channels calls for
the knowledge of geometry of natural fractures. Lack of
this knowledge may lead to different results in terms of
the migration behavior of non-wetting liquids.
Summary
The release of NAPLs to the subsurface has resulted in
numerous problems of groundwater contamination in
fractured rock and the potential for groundwater contam- manner.
ination by NAPLs is high due to their widespread use
and special physicochemical properties as contaminants.
Although knowledge concerning the behavior of NAPL
migration in groundwater in fractured rock is essential
for both groundwater contamination evaluation and
aquifer remediation, two-phase flow modelling of such a
formation is very much in its infancy in hydrogeology.
From the above discussions, it can be seen that the math-
ematical modelling of the fluid flow problem is very
much related to the scale of interest.
Local problems correspond to two-phase flow near
sources and sinks. In the very close vicinity of a contami- Andersson J, Shapiro AM, and Bear J (1984) A stochastic
nation source, our interest is focused on two-phase flow
within a single, well-defined fracture and on the mass
transfer process from fracture to the matrix blocks that
bound it. If the domain of interest is larger, yet insuffi-
cient for the application of the continuum approach, in-
formation on every individual fracture is required. If the
information about fractures is available only in the form
of fracture statistics, we may construct realizations (or
conditional realizations) of the considered domain as we
did in the discrete fracture models, model and study
them, and derive a statistical description of their behav-
ior. However, these models are not practical when con-
sidering two-phase flow over large domains, as the inclu- Black JH and Kipp Jr KL (1983) Movement of tracers through
sion of hundreds or thousands of fractures demands
inordinately large amount of detailed input data and
computer storage.
For large-scale problems (in terms of spatial dimensions),
the dual porosity approach may be used. In this concep-
tual model, the fractured porous medium domain is rep- Brown SR and Kranz RL (1986) Correlation between the sur-
resented by two distinct, but interacting, subsystems: one
consisting of the network of fractures, and the other of
the porous blocks. Each subsystem is visualized as a con-
tinuum occupying the entire investigation domain. Inter-
action phenomena between the two continua include the
exchange of fluid between fractures and porous blocks.
Since the definitions of two continua are required, one
for the porous blocks and one for the fracture network, it
follows that the application of this model assumes the ex-
istence of a REV which is common to both subsystems. If
164 Environmental Geology 31 (3/4) June 1997 7 Q Springer-Verlag
very large distances and travel times are involved, we
may regard the entire domain as a single continuum –
the equivalent porous medium model. This kind of mod-
ation allows sufficient interaction between fluids in frac-
tures and in the matrix blocks, bringing the two systems
to a local equilibrium at every (macroscopic) point.
Although the models developed so far have the potential
to provide useful predictions of fluid flow, they can only
be used to investigate a variety of scenarios with parame-
ters being specified in the form of distributions of values.
Further effort must be made to develop geophysical, trac-
er, and pumping-test techniques, both individually and as
combined tools, to obtain a reasonable body of informa-
tion for model formulation and calibration. But even
then, predictions of fluid flow behavior in fractured rock
must be formulated and presented in a probabilistic
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