Accepted Manuscript

Constitutive modeling of shape memory alloys under cyclic loading

considering permanent strain effects

M.J. Ashrafi

PII: S0167-6636(18)30641-0
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mechmat.2018.11.013
Reference: MECMAT 2952

To appear in: Mechanics of Materials

Received date: 13 September 2018

Revised date: 14 November 2018
Accepted date: 26 November 2018

Please cite this article as: M.J. Ashrafi, Constitutive modeling of shape memory alloys un-
der cyclic loading considering permanent strain effects, Mechanics of Materials (2018), doi:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mechmat.2018.11.013

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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Highlights

• Proposing a three dimensional constitutive model for cyclic loading of SMAs.

• Capable of considering mutual effects of transformation and permanent strains.

• Elastic and transformation degradation are included in the model.

• Accurately predicting permanent strain evolution during cyclic loading.

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• Both mechanical and thermal cyclic loadings were studied.

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Constitutive modeling of shape memory alloys under cyclic loading

considering permanent strain effects

M. J. Ashrafia,∗
a School of Mechanical Engineering, Iran University of Science and Technology, Tehran, Iran

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Abstract

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In many applications of shape memory alloys, the structure experiences a cyclic thermomechanical loading.

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The present work develops a phenomenological constitutive model for permanent strain evolution in shape
memory alloys (SMAs) under cyclic loading. To this end, proper internal variables and material parameters
together with free energy and limit function are introduced. The model is able to predict hysteresis loop

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and its changes by evolution of permanent strain. To show the model capability, we calibrate the model
and predict two different sets of experiments. Moreover, the proposed model capability in predicting degra-
dation effects as well as evolution rate and stabilization of permanent strain is carefully studied through
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several parametric studies. Finally, we show that the model and its numerical implementation is capable in
multiaxial non-proportional loadings as well as thermal cyclic loading.
Keywords: Shape memory alloys, cyclic loading, permanent strain, Phase transformation
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1. Introduction

Shape memory alloys (SMAs) have unique features (shape memory effect and pseudoelasticity), which
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make them good candidates in many industries as actuators and energy harvesting and energy damping
applications (Hosseini et al., 2018; Lagoudas, 2008; Song et al., 2006; Otsuka and Wayman, 1998). In these
applications, the structure components are often subjected to a kind of cyclic loading including pure mechan-
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ical or thermomechanical cyclic loading. Therefore, understanding and predicting the cyclic deformation of
superelastic and shape-memory of SMAs is important. Experimental evidences show that under cyclic load-
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ing even below yield stress, a considerable amount of permanent strain is accumulated as well as the strain
due to phase transformation. Since the applied stress is lower than the yielding strength of austenite or
martensite phase, no really plastic deformation occurs in the super-elastic NiTi alloy, and the accumulation
of permanent strain during the cyclic loading is mainly due to the incomplete reverse transformation after
each unloading (Kang and Kan, 2017; Morin et al., 2011). This phenomenon is denoted as transformation

∗ Corresponding author. Tel: +98 21 7322 8960, Fax: +98 21 7724 0488.

E-mail address: mj ashrafi@iust.ac.ir

Preprint submitted to Mechanics of Materials November 27, 2018

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ratchetting in the literature (see for example, Song et al. (2014a,b); Kang et al. (2009)). Here we denote
the strain due to this effect as permanent strain. This permanent strain saturates on a stable value after a
certain number of cycles. Figures 1d and 2d show two examples of the stress-strain curve for SMA samples
performed by Lagoudas (2008) and Saedi et al. (2018). Carefully studying experimental data on cyclic be-
havior of shape memory alloys reveals that by accumulation of permanent strain, the following phenomena
may occur:

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• The stresses for forward and reverse transformation decrease with cycle.

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• The evolution rate of permanent strain decreases with cycle and finally stabilizes.

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• The transformation hardening (both forward and reverse) increases with cycle.

• The width and height of the hysteresis loop decrease with cycle.

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• The recoverable part of the transformation strain decreases with cycle.

• The elastic properties degrade with cycle.

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• The maximum strain increases under a constant cyclic stress loading.

Several constitutive models have been proposed for ratcheting effect or permanent strain evolution under
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cyclic loading. Bo and Lagoudas (1999a,b); Lagoudas and Bo (1999) studied SMAs under cyclic loading and
presented a constitutive model for plastic strain evolution and two way shape memory effect. Lagoudas and
Entchev (2004) presented a model for simultaneous evolution of plastic and transformation strains during
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cyclic loading of SMAs. The model is capable of controlling the shape and size of the hysteresis loop. In
this regard, Lagoudas (2008) summarized the recent researches and presented a model for accumulation of
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permanent strain and its effects on phase transformation. In this work, permanent strain evolves during
loading and unloading and the material parameters which are dependent on permanent strain are updated
at the start of the new cycle. Auricchio et al. (2007) proposed a three dimensional constitutive model
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for permanent strain evolution during phase transformation which is capable of predicting degradation
of transformation properties. Panico and Brinson (2008) proposed a constitutive model for permanent
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inelasticity of SMAs in order to simulate porous SMAs. Hartl and Lagoudas (2009) presented a constitutive
model for simultaneous evolution of transformation and plastic strains and studied local buckling of an
SMA structure. Saint-Sulpice et al. (2009) proposed a 3-D macroscopic constitutive model for super-elastic
behavior of shape memory alloys under cyclic loading. They considered the effects of plasticity by introducing
accumulated transformation strain as a new parameter. They extended their work in a later research
(Saint-Sulpice et al., 2012) by presenting a model which considers permanent strain and shape memory
effect. Barrera et al. (2014) extended Auricchio et al. (2007) model by introducing macroscopic plastic

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strain as a function of permanent strain. They also discussed different definitions of dissipation function
and studied functional fatigue of shape memory alloys. Yu et al. (2014, 2017) proposed crystal plasticity
base constitutive models for inelastic mechanisms of shape memory alloys including degeneration of shape
memory effect. Moreover, Ashrafi et al. (2016a,b) proposed phenomenological constitutive models for dense
and porous SMAs considering evolution of plastic strain during or after phase transformation. Recently,
Karamooz-Ravari et al. (2018) presented a model for cyclic plasticity of shape memory alloys based on
Microplane theory. The model assumes two distinct mechanisms for phase transformation and plasticity

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and predict the shape memory and superelasticity of cellular NiTi samples.

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In this work which is an extension of the model propsed by Souza et al. (1998) and improvements by
Auricchio et al. (2007), we propose a three-dimensional constitutive model for shape memory alloys under

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cyclic loading in the framework of irreversible thermodynamics. In this regard, the main features observed
in cyclic experiments are included in the constitutive model. The main extensions and improvements of the

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present model are as follow. The present model is capable of describing independent forward and reverse
degradation and therefore the height of the hysteresis loop can change during evolution of permanent strain.
Also, transformation hardening can change during evolution of permanent strain. Moreover, according to
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experiments, permanent strain evolution rate decreases and finally stabilizes. Finally, the degradation of
the elastic properties is included in the present model. However, in the model proposed by Auricchio et al.
(2007) both forward and reverse transformation stresses degrade identically and the hardening parameter is
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constant during evolution of permanent strain. Moreover, the evolution rate of permanent strain is constant
during cyclic loading and the degradation of elastic properties is not included.
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To this end, by introducing a permanent strain internal variable and proper material parameters, cou-
pling effects between permanent, elastic and transformation strains are considered and various features
observed during cyclic laoding are captured. The present paper is organized as follows. The proposed three-
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dimensional phenomenological model is presented in Section 2. Section 3 describes the time discretization
and solution algorithm. In Section 4 validation, numerical results, and a comprehensive study on the material
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parameters of the models are presented. Summary and conclusions are finally drawn in Section 5.

2. 3-D constitutive modeling for SMAs under cyclic loading

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This section addresses a three-dimensional phenomenological constitutive model for SMAs under cyclic
loading. In this regard, the Souza model is extended to include ratchetting effects. Inspiring from Auricchio
et al. (2007), a new internal variable q called permanent strain is introduced. Total strain ε is decomposed
into deviatoric strain e and volumetric strain θ as:

θ
ε=e+ 1 (1)
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where 1 is the second-order identity tensor. Assuming small strains, we consider the additive decomposition
of deviatoric strain:
e = eel + etr (2)

where eel , etr are elastic and transformation strains, respectively. It is noted that ratcheting is a transfor-
mation induced phenomenon and permanent strain is physically a portion of transformation strain which is
not recoverable. Therefore, in the strain decomposition, we only include elastic and transformation strains.

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In the model, we assume the deviatoric and volumetric strains (e and θ) and the absolute temperature
T as control variables, and the transformation and permanent strains (etr and q) as internal variables. The

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Helmholtz free energy function Ψ is considered as a function of such control and internal variables, i.e.,

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Ψ = Ψ (e, θ, T, etr , q). To include the ratchetting effect as well as superelasticity and shape memory effect,
we introduce the following Helmholtz free energy function:
1 2 2
Ψ = K(q)(θ) + G(q) e − etr − 3αK(q)θ (T − T0 ) + β(q) hT − Tm i etr − q
2
1 2 1 2

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+ h(q) etr − q + H kqk + ϕεL etr + (u0 − T η0 ) + c [(T − T0 ) − T ln (T /T0 )]
2 2
(3)
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where K(q) and G(q) are the bulk and shear elastic moduli; h(q) and H are material parameters defining
the transformation and permanent strain kinematic hardening, respectively; Tm is a reference temperature
related to starting temperature of transformation; β(q) is a material parameter related to the dependency
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of the critical stress on the temperature; h•i is the positive part function. Moreover, α and c are the thermal
expansion and the heat capacity coefficients, while u0 and η0 are internal energy and entropy at reference
temperature T0 . Finally, the material parameter εL corresponds to the maximum effective transformation
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strain reached at the end of the transformation during a uniaxial test. To satisfy such a constraint, the
saturation function ϕεL is introduced as:

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tr
 0 if ketr k ≤ εL
ϕ εL e = (4)
 +∞ otherwise
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Since the present model is an extension of Souza model, In the following we explain the extensions and
compare them with other extensions performed by Auricchio et al. (2007) and Barrera et al. (2014):
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• By introducing the internal variable q, the term β hT − Tm i ketr k in the Souza model is replaced
by β(q) hT − Tm i ketr − qk. In this way, instead of complete recovery (etr = 0), partial recovery of
transformation (etr = q) is predicted by the present model. Therefore, by accumulation of permanent
strain, the recoverable strain decreases. Moreover, due to coupling effects between transformation and
permanent strains, we assume material parameter β (in the Souza model) as a function of permanent
strain and denote it as β(q). Compared to previous extensions, including coupling effects by β(q) is
an improvement in the present work.

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• The elastic constants were considered as functions of permanent strain (K(q) and G(q)). In this way
degradation of elastic properties can be modeled while the previous extensions by Auricchio et al.
(2007) and Barrera et al. (2014) do not consider this effect.

1 tr 2 1 tr 2
• The term 2 h ke k in the Souza model was replaced by 2 h(q) ke − qk , in which the hardening
parameter is a function of permanent strain. In this way, we are enabled to model variation of
transformation hardening due to accumulation of permanent strain. Barrera et al. (2014) included

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this extension but the hardening parameter was assumed constant during cyclic loading.

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• By introducing a permanent strain hardening parameter H, the term 12 H kqk models the hardening
behavior due to ratchetting as well as saturation of permanent strain after a specific permanent strain.

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This extension is similar to what performed by Auricchio et al. (2007) and Barrera et al. (2014).

To derive the constitutive equations and thermodynamic forces, the second law of thermodynamics should

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be satisfied. Considering the Helmholtz free energy function in Eq. (4), the mechanical dissipation energy
Dm is expressed using the Clausius-Duhem inequality as follows:
 
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Dm = σ : ε̇ − Ψ̇ + η Ṫ ≥ 0 (5)

where σ is the stress tensor, η the entropy and a dot superscript indicates the derivative with respect to
time. Substituting Eqs. (1) and (2) into Eq. (5), we obtain:
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∂Ψ ∂Ψ ∂Ψ ∂Ψ ∂Ψ
Dm = s − : ė + p − θ̇ + − − η Ṫ − tr : ėtr − : q̇ ≥ 0 (6)
∂e ∂θ ∂T ∂e ∂q
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where we also decomposed the stress σ into its deviatoric and volumetric parts s and p as:

σ = s + p1 (7)
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To satisfy inequality (6), following standard arguments we can derive the constitutive equations and ther-
modynamic forces as below:
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∂Ψ ∂Ψ ∂Ψ ∂Ψ ∂Ψ
s= , p= , η=− , X = − tr , Q = − (8)
∂e ∂θ ∂T ∂e ∂q

where X and Q are the thermodynamic forces associated to the transformation and permanent strains,
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respectively. Based on relations (8), the mechanical dissipation inequality (6) reduces to

Dm = X : ėtr + Q : q̇ ≥ 0 (9)

Recalling the transformation and ratcheting behavior described in Section 1, we introduce a single convex
limit function for phase transformation and ratcheting behavior:
q
2 2 (10)
F = kXk + κkQk − R(q)
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where R(q) is the radii of the elastic domain as a function of permanent strain, and κ is a material parameter
accounting for rate of permanent strain evolution compared with transformation strain evolution.
To satisfy the second law of thermodynamics or the dissipation inequality (9), we introduce the following
associative flow rules for the internal variables:
∂F X
ėtr = ζ̇ = ζ̇ q (11)
∂X 2 2
kXk + κkQk

∂F κQ

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q̇ = ζ̇ = ζ̇ q (12)
∂Q 2 2
kXk + κkQk

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where the Lagrange multiplier ζ̇ should satisfy the Kuhn-Tucker conditions:

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ζ̇ ≥ 0, F ≤ 0, ζ̇F = 0 (13)

As discussed by Barrera et al. (2014), different limit functions can be defined based on deriving forces

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X and Q. While Auricchio et al. (2007) used l1 norm as F = kXk + κ kQk − R, here we use a l2 norm. In
this way, compared to Auricchio et al. (2007), no regularization is needed and evolution rate of permanent
strain is better described by Eq. 12.
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Therefore, the constitutive equations and thermodynamic forces introduced in Eqs. (8) may be expressed
as:


 ∂Ψ

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


 s= = 2G(q) e − etr

 ∂e



 ∂Ψ



 p= = K(q) [θ − 3α (T − T0 )]
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
 ∂θ





 ∂Ψ β(q) hT − Tm i ketr − qk

η = − = η0 + 3αKθ − + c ln (T /T0 )
∂T |T − Tm |

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


 ∂Ψ etr − q etr

 X = − = s − β(q) hT − T i − γ − h(q)(etr − q)

 ∂e tr m
ketr − qk ketr k





 etr − q
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
 ∂Ψ ∂K 2 ∂G ∂β
1 ∂h tr

 Q = − = − (θ) − e − etr 2 + β hT − Tm i − hT − Tm i etr − q − e − q 2

 ∂q 2∂q 2∂q tr
ke − qk ∂q 2 ∂q




 tr
+ h(q)(e − q) − Hq
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(14)
where the variable γ results from the saturation function subdifferential and is defined as:

∂ϕεL  0 if ketr k < ε
L
tr
= (15)
∂ ke k  γ if ketr k = ε L

γ ≥ 0, F s ≤ 0, γF s = 0 (16)

F s = etr − εL (17)
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3. Time discretization and solution algorithm

Assuming to be given the state (sn , pn , etr

n , q n ) at time tn , the actual deviatoric and volumetric strain

(e, θ) and temperature T at time tn+1 , the time-discrete values (s, p, etr , q) can be computed using an
implicit backward Euler method. It should be noted that for notation simplicity here, and in the following,
we drop the subindex n + 1 for variables computed at time tn+1 . The discretized version of dense SMA
constitutive equations takes the following form:

T


 p = K(q) [θ − 3α (T − T0 )]



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
 s = 2G(q) (e − etr )







 ∂Ψ etr − q etr

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
 tr
 X = − ∂etr = s − β(q) hT − Tm i ketr − qk − γ ketr k − h(q)(e − q)







 ∂Ψ ∂K 2 ∂G etr − q ∂β 1 ∂h

 Q = − = − (θ) − ke − etr 2
k + β hT − T i − hT − Tm i (etr − q) − ketr − qk
2

 ∂q 2∂q 2∂q
m
ke tr − qk ∂q 2 ∂q



 +h(q)(etr − q) − Hq








etr
= e tr
n + ∆ζ q
2
X
2
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
 kXk + κkQk





 κQ

 q = q n + ∆ζ q



 2 2

 kXk + κkQk

 q
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
 2 2

 F = kXk + κkQk − R(q, etr ) ≤ 0


 s
F = ketr k − εL ≤ 0
(18)
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where ∆ζ is the consistency parameters, time integrated over the interval [tn , t].
To solve the time-discrete constitutive equations, we use an elastic predictor-inelastic corrector procedure
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implemented in the program MATLAB

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, utilizing the function fsolve. The algorithm assumes the step to be
elastic and evaluates an elastic trial state, in which the internal variables remain constant. The admissibility
of the trial function with respect to the limit function Eq. (18)7 is then verified. If the trial state is admissible,
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the step is elastic; otherwise, the step is inelastic. To this end, we assume the step is unsaturated (ketr k < εL )
and rewrite constitutive equations (18) in the residual form and solve it. Finally, we check the saturation
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condition (18)13 , if it is not the case we set ketr k = εL and the constitutive equations are solved again with
the unknown variable γ.
Moreover, according to Eqs. (18)3 and (18)4 , the transformation thermodynamic forces X and Q are
not defined for the case of ketr k = 0 or ketr − qk = 0. To this end, we use a regularization scheme also used
by Ashrafi et al. (2015); Auricchio and Petrini (2004); Arghavani et al. (2011) to overcome this problem.

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4. Numerical Examples

In this section, we first validate the proposed model through testing its ability to reproduce several cyclic
experiments. Then, we perform a parametric study on the material parameters introduced in the model
to show the capabilities and features of the model. Finally, we present the model predictions for several
multiaxial cyclic loadings.
It is noted that in the formulation provided in Section 3, we assumed general functions of permanent

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strain q for material parameters K, G, β, R and h. In the following we assume linear dependence as below:

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K(q) = K0 − K1 kqk (19)

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G(q) = G0 − G1 kqk (20)

β(q) = β0 − β1 kqk (21)

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R(q) = R0 − R1 kqk

h(q) = h0 + h1 kqk
(22)

(23)
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where K0 , K1 , G0 , G1 , β0 , β1 , R0 , R1 , h0 and h1 are material constants describing linear dependence
on permanent strain. According to the experimental evidences discussed in Section 1, elastic properties
may degrade through evolution of permanent strain under cyclic loading; also critical stress for forward
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transformation degrades considerably but critical stress for reverse transformation is constant or degrades a
little. Therefore, we assumed decreasing linear functions for β(q) and R(q) in Eqs. 21 and 22, respectively.
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It is noted that due to model formulation, critical stress for forward and reverse transformation are governed
by β +R and β −R, respectively. Moreover, transformation hardening usually increases during cyclic loading;
therefore, an increasing linear function is assumed in Eq. 23. It is noted that the material parameters of
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these functions are first calibrated by cyclic experiments. Moreover, the permanent strain stabilizes to a
certain value and therefore K(q), G(q), β(q), R(q) and h(q) are always positive.
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4.1. Validation

We validate the proposed model with cyclic experiments presented by Saedi et al. (2018) and Lagoudas
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(2008) for NiTi samples. It is noted that we assume the thermal expansion coefficient equal to zero since it
has a secondary effect compared to transformation and permanent strains.
For validation, we identify material parameters using the first and last stress-strain curves reported by
Lagoudas (2008) for a NiTi wire sample at 343 K. In this regard, the material parameters associated to
elasticity and transformation (E0 , β0 , R0 , h0 and εL ) are determined using the first cycle of stress-strain
curve. Then, using the last cycle stress-strain curve, the parameters associated to permanent strain effects
(E1 , β1 , R1 , h1 ) are determined. Due to the formulation, the material parameter H governs the stabilized

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permanent strain and the material parameter κ governs the rate of accumulation of permanent strain in
each cycle. These two parameters are calibrated based on the last cycle which is the stabilized stress-strain
curve. The identified material parameters are reported in Table 1.
Figure 1a compares the simulation and experimental stress-strain curves for 1st and 20th cycles. The
results show that the model is capable of describing features of stress-strain curve and its change during
cyclic loading. Figure 1b shows the stabilization of permanent strain after a specific number of cycles. The
simulation results are in good agreement with experimental data. The permanent strain stabilizes to 0.01

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after 20 cycles of stress loading. Due to the simulation results, permanent strain evolution decreases each

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cycle and finally stabilizes to a specific value which is in agreement with experiments. Finally, Figure 1c
shows the results of the proposed constitutive model under 20 cycles of stress loading. We observe gradual

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change of stress-strain curves during cyclic loading similar to Figure 1d.
To show that the model is suitable for predicting various cyclic laodings, we calibrate the model for

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another set of experiments performed by Saedi et al. (2018) on NiTi bar samples. In a similar procedure,
the material parameters are determined as reported in Table 2. Figure 2a compare the proposed model
and experimental results for the first and the ninth cycles which show good agreement. The evolution of
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permanent strain as well as phase transformation behavior are accurately described by the proposed model.
Permanent strain-cycle curves are compared in Figure 2b which are in excellent agreement. Finally, Figure
2c shows the results of the proposed constitutive model under 9 cycles of stress loading. The trend toward
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stabilization of permanent is observed in this Figure which is similar to Saedi et al. (2018).

Table 1: Material parameters adopted for Lagoudas (2008) experiments on NiTi samples
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E0 E1 h0 h1 R0 R1 β0 β1 Tm εL H κ
(GPa) (GPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa/K) (MPa/K) (K) (-) (MPa) (-)
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52 0.0 1000 80990 153 4167 8.1 270 309 0.067 35000 0.007
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Table 2: Material parameters adopted for Saedi et al. (2018) experiments on NiTi samples

E0 E1 h0 h1 R0 R1 β0 β1 Tm εL H κ
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(GPa) (GPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa/K) (MPa/K) (K) (-) (MPa) (-)
60 800 5611 569890 141 2707 12.6 200 316 0.045 10000 0.023

Finally, to show the model capabilities more clearly, we compare the model results with the results of
Auricchio et al. (2007). In this regard, first we adopt the material parameters of the model by Auricchio
et al. (2007) for two cases: with and without degradation of transformation stress. If there is no degradation
of transformation stress, the present work is capable of modeling degradation of elastic properties. To this

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700 0.01
This work

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Experiment (Lagoudas, 2008) 0.009
600
0.008

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500 0.007

Permanent Strain [ - ]
Stress [ MPa ]

0.006
400

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0.005
300
0.004 This work
Experiment (Lagoudas, 2008)
200 0.003

0.002
100

0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
Strain [ - ]
0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 US 0.001

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Cycle [ - ]
12 14 16 18 20
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(a) (b)

700
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600

500
Stress [ MPa ]

400
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300

200
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100

0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08
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Strain [ - ]

(c) (d)

Figure 1: Comparison of stress-strain data with the experiments of Lagoudas (2008) for NiTi samples, (a) stress-strain curve
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for 1st and 20th cycles, (b) permanent strain-cycle curve, (c) cyclic stress-strain curve (present model), (d) cyclic stress-strain
curve (experiment by Lagoudas (2008))

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1200 0.03
This work This work

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Experiment (Saedi et al., 2018) Experiment (Saedi et al., 2018)
1000 0.025

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Permanent Strain [ - ]
800 0.02
Stress [ MPa ]

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600 0.015

400 0.01

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200 0.005

0 0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Strain [ - ] Cycle [ - ]
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(a) (b)

1200
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1000

800
Stress [ MPa ]

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600

400
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200

0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
Strain [ - ]
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(c) (d)

Figure 2: Comparison of stress-strain data with the experiments of Saedi et al. (2018) for NiTi samples, (a) stress-strain curve
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for 1st and 9th cycles, (b) permanent strain-cycle curve, (c) cyclic stress-strain curve (present model), (d) cyclic stress-strain
curve (experiment by Saedi et al. (2018))

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end the material parameters reported in Table 3 are considered. Figure 3 compares stress-strain curves
of the present model and the model by Auricchio et al. (2007) for 10 cycles of uniaxial stress. While the
first cycle of both models are identical, degradation of elastic properties is observed in the present model
result for the subsequent cycles. Moreover, Figure 3a shows gradual stabilization of stress-strain curve in
the present model. However, Figure 3b shows that permanent strain evolution per cycle is constant until
a specific permanent strain and then stabilization is occurred suddenly. As discussed in the introduction,
experimental evidences are mostly in agreement with the results of the present model.

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If we consider degradation of transformation stress, here we show the extra features of the present model

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compared to Auricchio et al. (2007). To this end the material parameters reported in Table 4 are considered.
Figure 4 compare stress-strain curves of the present model and the model by Auricchio et al. (2007) for

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15 cycles of uniaxial stress. While the first cycle of both models are identical, in the present model results
(Figure 4a), transformation hardening changes and critical stress for forward and reverse transformation can

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change independently during cyclic loading. However, Figure 4b which illustrates the results of Auricchio
et al. (2007), shows identical degradation in forward and reverse transformation. Moreover, in this model
transformation hardening is constant during cyclic loading.
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Table 3: Material parameters adopted according to Auricchio et al. (2007) with degradation of elastic properties

E0 E1 h0 h1 R0 R1 β0 β1 Tm εL H κ
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(GPa) (GPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa/K) (MPa/K) (K) (-) (MPa) (-)
50 2000 1000 0.0 50 0.0 2.0 0.0 223 0.04 15000 0.02
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Table 4: Material parameters adopted according to Auricchio et al. (2007) with degradation of transformation properties
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E0 E1 h0 h1 R0 R1 β0 β1 Tm εL H κ
(GPa) (GPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa/K) (MPa/K) (K) (-) (MPa) (-)
50 0.0 1000 60000 50 800 2.0 16 223 0.04 15000 0.02
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4.2. Parametric study

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To show the main features of the proposed model, we perform a study on the main introduced material
parameters associated to permanent strain effects on phase transformation behavior, i.e., E1 , h1 , R1 , β1 ,
and evolution and stabilization of permanent strain, i.e., H and κ. Here we use the material parameters
reported in Tables 1 and each time study the effect of one or some of the material parameters.
First we study the effects of H and κ which are related to stabilization and evolution of permanent strain,
respectively. Figure 5 depicts the proposed model results for different values of H. According to Figure 5a,

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300

250

200
Stress [ MPa ]

150

T
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100

50

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0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05
Strain [ - ]

(a) (b)

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Figure 3: Comparison of stress-strain data with the model results of Auricchio et al. (2007), (a) present model results with
elastic degradation and without transformation degradation during cyclic loading, (b) model results of Auricchio et al. (2007)
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without transformation degradation
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300
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250

200
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Stress [ MPa ]

150
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100

50
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0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04
Strain [ - ]

(a) (b)

Figure 4: Comparison of stress-strain data with the model results of Auricchio et al. (2007), (a) present model results with
transformation degradation and without elasstic degradation during cyclic loading, (b) model results of Auricchio et al. (2007)
with transformation degradation

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increasing H decreases the stabilized permanent strain but the cycle number in which stabilization occurs
is nearly constant for different values of H. Moreover, cyclic stress-strain curves are illustrated in Figures
5b, 5c and 5d. It is observed that degradation of forward critical stress continues until stabilization and
therefore more degradation occurs for larger values of H.
On the other hand, Figure 6 shows the proposed model results for different values of κ. The effect of κ
is somewhat different from the effect of H. According to Figure 6a, while the stabilized permanent strain
is constant for different values of κ, the rate of evolution of permanent strain per cycle increases with κ.

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In addition, cyclic stress-strain curves are depicted in Figures 6b, 6c and 6d. The rates of degradation are

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different since the rate of permanent strain evolution is different. However, the degradation stabilize after a
specific cycles of loading which is dependent on the value of κ. Therefore, the stabilized stress-strain curve

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and the hysteresis loop is nearly identical for different values of κ. In brief, these two material parameters
can effectively describe the rate of permanent strain accumulation as well as its stabilization at a specific
strain.

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Then, we study the effect of parameters associated to the coupling of permanent and transformation
strains, i.e., β1 , R1 and h1 . In this regard, stress-strain curves of 20 cycles are presented for three sets of
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parameters in Figure 7. It is observed that degradation is more pronounced for larger values of β1 and
R1 . While forward critical stress degrades, reverse critical stress is almost constant. The reason is that
both parameters β1 and R1 are changed and as mentioned before forward and reverse transformation are
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governed by β + R and β − R. In fact increasing or decreasing both parameters, double the effect on forward
transformation and cancel the effect on reverse transformation. By controlling these parameters various
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experimental results can be predicted accurately. Moreover, the effect of hardening coupling parameter h1
is obvious on Figure 7; for larger values of h1 , the slope of stress-strain in transformation region increase
more rapidly by number of cycles.
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Finally, we study the effect of parameter E1 which governs the Young’s modulus degradation during cyclic
loading. This effect which is observed in some experiments, can be carefully described by the introduced
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parameter E1 . While with E1 = 0, no degradation in elastic properties is observed, for curves with nonzero
E1 , degradation increases with cycle of loading. Moreover, for larger values of E1 , degradation is more
pronounced and maximum strain increases while maximum stress is constant.
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4.3. Multiaxial loading

In this section, we demonstrate model predictions for the behavior of SMA samples under non-proportional
multiaxial loading. Here, we use material parameters reported in Table 1. In this regard we study two typi-
cal multiaxial loadings. First, we consider a square shaped biaxial stress loading as illustrated in Figure 9a.
Applying 10 cycles of loading results in a strain response which is reported in Figure 9b. The results show
evolution of permanent strain and stabilization after several cycles. Moreover, degradation of transforma-

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0.02 700

T
H=15000 H=15000
0.018
H=35000 600
H=55000

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0.016

0.014 500
Permanent Strain [ - ]

Stress [ MPa ]
0.012

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400
0.01
300
0.008

0.006 200

0.004

0.002

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Cycle [ - ]
12 14 16 18 20
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0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
Strain [ - ]
0.05 0.06 0.07
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(a) (b)

700 700
H=35000 H=55000
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600 600

500 500
Stress [ MPa ]

Stress [ MPa ]
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400 400

300 300

200 200
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100 100

0 0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
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Strain [ - ] Strain [ - ]

(c) (d)
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Figure 5: Proposed model results: (a) permanent strain-cycle curves for different values of H; cyclic stress-strain curves for (b)
H=15000, (c) H=35000, (d) H=55000

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0.012 700

T
κ=0.003

600
0.01

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500
Permanent Strain [ - ]

0.008

Stress [ MPa ]

CR
400
0.006
κ=0.003
300
κ=0.007
0.004 κ=0.011
200

0.002

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Cycle [ - ]
12 14 16 18 20
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0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
Strain [ - ]
0.05 0.06 0.07
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(a) (b)

700 700
κ=0.007 κ=0.011
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600 600

500 500
Stress [ MPa ]

Stress [ MPa ]
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400 400

300 300

200 200
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100 100

0 0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
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Strain [ - ] Strain [ - ]

(c) (d)
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Figure 6: Proposed model results: (a) permanent strain-cycle curves for different values of κ; cyclic stress-strain curves for (b)
κ=15000, (c) κ=35000, (d) κ=55000

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×10 -3

T
11 700
β 1=170, R1=3167, h1=60992
10
600

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9
500
Permanent Strain [ - ]

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Stress [ MPa ]
7 β1 =170, R 1 =3167, h 1 =60992 400
β1 =270, R 1 =4167, h 1 =80992
6 β1 =370, R 1 =5167, h 1 =100992 300

5
200
4

2
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
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0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
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Cycle [ - ] Strain [ - ]

(a) (b)

700 700
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β 1=270, R1=4167, h1=80992 β 1=370, R1=5167, h1=100992

600 600

500 500
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Stress [ MPa ]

Stress [ MPa ]

400 400

300 300
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200 200

100 100
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0 0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
Strain [ - ] Strain [ - ]

(c) (d)
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Figure 7: Stress-strain curve of 20 stress cycles for three sets of parameters β1 , R1 and h1

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T
0.012 700
E 1=0

600

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0.01

500
Permanent Strain [ - ]

0.008

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Stress [ MPa ]
E 1 =0 400
0.006 E 1 =1e6
E 1 =2e6 300

0.004
200

0.002

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
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0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
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Cycle [ - ] Strain [ - ]

(a) (b)

700 700
M

E 1=1e6 E 1=2e6

600 600

500 500
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Stress [ MPa ]

Stress [ MPa ]

400 400

300 300
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200 200

100 100
CE

0 0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
Strain [ - ] Strain [ - ]

(c) (d)
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Figure 8: Stress-strain curve of 20 stress cycles for three different values of E1

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400 0.06

300 0.04

200
0.02

100
σ22 [MPa]

ǫ 22 [-]
0
-0.02
-100

-0.04

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-200

-300 -0.06

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-400 -0.08
-400 -300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300 400 -0.06 -0.04 -0.02 0 0.02 0.04 0.06
σ11 [MPa] ǫ 11 [-]

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(a) (b)

Figure 9: Model predictions for non-proportional biaxial loading of SMA sample: (a) biaxial square shaped stress loading
profile, (b) biaxial strain response for 10 cycles of loading

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tion properties can be observed in Figure 9b. As another example, a triangle shaped axial-shear loading
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is considered as shown in Figure 10a. Axial strain versus shear strain curve is plotted in Figure 10b for
10 cycles of stress loading. Both axial and shear permanent strains are accumulated during cyclic loading
and the degradation effect is clearly observed. In the first cycles, axial loading result no transformation;
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however, for higher cycles, transformation start even during axial loading. In summary, the results show the
capability of the model as a three-dimensional constitutive model.
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4.4. Thermal cyclic loading

In this section, we demonstrate the model capability in thermal cyclic loading. To this end, the material
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properties reported in Table 1 are utilized. First, a specific stress is applied at T = 380 K which is above
austenite finish temperature. Then, while stress is constant, a cyclic thermal loading is applied from T = 380
K to T = 300 K which is below martensite finish temperature. The strain-temperature curves for a couple
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of temperature cycles until stabilization are illustrated in Figure 11. The result for 30 cycles of thermal
loading is illustrated in Figure 11a and the result for 10 cycles is illustrated in Figure 11b. Both Figures
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show that after a couple of thermal cycles, strain-temperature curves are stabilized. It is obvious that strain
width of the stabilized hysteresis loop is larger for larger values of the constant stress. Moreover, number of
cycles to stabilization decreases with the magnitude of the constant stress.

5. Summary and conclusions

In this study, we proposed a 3-D phenomenological constitutive model for cyclic loading of shape mem-
ory alloys. Both transformation and permanent strain evolution and their mutual effects were considered
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250 0.04

0.035
200
0.03

0.025
150
τ [MPa]

T
γ [-]
0.02

100

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0.015

0.01
50

CR
0.005

0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
σ [MPa] ǫ [-]

(a)

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Figure 10: Model predictions for non-proportional axial-shear loading of SMA sample: (a) axial-shear triangle shaped stress
loading profile, (b) axial-shear strain response for 10 cycles of loading
(b)
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M
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0.025 0.06
Stress = 200 MPa stress = 250 MPa

0.05
0.02
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0.04
0.015
Strain [-]

Strain [-]

0.03

0.01
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0.02

0.005
0.01
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0 0
300 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 300 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380
Temperature [K] Temperature [K]

(a) (b)

Figure 11: Model predictions for thermal cyclic loading of SMA sample under uniaxial constant stress: (a) 30 cycles of thermal
loading with σ = 200 MPa, (b) 10 cycles of thermal loading with σ = 250 MPa loading

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in this model. We have shown through several numerical examples that the model is capable of describing
the features observed during cyclic loading of shape memory alloys. In fact, by extending previous models
and introducing new material parameters, we could effectively model degradation of transformation behav-
ior through material parameters β1 and R1 and model degradation of elastic properties through material
parameter E1 . Moreover, the effect of permanent strain on transformation hardening was consider by the
material parameter h1 . Finally, evolution of permanent strain during cyclic loading and its stabilization
which are two of the main features were included by two material parameters κ and H, respectively. Since,

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each feature is included in the model by a specific material parameter, each parameter has a physical meaning

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and calibration and application of the proposed model become quite simple.
We numerically implemented the model and its validation using two sets of experiments on NiTi samples

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was performed. To show more clearly the meaning and effect of each parameter of the model, a series of
parametric studies were performed. It was shown that increasing H decreases the stabilized permanent

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strain and increasing κ increases evolution rate of permanent strain. Varying the parameters related to the
coupling of transformation and permanent strains (β1 , R1 and h1 ) has no considerable effect on evolution and
stabilization of permanent strain; while critical stress for transformation and hardening is mainly dependent
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on the value of these parameters. Finally, by increasing the material parameter E1 , elastic properties degrade
more rapidly; while the stabilized permanent strain is almost unchanged. Moreover, to show the model
capability in multiaixal loading, we presented two numerical examples including non-proportional biaxial
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and axial-shear loadings. The results show the effectiveness of the model and numerical implementation in
complex loadings. Regarding simplicity together with accuracy, the proposed model can be used for the
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design and simulation of SMA-based structures under cyclic loading.

Acknowledgements
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The author acknowledge the partial financial support from National Elites Foundation.
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