Psy2A

Axial Skeleton and Appendicular Skeleton

AXIAL SKELETON

- forms the vertical, central axis of the body and includes all bones of the head, neck, chest, and back
- serves to protect the brain, spinal cord, heart, and lungs
- serves as the attachment site for muscles that move the head, neck, and back, and for muscles that act
across the shoulder and hip joints to move their corresponding limbs.

The axial skeleton of the adult consists of 80 bones, including the skull, the vertebral column, and the
thoracic cage.

Skull

- supports the structures of the face and protect the brain

- Fourteen facial bones form the face, provide cavities for the sense organs
- protect the entrances to the digestive and respiratory tracts, and serve as attachment points for facial
muscles.
- auditory ossicles of the middle ear transmit sounds from the air as vibrations to the fluid-filled cochlea
- hyoid bone acts as a movable base for the tongue and is connected to muscles of the jaw, larynx, and
tongue
- mandible articulates with the base of the skull, controlling the opening to the airway and gut.

Vertebral Column

- surrounds and protects the spinal cord, supports the head, and acts as an attachment point for the ribs
and muscles of the back and neck

Each vertebral body has a large hole in the center through which the nerves of the spinal cord pass. There
is also a notch on each side through which the spinal nerves, which serve the body at that level, can exit from
the spinal cord. The names of the spinal curves correspond to the region of the spine in which they occur.
The thoracic and sacral curves are concave, while the cervical and lumbar curves are convex. The arched
curvature of the vertebral column increases its strength and flexibility, allowing it to absorb shocks like a
spring.

Thoracic Cage

- the skeleton of the chest.

- consists of the ribs, sternum, thoracic vertebrae, and costal cartilages.
- encloses and protects the organs of the thoracic cavity, including the heart and lungs.
- provides support for the shoulder girdles and upper limbs, and serves as the attachment point for the
diaphragm, muscles of the back, chest, neck, and shoulders.
- changes in the volume of the thorax enable breathing.
- The sternum, or breastbone, is a long, flat bone located at the anterior of the chest.
o formed from three bones that fuse in the adult.
- The ribs are 12 pairs of long, curved bones that attach to the thoracic vertebrae and curve toward the
front of the body, forming the ribcage.
- Costal cartilages connect the anterior ends of the ribs to the sternum, with the exception of rib pairs 11
and 12, which are free-floating ribs.
APPENDICULAR SKELETON

- composed of the bones of the upper limbs (which function to grasp and manipulate objects) and the lower
limbs (which permit locomotion).
- includes the pectoral (or shoulder) girdle and the pelvic girdle, which attach the upper and lower limbs to
the body, respectively.

Pectoral Girdle

- providing the points of attachment of the upper limbs to the axial skeleton
- consists of the clavicle (or collarbone) in the anterior, as well as the scapula (or shoulder blades) in the
posterior.
- The clavicles, S-shaped bones that position the arms on the body, lie horizontally across the front of the
thorax (chest) just above the first rib.

Upper Limbs

- contain 30 bones in three regions: the arm (shoulder to elbow), the forearm (ulna and radius), and the
wrist and hand.
- The humerus is the largest and longest bone of the upper limb and the only bone of the arm.
o articulates (joins) with the scapula at the shoulder and with the forearm at the elbow.

Pelvic Girdle

- attaches to the lower limbs of the axial skeleton and is responsible for bearing the weight of the body and
for locomotion.
- securely attached to the axial skeleton by strong ligaments.
- has deep sockets with robust ligaments to securely attach the femur to the body.
- strengthened by two large hip bones.
- The pelvis joins together in the anterior of the body the pubic symphysis joint and with the bones of the
sacrum at the posterior of the body.

Lower Limbs

- consists of the thigh, the leg, and the foot.

- The bones of the lower limb are the femur (thigh bone), patella (kneecap), tibia and fibula (bones of the
leg), tarsals (bones of the ankle), and metatarsals and phalanges (bones of the foot).
- The bones of the lower limbs are thicker and stronger than the bones of the upper limbs because of the
need to support the entire weight of the body along with the resulting forces from locomotion.
Bone Shapes

Five types of bones in the human body:

Long bones: - These are mostly compacted bone with little marrow and include most of
the bones in the limbs.

o These bones tend to support weight and help movement.

Short bones: Only a thin layer of compact bone, these include bones of the wrist and
ankle.

Flat bones: Usually bones that are thin and curved.

o They consist of two outer layers of compact bone and an inner layer of spongy
bone.
o include most of the bones of the skull and the sternum or breastbone.
o tend to have a protective role.

Irregular bones: - As their name implies, these are bones that do not fit into the first four
categories and are an unusual shape.

o include the bones of the spine and pelvis.

o often protecting organs or tissues.
BONE STRUCTURES

Bones are composed of two layers of issue:

Compact (cortical) bone: A hard outer layer that is dense, strong, and durable. It makes
up around 80 percent of adult bone mass.

Cancellous (trabecular or spongy) bone: This consists of a network of trabeculae or

rod-like structures. It is lighter, less dense, and more flexible than compact bone.

A long bone has two parts: the diaphysis and the epiphysis.

diaphysis

- the tubular shaft that runs between the proximal and distal ends of the bone.

- hollow region in the diaphysis is called the medullary cavity, which is filled with yellow
marrow.

- walls of the diaphysis are composed of dense and hard compact bone.

epiphysis

- wider section at each end of the bone

- filled with spongy bone.
- Red marrow fills the spaces in the spongy bone.
- each epiphysis meets the diaphysis at the metaphysis, the narrow area that contains the
epiphyseal plate (growth plate), a layer of hyaline (transparent) cartilage in a growing bone.

Endosteum

- a delicate membranous lining in the medullar cavity

- where bone growth, repair, and remodeling occur.

Periosteum

- a fibrous membrane covering the outer surface of the bone

- contains blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic vessels that nourish compact bone.
- Tendons and ligaments also attach to bones at the periosteum.
- covers the entire outer surface except where the epiphyses meet other bones to form
joints ([link]). In this region,

Articular Cartilage

- a thin layer of cartilage that reduces friction and acts as a shock absorber, covers the
epishyses.
VERTEBRAL COLUMN

The vertebral column has four main functions:

- Protection – encloses and protects the spinal cord within the spinal canal.

- Support – carries the weight of the body above the pelvis.

- Axis – forms the central axis of the body.

- Movement – has roles in both posture and movement.

Structure of a Vertebrae

All vertebrae share a basic common structure. They each consist of an anterior vertebral
body, and a posterior vertebral arch.

Vertebral Body

- It is the weight-bearing component, and vertebrae in the lower portion of the column have
larger bodies than those in the upper portion

Vertebral Arch

- The vertebral arch forms the lateral and posterior aspect of each vertebrae

Spinous processes

- each vertebra has a single spinous process, centred posteriorly at the point of the arch.

Transverse processes

- each vertebra has two transverse processes, which extend laterally and posteriorly from
the vertebral body. In the thoracic vertebrae, the transverse processes articulate with the ribs.

Pedicles

- connect the vertebral body to the transverse processes.

Lamina

- connect the transverse and spinous processes.

Articular processes

- form joints between one vertebra and its superior and inferior counterparts. The articular
processes are located at the intersection of the laminae and pedicles.

Classifications of Vertebrae

Cervical Vertebrae

Bifid spinous process – the spinous process bifurcates at its distal end.

Transverse foramina – an opening in each transverse process, through which the

vertebral arteries travel to the brain.

Thoracic Vertebrae

thoracic vertebra has two demi facets

- Transverse processes of the thoracic vertebrae, there is a costal facet for articulation with
the shaft of a single rib. For example, the head of Rib 2 articulates with the inferior demi
facet of thoracic vertebra 1 (T1) and the superior demi facet of T2, while the shaft of Rib 2
articulates with the costal facets of T2.

- Spinous processes of thoracic vertebrae are oriented obliquely inferiorly and posteriorly.
In contrast to the cervical vertebrae, the vertebral foramen of thoracic vertebrae is circular.

Lumbar Vertebrae

- have very large vertebral bodies, which are kidney shaped. They lack the characteristic
features of other vertebrae, with no transverse foramina, costal facets, or bifid spinous
processes.

Sacrum and Coccyx

sacrum is a collection of five fused vertebrae. It is described as an inverted triangle, with

the apex pointing inferiorly

coccyx is a small bone which articulates with the apex of the sacrum. It is recognised by
its lack of vertebral arches.

Joints and Ligaments

Two ligaments strengthen the vertebral body joints.

- anterior longitudinal ligament is thick and prevents hyperextension of the vertebral column.

- posterior longitudinal ligament is weaker and prevents hyperflexion.

The joints between the articular facets, called facet joints, allow for some gliding motions between
the vertebrae. They are strengthened by several ligaments:

Ligamentum flavum – extends between lamina of adjacent vertebrae.

Interspinous and supraspinous – join the spinous processes of adjacent vertebrae. The
interspinous ligaments attach between processes, and the supraspinous ligaments attach
to the tips.

Intertransverse ligaments – extends between transverse processes.

Joints

- Immovable joints allow no movement because the bones at these joints are held securely
together by dense collagen.
- Partly movable joints allow only very limited movement. Bones at these joints are held in
place by cartilage.
- Movable joints allow the most movement. Bones at these joints are connected by
ligaments.

Types of Movable Joints

- ball-and-socket joint - the ball-shaped surface of one bone fits into the cup-like shape
of another
- hinge joint- the ends of the bones are shaped in a way that allows motion in two
directions, forward and backward.
- pivot joint - only allows rotating movement.
- gliding joint - a joint which allows only gliding movement

Three types of immovable joints

Sutures - These narrow fibrous joints connect bones of the skull

Syndesmosis- This type of fibrous joint connects two bones that are relatively far apart

Gomphosis- This type of fibrous joint holds a tooth in place in its socket in the upper and
lower jaw.
TENDONS

- fall into the connective tissue category.

- built by building up and combining multiple layers of connective tissue.
- a dense band of connective tissue which connects a muscle to a bone and transmits the
force which the muscle exerts.
- made up of connective tissue known as collagen; this same tissue is found in ligaments
and fascia
- come in different shapes and sizes; the most recognizable shape is the long thin kind
(such as the Achilles tendon), but they can also be flat and thin or very thick, depending
on the shape of the muscle and attachment of the bone
- A thin flat tendon is also known by the name ‘aponeurosis’.
- bound together in tight sheets so that when a muscle contracts, tension is created in the
tendons and this will pull against the bone to cause movement.
LIGAMENTS

- made out of connective tissue that has a lot of strong collagen fibers in it.
- found in different shapes and sizes in the body.
- some look like pieces of string, others look like narrow or wide bands.
- often connect two bones together, particularly in the joints:
- stabilize the joint or hold the ends of two bones together.
- ensures that the bones in the joint don’t twist too much or move too far apart and become
dislocated.
- help to maintain stability in the body.
- there are also some ligaments that aren’t connected to bones
SKULL

- supports the musculature and structures of the face and forms a protective cavity for the
brain.
- formed of several bones which, with the exception of the mandible, are joined together
by sutures—synarthrodial (immovable) joints.

The skull bones, with a few exceptions, are connected by immovable joints called sutures. Some
of the major sutures are:

Lambdoid suture - between the occipital and parietal bones. Sutural bones are often found here.

Sagittal suture - between the parietal bones.

Coronal suture - between the frontal and parietal bones.

Squamous suture - between the parietal and temporal bones.

Frontonasal suture - between the frontal and nasal bones.

Bones of the Cranium

Occipital Bone

- contributes to the posterior, lateral and inferior surfaces of the cranium. The following
features are found on this bone:

foramen magnum - large circular opening that connects the cranial and spinal cavities.

occipital condyles - processes that articulate with the first cervical vertebra.

external occipital protuberance - midline bump on the external surface.

jugular notch - together with the temporal bone forms the jugular foramen.

hypoglossal canal - openings superior to the occipital condyles through which the
hypoglossal nerves pass.

Parietal Bones

- contribute to the superior and lateral surface of the cranium.

Frontal Bone

The frontal bones have frontal and orbital parts.

Frontal (Squamous) Part - the part of the frontal bone that underlies the forehead.
 o frontal (metopic) suture - suture between the frontal bones that usually
disappears by age 8.
o supraorbital margin - edge of the frontal part that forms the superior border of
the orbits.
o supraorbital foramen or notch - opening or notch in the middle of the supraorbital
margin.
o superciliary arches - thickened ridges over the supraorbital margins that supports
the eyebrows.

Orbital Part - the part that forms the roof of the orbit.

o lacrimal fossa - depression on the inferior surface of the orbital part that
accommodates the lacrimal gland

Temporal Bones

- contribute to the lateral and inferior walls of the cranium. The temporal bone can be divided
into three parts:

Squamous part

The squamous part forms the lateral surface that borders the squamous suture. Features
found here include:

o zygomatic process - forms the inferior margin of the squamous part. This process
with the temporal process of the zygomatic bone forms the zygomatic arch
(cheekbone).
o mandibular fossa - depression on the inferior base of the zygomatic process that
articulates with the mandible.
o articular tubercle - elevation anterior to the mandibular fossa.

Tympanic part

This part is the region that surrounds the external acoustic meatus or external auditory canal.
This passageway ends as a tympanic membrane.

Petrous part

This is the largest most massive part of the temporal bone that houses the senses of hearing
and balance. Features on this part are:

o mastoid process - bulge posterior and inferior to the external acoustic meatus.
Contains mastoid sinuses.
o styloid process - sharp process near the mastoid process to which ligaments and
tendons attach.
o stylomastoid foramen - opening between the base of the styloid and mastoid
processes through which the facial nerve passes.
 o jugular fossa - depression on the temporal bone that together with the jugular
notch of the occipital bone forms the jugular foramen.
o carotid canal - passageway by which the internal carotid artery penetrates the
skull and reaches the brain.
o foramen lacerum - jagged opening between the temporal and occipital bones.
This is not an opening in the living skull as it is closed by hyaline cartilage.
o internal acoustic meatus - canal on the medial side of the petrous part through
which nerves and vessels supplying the inner ear and the facial nerve pass.

Sphenoid

- articulates with every other cranial bone.

- most are hidden by more superficial bones.
- can be divided into the following parts:
o Body
▪ the central portion of the sphenoid.
▪ A prominent feature of the body is the sella turcica ("Turkish saddle") that
forms a bony enclosure around the pituitary gland. The sella turcica can
be divided into the following parts:
• hypophyseal fossa - depression in which the pituitary gland rests
("seat of saddle").
• tuberculum sellae - anterior border of the sella turcica ("horn of
saddle").
o optic groove - groove directly anterior to the tuberculum
sellae.
o optic canals - openings at either end of the optic groove
through which the optic nerves pass.
• dorsum sellae - posterior border of the sella turcica ("back of
saddle").

Ethmoid

This irregular bone forms part of the orbital complex, floor of the cranium, roof of the nasal cavity,
and part of the nasal septum. Features of this bone include:

- cribriform plate - superior surface of the ethmoid perforated by olfactory foramina

through which the olfactory nerves pass.
- crista galli - prominent ridge in the middle of the cribriform plate and an attachment point
for the falx cerebri.
- lateral masses - entire bony masses attached on either side of the cribriform plate. The
lateral masses include:
o superior nasal conchae and middle nasal conchae - scroll-like medial
projections into the nasal cavity.
o ethmoidal labyrinth - cells in the interior of the lateral masses that open into the
nasal cavity.
- perpendicular plate - bony partition underneath the cribriform plate that forms part of the
nasal septum.