UNIT IV: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Contents

        Activity 
4.1 Results & Discussion section: Moves
                        4.2 Results & Discussion section: Extensive reading practice
                       4.3 Claims
4.4 Modality

You need to plan and then write the Results and Discussion section of a research article. What aspects will
you include and what will the section “look like”? Discuss this in small groups and note down your ideas
here.

Activity 4.1 Results and Discussion: Moves

In experimental research the last phase of the research process is to summarise the results and interpret them.
It is at this stage that the researcher puts the results together and then attempts to understand their meaning
within the general context of the research problem and topic. Questions may be asked (or even stated) such
as:

What were the major findings of the research?

What do these results mean?
What can be learnt from them?
What are their implications?
How can they contribute to existing knowledge in the research area?
What recommendations can they lead to?

Research articles sometimes differentiate between reporting and summarising results on the one hand, and
interpreting them on the other. In the former, often simply called the Results section, what we tend to see is a
report of the results obtained from the analysis of the data, usually through the use of tables, graphs, charts,
lists, and so on, together with a clear synthesis of the findings. As for interpretation, the researcher goes
beyond the results themselves towards conclusions, implications and recommendations based on the results.
In many research papers, this section is referred to as the Discussion.
However, many articles do mix the two sections together (Results and Discussion). 

Remember the “moves” we studied in previously. Perhaps the Results and Discussion section also has some
identifiable moves, though with the difference that this section tends to go from the particular to the general,
not the other way around. 

Some of the following moves may be present:

1. Background information: (Original Hypothesis) A recapitulation of main points, highlighting theoretical

information or reminding the reader of technical information.

2. Statement of Results: (Findings) An obligatory move, which may be cyclical (repeated at intervals
throughout the section). Probably, the strongest claims will be mentioned first.

1
3. (Un)expected outcome: Writer’s comments as to whether the results were expected or not. 

4. Reference to previous research: A common move. Two main sub-types: reference for purposes of
comparison with present research and references for purposes of providing support for present research.

The Conclusion and Future work part provides:

1) A summary or. Explanation: Especially used if the results are “surprising”.

2) Exemplification: To support the explanation.

3) Deduction and Hypothesis: Used to make a claim about the  universality of some or all of the reported
results.

4) Recommendation: The writer advocates the need for further research or makes suggestions about possible
lines of future investigation.

With these points in mind, read the following extracts and work out what moves are included in the
Discussion and/or Conclusions sections. 

1. 
Title: Tower Surge Impedance (M. A. Sargent & M. Darveniza, IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and
Systems, May 1969)
Abstract
Introduction
This paper describes theoretical and experimental investigations of the surge response of a transmission line
tower, undertaken to clarify its representation in the calculation of the lightning performance of a
transmission line. These investigations comprised geometric model studies and theoretical analyses of the
response of simple tower forms to surge currents of various waveshapes using electromagnetic field theory.
Geometric Model Studies 
Theoretical Analyses
Discussion
(1) The use of a geometric model to determine tower surge impedance is considered to be a theoretically
rigorous and convenient technique of measuring this parameter. (2)Results of measurements on these models,
for a range of towers, indicate that the tower surge impedance may be conveniently and accurately
represented as a constant impedance in traveling wave analysis. (3)This is demonstrated by the good
correlation achieved for all towers and waveshapes considered between measured model potentials and those
calculated assuming constant tower surge impedance, when both are examined as a function of time. (4)The
magnitudes of surge impedance determined on the model are in good agreement with values calculated using
Jordan’s formula, but differ greatly from those derived by the Wagner and Hileman formula ( ). 
2

(5)Analyses of the surge response of simple tower forms have been performed using electromagnetic field
theory as the fundamental approach. (6)The conical representation proposed for steel lattice towers is shown
to have a surge impedance which is time invariant, and hence independent of current waveshape. (7)Further,
the magnitude of the surge impedances determined  in the analysis for the conical tower (130-150 ohms) is in
good agreement with the measured values (120-150 ohms) obtained using the geometric models. (8)This
close correlation between measured and calculated tower surge impedance, both in magnitude and time
invariance, supports both the representation of a tower by a constant impedance and the use of the conical
representation of transmission line towers, instead of the usual cylindrical approximation.

2
 Move  Evidence
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

2 
Title: Self-Organizing Feature Maps and the Travelling Salesman Problem (B. Angéniol et al., Neural
Networks, Vol.1, 1988)

Abstract: Based on Kohenen’s work on self-organizing feature maps, we derive an algorithm for solving the
classical Travelling Salesman Problem. Given a set of cities defined by their positions in the plane, an
evolving population of cells, featuring duplication and selection, iteratively organizes towards a quasi-
optimal solution. Simulations on sequential machines have been carried out for problems with a thousand
cities. The algorithm naturally lends itself to implementation on a network of interconnected, analogue
processing elements.
Introduction
Previous work on TSP
Algorithm Description

Simulation Results
(1)We performed simulations on small sets of cities taken from Tank and Hopfield (1985) and from Durbin
and Willshaw (1987).
(2)The algorithm described above is the result of several variations on a basic idea derived from Kohonen’s
self organization principles (1984). (3)The one we propose gives satisfactory solutions in all cases. (4)Only
the parameter  characterizing gain decrease has to be adjusted, and the results obtained are not particularly
sensitive to it. (5)Unlike simulated annealing with temperature decrease, there is no need to use very low
values of , as no better solution would be obtained.
(6)Figure 2 shows two representative histograms of tour lengths obtained with different initial permutations
of the 30 cities used by Tank and Hopfield (see Figure 1). (7)It demonstrates that a low value of the
parameter  gives a better average, but a high value has the advantage that the optimum is sometimes
reached; it also gives a good solution in several tries in less time than one try with a low value of . (8)In
either case, a good average solution (less than 3% greater than optimum) may be obtained in 2 seconds on
classical hardware.
(9)We compared our self organization method with the elastic net method presented by Durbin and
Willshaw. (10)The results are displayed in Table 1 for their five sets of 50 cities (Figure 3) and show similar
characteristics to those above. (11)On the average, our approach is equivalent. (12)However, the possibility
of starting with a random order of the cities gives us some chance of getting better results. (13)Two particular
cases involving known optima with larger numbers of cities have helped us in our preliminary evaluation.
(14)They are given in Figure 4. 
(15)A solution found by our algorithm for a set of 1000 cities is presented in Figure 5.

3
 Move  Evidence
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1
0
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
5

Activity 4.2: Extensive reading practice

Texts (a), (b) and (c) are the results and discussion parts of the methodology sections we looked at in Unit III.

(a) SPE 63137

Integrated Flow Modeling: The Fusion of Geophysics and Reservoir Engineering

Theodore A. Pagano, SPE, Texaco Exploration and Production, Inc. John R. Fanchi, SPE, Department of Petroleum
Engineering and Thomas L. Davis, Department of Geophysics, Colorado School of Mines
Copyright 2000, Society of Petroleum Engineers Inc.

2. Duri Field
The Duri field is located in the eastern coastal plain of Central Sumatra1. The field produces approximately
300,000 b/d of high-viscosity oil from Miocene sands at depths of 200 to 900 ft. Porosity ranges from 30% to
38%, and permeability is typically greater than 1,500 md. In 1985, continuous steamflooding was employed
to reduce the oil viscosity and increase recovery by approximately 50%. Once steam communication has
been established between an injection and production well, resistance to steam flow between the two wells
falls. This results in channeling between the two wells and prohibits efficient vertical and horizontal sweep,
thereby lowering ultimate oil recovery. The Duri Field displays high porosity and a low dry-bulk modulus
due to its shallow, unconsolidated nature. In addition to steam-induced thermal effects, the high porosity and
low dry-bulk modulus are favorable for 4D seismic applicability. In 1996, a 4D seismic pilot program was
initiated at the Duri Field to monitor horizontal and vertical steam distribution in the reservoir. After only 2
months of steam injection, gas that developed due to pressure depletion was forced back into solution by the
increase in reservoir pressure from steamflooding. As explained by Fanchi and Wang, the effect of

4
disappearing gas on seismic character created observable differences in 4D seismic signature. The Duri field
operators have found that conventional steam monitoring techniques, such as temperature and tracer surveys,
often provide incomplete data that may lead to erroneous steam-management decisions. However, when
conventional techniques are coupled with 4D seismic that has the ability to detect the presence of steam a
more thorough understanding of steam distribution and channeling is established. Figure 8 is a visualization
of the probable Duri Field steam distribution as determined from 4D seismic and reservoir simulation. The
successful application of 4D seismic and reservoir simulation has been used to optimize remedial workover
design, well constraints, and production strategies to maximize the effect of steamflooding.

Conclusions
1. An integrated flow model is a powerful tool that can be used to determine the applicability of time-lapse
seismic monitoring. 
2. An integrated flow model can be used to determine the seismic response of numerous reservoir
development plans, including secondary or tertiary recovery processes. The full integration of 4D seismic
with reservoir engineering may lead to highly improved recovery efficiencies.
3. Once a 4D project has been initiated, real 4D seismic images need to be coupled with the predicted seismic
contrasts. Parameters in the integrated flow model can be constrained to match the real 4D seismic response.
This ‘seismic history match’ creates a more accurate perception of subsurface events.
4. Time-lapse seismic is still in its infancy and there is much to be learned about what 4D seismic can and
cannot be used for. No previous literature indicates that the effect of a WAG flood on 4D seismic has been
applied to a 4D feasibility study.
5. Case studies from around the globe suggest that integrated flow modeling can be successfully applied to
improve the quality of reservoir characterization, improve secondary and tertiary processes, identify
movement of fluid interfaces, and help locate by-passed reserves.

Activity 4.3: Claims

Look at these sentences taken from the three texts in 4.2. How certain do the authors seem to be with regard
to what they are writing?

(a) The successful application of 4D seismic and reservoir simulation has been used to optimize remedial
workover design, well constraints, and production strategies to maximize the effect of steamflooding.

(b) Once a 4D project has been initiated, real 4D seismic images need to be coupled with the predicted
seismic contrasts.

(c) Case studies from around the globe suggest that integrated flow modeling can be successfully applied to
improve the quality of reservoir characterization, improve secondary and tertiary processes, identify
movement of fluid interfaces, and help locate by-passed reserves.

(d) It is obvious from the figure that the compressive strength of the silica fume HSC, as is also true with
normal strength concrete (NSC), is directly related to curing duration.

(e) As expected, these figures clearly show that the hot dry outdoor environment (OD) has a negative
influence on compressive strength developed under all of the curing conditions.

(f) This regularity may be attributed to the similar influences of the curing methods, the modesty of the ID
environment, and the limited exposed portion of the specimens’ surface (only one face of the specimen is
exposed to the environment the other faces are isolated by a plastic cover; that is 1/6 of the specimens’
surfaces are exposed to the environment).

5
(g) Both DFT with least squares fitting and demodulation techniques successfully deal with large amounts of
noise and harmonics, and could be used for dynamic frequency tracking under very difficult conditions.

(h) Some improvement is possible by using advanced extrapolation techniques, which is the subject of
ongoing research.

One word we can use when discussing “certainty” is the word “claim”. In fact, the results and discussion
sections of a research article focus on making claims and then adding support for those claims. Claims can
be:-

1. 1. Statements about your ideas 

2. 2. Statements about your data 
3. 3. Statements about other people’s ideas and data 

In other words, “claim” is a very general word, and there may be many claims in a single journal article. 

Here is an example of a claim. 

 
Basic claim: An increase in alcohol consumption among teenagers caused long-term health problems. 

When the proof of your idea or data is clear, you can and perhaps should, strengthen your claim. When the
evidence is less certain, you should limit or weaken your claim. Below are some examples of strengthening
and limiting the example above. 

Examples of Stronger Claims: 

An increase  ------- A sharp increase 

caused --------undeniably caused, clearly caused, undoubtedly caused, must have caused, etc. 
long-term health problems ------widespread long-term health problems 

You could also add expressions to the beginning of the sentence: 

It is clear that an increase . . . 

A great deal of evidence leads us to conclude that an increase . . . 
We must conclude that an increase . . . 

Examples of Limited Claims: 

An increase -------a probable increase 

caused -------may have caused, seemed to have caused, contributed to, was one cause of, etc. 

Again, you could also add expressions to the beginning of the sentence: 

We have reason to believe that an increase . . . 

It is possible that an increase . . . 

6
Below is a longer list of expressions from Hyland (2004) (in  Disciplinary Discourses: Social Interactions in Academic
Writing. Ann Arbor: U of Michigan; 2004. p. 192.)  that strengthen or limit claims. Note that they have a range of
meanings, both positive and negative. 

Expressions for Strengthening a Claim

Nouns 
certainty 
evidence 
the fact that 
(without) question 

Adjectives 
assured more than undoubted inevitable sure
certain that obvious unequivocal unambiguous impossible
clear plain unmistakable true
conclusive precise unquestionable improbable
is essential reliable well-known undeniable

 
Verbs 
conclude know we find
confirm it is known that/to we think
convince perceive expect
demonstrate prove surmise
determine show

Modals 
could not 
must 
will 
will not 
would not 

Adverbs 
actually surely unambiguously obviously
definitely particularly unarguably precisely
impossibly patently undeniably convincingly
improbably plainly undoubtedly never
always reliably decidedly wrongly
assuredly quite at least rightly
certainly manifestly unequivocally necessarily
clearly more than unmistakably conclusively

Interjections 
of course  indeed 
doubtless  in fact 
7
no doubt 
Expressions for Limiting a Claim

Nouns 
assumption  tendency  conjecture probability
our belief  (general) sense  contention prediction
certain extent  implication possibility
Adjectives 
About unsure most questionable
around  unclear open to question plausible
consistent with  uncertain
Verbs 
appear imply suppose hypothesize

argue indicate surmise speculate

assume infer suspect seen (as)
believe interpret tend propose
claim perceive (we) imagine
deduce postulate suggest estimate
discern predict presume doubt

Modals 
could 
may (not)
might (not)
should 
should not 
would 
Adverbs 
admittedly hypothetically partially in theory
almost ideally perhaps theoretically
(not) always largely possibly unlikely
apparently likely predominantly usually
approximately mainly probably virtually
basically maybe quite in general
conceivably more or less rarely generally
essentially not necessarily relatively partly
evidently normally seemingly superficially
formally occasionally seldom
frequently often somewhat

 4.4Modality
One important way to make claims is through the use of certain verb forms known as modal verbs. Look at
the basic uses of these verbs and then do activity (a) :-   
Expressing opinion:

(a) certainty 
will                              will not (won’t) 
must                            cannot (can’t) 
8
(b) probability
should                         (be) probably 
(be) likely to               (be) not likely to 

(c) possibility 
may                             may not  could
might                           might not  (be) possible

Expressing capacity/ability/theoretical possibility

can                                          cannot 
could  (be) impossible

Expressing necessity/obligation
must                                        do not have to 
have to                                    do not need to 
need to
(be) necessary 
(be) required

Expressing advice/recommendation
should 
ought to 

Expressing prohibition
must not 
(a) Choose the best form (sometimes both are possible.)

1. We ______ win, but I don’t think there’s much chance. (may, might) 
2. I ______ ask you to help me later. (may, might)
3. That _______ be her daughter – they’re nearly the same age. (can’t, mustn’t)
4. We ______ decide to go to Merida again at Easter. (may, can) 
5. There ________ be enough room on the bus – we’ll have to wait and see. (may not,
     can’t)
 6. You _________ get in without a ticket – not a chance. (may not,  can’t)
 7. You absolutely _______ go and see Liz. (must, should)

Homework task: reading and analyzing

Take the results and discussion section from an article of interest to you. Analyze it, both in terms of its main
textual features (moves) as well as noting how claims are made (whether they are strong claims or limited
claims).
a) In the discussion or the results session identify the parts it has and underline the words or phrases that
justify your choice.

1. Background information: (Original Hypothesis)

2. Statement of Results: (Findings)

9
 3. (Un)expected outcome

4. Reference to previous research

b) In the conclusion session identify the parts it has and underline the words or phrases that justify your
choice.
1) A summary or. Explanation: Especially used if the results are “surprising”.

2) Exemplification: To support the explanation.

3) Deduction and Hypothesis

4) Recommendation

10