Particle-Size
Reduction
Department Editor: Scott Jenkins
F
or most solids-processing operations in
the chemical process industries (CPI),
particle-size reduction and screen-
ing (classification) to achieve the desired
particle-size are required, since processes
rarely produce the desired size directly.
When designing processes, selecting
equipment and looking for ways to increase
efficiency, CPI engineers must understand
the size-reduction behavior of the solid
materials in their processes. To do so, they
need to evaluate the following set of key
properties:
• Particle-size distribution in the feed
• Particle shape
• Bulk density
• Flowability, cohesiveness and
adhesiveness
• Corrosivity and composition
• Moisture content
• Hardness, brittleness and friability
• Moisture content
• Fibrous morphology
• Abrasiveness
• Stickiness
• Elasticity, plasticity and ductility
• Dust explosion characteristics
• Temperature sensitivity (degradation,
stickiness and phase change)
• Toxicity
• Oil and fat content
• Reactivity or release of gases
• Shock sensitivity or explosiveness
Size-reduction mechanisms
To fracture particles, communition equipment
must impart sufficient stress to the material
so that it fractures as a result. Compression
stress and impact stress are common, but
other types exist. There are seven types of
stresses that can be imparted to achieve size
reduction, including the following:
• Compression between two rigid surfaces
• Compression between surfaces and adja-
cent bed of solids
• Shearing forces by mechanical means
(tearing, cleaving, cutting or shredding)
• Shearing forces due to surrounding media
• High-velocity impact against a rigid
surface
• Particle-particle impact that causes break-
age and shattering
• Abrasion during particle-wall and particle-
particle impacts
The energy efficiency of size reduction
equipment tends to be low, and improve-
ment of energy efficiency continues to be
a key issue for both technology developers
and users (Table 1).
Estimating breakage energy
The energy required for particle-size reduc-
tion is the key to designing and specifying
grinding equipment. Particle-size reduction
is a complex process where quantification
of each contributing component is extremely
difficult. It is, however, possible to make
reasonable approximations using empirical Table 1. Standard range of
relationships developed by Rittinger, Kick efficiencies for size-reduction
and Bond [1–3]. equipment [4]
Rittinger postulated that the energy re-
quired for particle-size reduction is directly Equipment type Typical
efficiency, %
proportional to the amount of new surface
area created. Jaw and roll crushers 70–90
 1 1 Impact crushers 30–40
E = CR  − 
 dp d f  Roller-ring mills 1–15
(1)
Ball mills 5–10
Where:
CR = constant, kWh-m/ton Impact mills 1–10
E = breakage energy per unit mass of
feed, kWh/ton
Impact mills
df = particle size of feed, m
With impact comminution, kinetic energy
dp = particle size of final product, m
of the particles to be reduced is used to
Kick applied the fundamentals of plastic
generate the degree of deformation that
deformation theory and proposed that the
is required for fracture. A prerequisite for
energy required for particle-size reduction
impact comminution is to have a material
was proportional to the ratio of volume of
that behaves in a brittle-elastic manner. A
feed particle to product particle.
material is said to be brittle-elastic if the
d  deformation of the product is initially pro-
E = CK ln  f  portional to the applied stress, and the frac-
 dp  ture occurs suddenly. In the linear range,
(2)
the particle deformation is elastic and
Where:
reversible, but as soon as higher stresses
CK = constant, kWh/ton
are experienced, the material strength is
E = breakage energy per unit mass of
exceeded locally, and cracks are triggered.
feed, kWh/ton
The cracks grow extremely fast and lead to
df = particle size of feed, µm
the destruction of the particle.
dp = particle size of final product, µm
From experiments on single-particle
Bond’s approach, which gives reason-
impacts, the following information has been
able approximation for most common
learned: that a minimum fracture energy
size-reduction processes, was based on
must be applied to the particle for fracture
industrial and laboratory data.
to occur; that the probability of fracture
 100 100  is dependent on the kinetic energy of the
E = CB  −  particles; and that the resultant particle-size
 dp df  distribution is dependent on the properties
(3)
of the material being processed.
Where:
There are several types of impact mills.
CB = Bond’s work index, kWh/ton
Milling technologies are often better suited
E = breakage energy per unit mass of
to specific applications:
feed, kWh/ton
• Mechanical impact mills
df = Particle size of feed defined as the
• Classic rotor impact mill
sieve size though which 80% of the
• Pin mill with two rotating pin discs
feed would pass through, µm
• Long gap mills
dp = Particle size of product, as defined as
• Fine impact mills with air classifiers
the sieve size through which 80% of
• Jet mills
the product would pass, µm
Bond’s work index, by definition, is the References
energy required per unit mass to reduce
1. Bernotat, S. and Schonert, K. Size Reduction,
the particle size from infinity to 100 µm.
in “Ullmann’s Encyclopedia of Industrial Chem-
It is independent of particle size, but does istry,” John Wiley & Sons, 2000.
depend on the machine and mechanism of
2. Rhodes, M., “Introduction to Particle Technol-
size reduction.
ogy,” 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons, 2008.
Wet grinding 3. Fayed, M. and Otten, L., “Handbook of
Powder Science and Technology,” 2nd ed.,
In wet grinding, the surrounding medium is
Chapman and Hall, 1997
liquid, as opposed to dry grinding, where
gas is the surrounding medium. Wet grind- 4. Dhodapkar, S. and Theuerkauf, J. Maximizing
Performance In Size Reduction, Chem. Eng.,
ing should be considered in cases where June 2011, pp. 45–48.
the material is prone to dust explosions and
5. Furchner, B, Fine Grinding with Impact Mills,
static charging, or when the material is
Chem. Eng., August 2009, pp. 26–33.
toxic and dust containment is difficult. Also
wet grinding can be used when the final Editor’s note: The content from this edition of “Facts
product size is extremely fine (production of at Your Fingertips” was adapted from the articles
nanoparticles is possible with wet grinding). listed in refs. 4 and 5.