Solutions for Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing, 4/e (published by Wiley) © MPGroover 2010

03-06-09, 03-12-09

8 POLYMERS AND COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Review Questions
8.1 What is a polymer?
Answer. A polymer is a compound comprised of long-chain molecules that consist of repeating units,
called mers, connected end to end.
8.2 What are the three basic categories of polymers?
Answer. The categories are (1) thermoplastics, (2) thermosetting polymers, and (3) elastomers.
8.3 How do the properties of polymers compare with those of metals?
Answer. In general, polymers have lower strength, hardness, stiffness, density, and temperature
resistance compared to metals. In addition, polymers have low electrical and thermal conductivity.
8.4 What does the degree of polymerization indicate?
Answer. The degree of polymerization indicates the average number of mers or repeating units in the
polymer molecule.
8.5 What is cross-linking in a polymer, and what is its significance?
Answer. Cross-linking is the formation of connections between the long-chain molecules in a
polymer. It causes the polymer structure to be permanently altered. If the amount of cross-linking is
low, the polymer is transformed into an elastomer; if cross-linking is significant, the polymer is
transformed into a thermoset.
8.6 What is a copolymer?
Answer. A copolymer is a polymer made up of two different types of mers, such as ethylene and
propylene.
8.7 Copolymers can possess four different arrangements of their constituent mers. Name and briefly
describe the four arrangements.
Answer. The four possible arrangements of the mers along the chain are (1) alternating, in which the
mers repeat every other position; (2) random, in which the mers are in random order; (3) block, in
which mers of each type group themselves into long segments along the chain; and (4) graft, in which
mers of one type are attached as branches to a main backbone of mers of the other type.
8.8 What is a terpolymer?
Answer. A terpolymer is a polymer with three different mer types. An example is ABS
(acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene) plastic.
8.9 How are a polymer's properties affected when it takes on a crystalline structure?
Answer. Density, stiffness, and melting temperature increase.
8.10 Does any polymer ever become 100% crystalline?
Answer. No.
8.11 What are some of the factors that influence a polymer's tendency to crystallize?
Answer. The factors that influence a polymer's tendency to crystallize are the following: (1) only
linear polymers can form crystals; (2) copolymers do not form crystals; (3) stereoregularity - isotactic
polymers always form crystals, atactic polymers never form crystals, and syndiotactic polymers
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Solutions for Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing, 4/e (published by Wiley) © MPGroover 2010
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sometimes form crystals; (4) slow cooling from the molten states promotes crystal formation; (5)
plasticizers inhibit crystal formation; and (6) stretching the polymer tends to promote crystallization.
8.12 Why are fillers added to a polymer?
Answer. Fillers are added to increase strength or simply to reduce the cost of the polymer.
8.13 What is a plasticizer?
Answer. A plasticizer is a chemical added to the polymer to make it softer and more flexible. It is
often added to improve the polymer's flow characteristics for shaping.
8.14 In addition to fillers and plasticizers, what are some other additives used with polymers?
Answer. Other additives include (1) lubricants - to reduce friction and improve flow; (2) flame
retardents; (3) colorants; (4) cross-linking agents, (5) antioxidants, and (6) ultraviolet light absorbers.
8.15 Describe the difference in mechanical properties as a function of temperature between a highly
crystalline thermoplastic and an amorphous thermoplastic.
Answer. A highly crystalline TP retains rigidity during heating until just before its Tm is reached. An
amorphous TP shows a significant drop in deformation resistance as its Tg as temperature is reached;
it becomes increasingly like a liquid as temperature continues to increase.
8.16 What is unique about the polymer cellulose?
Answer. Cellulose is a polymer that grows in nature. Wood fiber contains about 50% cellulose and
cotton fiber is about 95% cellulose.
8.17 The nylons are members of which polymer group?
Answer. Polyamides.
8.18 What is the chemical formula of ethylene, the monomer for polyethylene?
Answer. The chemical formula of ethylene is C2H4.
8.19 What is the basic difference between low-density and high-density polyethylene?
Answer. LDPE has a branched structure and is amorphous. HDPE is linear and highly crystalline.
These differences account for HDPE having higher density, stiffness, and melting point.
8.20 How do the properties of thermosetting polymers differ from those of thermoplastics?
Answer. Thermosets are more rigid, brittle, capable of higher service temperatures, and cannot be
remelted.
8.21 Cross-linking (curing) of thermosetting plastics is accomplished by one of three ways. Name the
three ways.
Answer. The three ways are (1) temperature-activated systems, in which elevated temperatures
accomplish curing; (2) catalyst-activated systems, in which small amounts of a catalyst cause
cross-linking; and (3) mixing-activated systems, in which two reactive components are mixed and
curing occurs by their chemical reaction.
8.22 Elastomers and thermosetting polymers are both cross-linked. Why are their properties so different?
Answer. Elastomers are lightly cross-linked, whereas thermosets are highly cross-linked. Light
cross-linking allows extensibility; a highly cross-linked structure makes the polymer rigid.
8.23 What happens to an elastomer when it is below its glass transition temperature?
Answer. An elastomer becomes hard and brittle when its temperature is below its Tg.

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8.24 What is the primary polymer ingredient in natural rubber?
Answer. The primary polymer ingredient in natural rubber is polyisoprene whose mer has the
chemical formula C5H8.
8.25 How do thermoplastic elastomers differ from conventional rubbers?
Answer. TPEs are different in two basic ways: (1) they exhibit thermoplastic properties, and (2) their
extensibility derives from physical connections between different phases in the polymer rather than
cross-linking.
8.26 What is a composite material?
Answer. A composite material is a material system consisting of two or more distinct phases whose
combination results in properties that differ from those of its constituents.
8.27 Identify some of the characteristic properties of composite materials.
Answer. Typical properties include (1) high strength-to-weight and stiffness-to-weight ratios; (2)
good fatigue properties and toughness; (3) anisotropic properties in many cases; and (4) other
properties and features that are difficult or impossible to obtain with metals, ceramics, or polymers
alone.
8.28 What does the term anisotropic mean?
Answer. Anisotropic means that the properties of a material vary depending on the direction in which
they are measured.
8.29 How are traditional composites distinguished from synthetic composites?
Answer. Traditional composites have been used for decades or centuries; some of them are obtained
from sources in nature, such as wood. Synthetic composites are manufactured.
8.30 Name the three basic categories of composite materials.
Answer. Metal matrix composites (MMCs), ceramic matrix composites (CMCs), and polymer matrix
composites (PMCs).
8.31 What are the common forms of the reinforcing phase in composite materials?
Answer. The forms are: (1) fibers, (2) particles and flakes, and (3) an infiltrated phase in skeletal
structures.
8.32 What is a whisker?
Answer. A whisker is a thin, hairlike crystal of very high strength.
8.33 What are the two forms of sandwich structure among laminar composite structures? Briefly describe
each.
Answer. The two forms are (1) foamed-core sandwich, in which the core is polymer foam between
two solid skins; and (2) honeycomb, in which the core is a honeycomb structure sandwiched between
two solid skins.
8.34 Give some examples of commercial products which are laminar composite structures.
Answer. Examples given in Table 9.2 are automotive tires, honeycomb sandwich structures, fiber
reinforced polymer structures such as boat hulls, plywood, printed circuit boards, snow skis made
from fiber reinforced polymers, and windshield glass.
8.35 What are the three general factors that determine the properties of a composite material?

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Solutions for Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing, 4/e (published by Wiley) © MPGroover 2010
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Answer. Three factors are given in the text: (1) the component materials; (2) the geometric shapes of
the constituents - the reinforcing phase in particular - and the resulting structure of the material; and
(3) the interaction of the phases.
8.36 What is the rule of mixtures?
Answer. The rule of mixtures applies to certain properties of composite materials; it states that the
property value is a weighted average of the property values of the components, the weighting being
by proportions of the components in the composite.
8.37 What is a cermet?
Answer. A cermet is a composite material consisting of a ceramic and a metal. In the text, it is
defined as a composite consisting of ceramic grains imbedded in a metallic matrix.
8.38 Cemented carbides are what class of composites?
Answer. A cemented carbide is a cermet; although the cemented carbide industry does not generally
think of cemented carbides as cermets, they fit within the definition.
8.39 What are some of the weaknesses of ceramics that might be corrected in fiber-reinforced ceramic
matrix composites?
Answer. Weaknesses of ceramics include low tensile strength, poor toughness, and susceptibility to
thermal cracking.
8.40 What is the most common fiber material in fiber-reinforced plastics?
Answer. E-glass.
8.41 What does the term advanced composites mean?
Answer. An advanced composite is a PMC in which carbon, Kevlar, or boron fibers are used as the
reinforcing material.
8.42 What is a hybrid composite?
Answer. A hybrid composite is a fiber-reinforced PMC in which two or more fibers materials are
combined in the FRP.
8.43 Identify some of the important properties of fiber-reinforced plastic composite materials.
Answer. Properties include high strength-to-weight ratio, high modulus-to-weight ratio, low density,
good fatigue strength, good corrosion resistance, and low thermal expansion for many FRPs.
8.44 Name some of the important applications of FRPs.
Answer. FRPs are used in modern aircraft as skin parts, automobile body panels, printed circuit
boards, tennis rackets, boat hulls, and a variety of other items.
8.45 What is meant by the term interface in the context of composite materials?
Answer. The interface is the boundary between the component phases in a composite material.

Multiple Choice Quiz

There are 20 correct answers in the following multiple choice questions (some questions have multiple
answers that are correct). To attain a perfect score on the quiz, all correct answers must be given. Each
correct answer is worth 1 point. Each omitted answer or wrong answer reduces the score by 1 point, and

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Solutions for Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing, 4/e (published by Wiley) © MPGroover 2010
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each additional answer beyond the correct number of answers reduces the score by 1 point. Percentage score
on the quiz is based on the total number of correct answers.
8.1 Of the three polymer types, which one is the most important commercially: (a) thermoplastics, (b)
thermosets, or (c) elastomers?
Answer. (a).
8.2 Which one of the three polymer types is not normally considered to be a plastic: (a) thermoplastics,
(b) thermosets, or (c) elastomers?
Answer. (c).
8.3 Which one of the three polymer types does not involve cross-linking: (a) thermoplastics, (b)
thermosets, or (c) elastomers?
Answer. (a).
8.4 As the degree of crystallinity in a given polymer increases, the polymer becomes denser and stiffer,
and its melting temperature decreases: (a) true or (b) false?
Answer. (b). Melting temperature increases with higher degree of crystallinity.
8.5 Which one of the following is the chemical formula for the repeating unit in polyethylene: (a) CH2,
(b) C2H4, (c) C3H6, (d) C5H8, or (e) C8H8?
Answer. (b).
8.6 Degree of polymerization is which one of the following: (a) average number of mers in the molecule
chain; (b) proportion of the monomer that has been polymerized; (c) sum of the molecule weights of
the mers in the molecule; or (d) none of the above?
Answer. (a).
8.7 A branched molecular structure is stronger in the solid state and more viscous in the molten state than
a linear structure for the same polymer: (a) true or (b) false?
Answer. (a).
8.8 A copolymer is a mixture of the macromolecules of two different homopolymers: (a) true or (b)
false?
Answer. (b).
8.9 As the temperature of a polymer increases, its density (a) increases, (b) decreases, or (c) remains
fairly constant?
Answer. (b).
8.10 Which of the following plastics has the highest market share: (a) phenolics, (b) polyethylene, (c)
polypropylene, (d) polystyrene, or (e) polyvinylchloride?
Answer. (b).
8.11 Which of the following polymers are normally thermoplastic (four best answers): (a) acrylics, (b)
cellulose acetate, (c) nylon, (d) phenolics, (e) polychloroprene, (f) polyesters, (g) polyethylene, (h)
polyisoprene, and (i) polyurethane?
Answer. (a), (b), (c), and (g).
8.12 Polystyrene (without plasticizers) is amorphous, transparent, and brittle: (a) true or (b) false?
Answer. (a).

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8.13 The fiber rayon used in textiles is based on which one of the following polymers: (a) cellulose, (b)
nylon, (c) polyester, (d) polyethylene, or (e) polypropylene?
Answer. (a).
8.14 The basic difference between low-density polyethylene and high-density polyethylene is that the
latter has a much higher degree of crystallinity: (a) true or (b) false?
Answer. (a).
8.15 Among the thermosetting polymers, the most widely used commercially is which one of the
following: (a) epoxies, (b) phenolics, (c) silicones, or (d) urethanes?
Answer. (b).
8.16 The chemical formula for polyisoprene in natural rubber is which of the following: (a) CH2, (b) C2H4,
(c) C3H6, (d) C5H8, or (e) C8H8?
Answer. (d).
8.17 The leading commercial synthetic rubber is which one of the following: (a) butyl rubber, (b) isoprene
rubber, (c) polybutadiene, (d) polyurethane, (e) styrene-butadiene rubber, or (f) thermoplastic
elastomers?
Answer. (e).
8.18 Anisotropic means which one of the following: (a) composite materials with composition consisting
of more than two materials, (b) properties are the same in every direction, (c) properties vary
depending on the direction in which they are measured, or (d) strength and other properties are a
function of curing temperature?
Answer. (c).
8.19 The reinforcing phase is the matrix within which the secondary phase is imbedded: (a) true or (b)
false?
Answer. (b).
8.20 Which one of the following reinforcing geometries offers the greatest potential for strength and
stiffness improvement in the resulting composite material: (a) fibers, (b) flakes, (c) particles, or (d)
infiltrated phase?
Answer. (a).
8.21 Wood is which one of the following composite types: (a) CMC, (b) MMC, or (c) PMC?
Answer. (c).
8.22 Which of the following materials are used as fibers in fiber-reinforced plastics (four best answers): (a)
aluminum oxide, (b) boron, (c) cast iron, (d) E-glass, (e) epoxy, (f) Kevlar 49, (g) polyester, and (h)
silicon?
Answer. (a), (b), (d), and (f).
8.23 Which of the following metals are used as the matrix material in fiber-reinforced MMCs (two best
answers): (a) aluminum, (b) copper, (c) iron, (d) magnesium, and (e) zinc?
Answer. (a) and (d).
8.24 Which of the following metals are used as the matrix metals in nearly all WC cemented carbides and
TiC cermets (two correct answers): (a) aluminum, (b) chromium, (c) cobalt, (d) lead, (e) nickel, (f)
tungsten, and (g) tungsten carbide?

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Answer. (c) and (e).
8.25 Ceramic matrix composites are designed to overcome which of the following weaknesses of ceramics
(two best answers): (a) compressive strength, (b) hardness, (c) hot hardness, (d) modulus of elasticity,
(e) tensile strength, and (f) toughness?
Answer. (e) and (f).
8.26 Which one of the following polymer types are most commonly used in polymer matrix composites:
(a) elastomers, (b) thermoplastics, or (c) thermosets?
Answer. (c).
8.27 Which of the following materials are not composites (two correct answers): (a) cemented carbide, (b)
phenolic molding compound, (c) plywood, (d) Portland cement, (e) rubber in automobile tires, (f)
wood, and (g) 1020 steel?
a. Answer. (d) and (g).
8.28 In the Boeing 787 Dreamliner, what percentage of the aircraft consist of composite materials (two
correct answers): (a) 12% be volume, (b) 20% by volume, (c) 50% by volume, (d) 80% by volume,
(e) 12% by weight, (f) 20% by weight, (g) 50% by weight, and (h) 80% by weight?
b. Answer. (d) and (g).

Problems
8.1 A fiberglass composite is composed of a matrix of vinyl ester and reinforcing fibers of E-glass. The
volume fraction of E-glass is 35%. The remainder is vinyl ester. The density of the vinyl ester is
0.882 g/cm3, and its modulus of elasticity is 3.60 GPa. The density of E-glass is 2.60 g/cm3, and its
modulus of elasticity is 76.0 GPa. A section of composite 1.00 cm by 50.00 cm by 200.00 cm is
fabricated with the E-glass fibers running longitudinal along the 200-cm direction. Assume there
are no voids in the composite. Determine the (a) mass of vinyl ester in the section, (b) mass of E-
glass fibers in the section, and (c) the density of the composite.
Solution: Volume V = (1.00 cm)(50.00 cm)(200.00 cm) = 10,000 cm3
(a) Vm = fm (Vc) = 0.650(10,000 cm3) = 6,500 cm3
mm = 6500 cm3 (0.882 g/cm3) = 5733 g
(b) Vr = fr (Vc) = 0.350(10,000 cm3) = 3,500 cm3
mr = 3500 cm3 (2.60 g/cm3) = 9100 g
(c) ρc = = fm ρm + fr ρr = 0.650(0.882) + 0.350(2.60) = 1.48 g/cm3
8.2 For problem 8.1, determine the modulus of elasticity in (a) the longitudinal direction of the glass
fibers and (b) the perpendicular direction to the glass fibers.
Solution: fm = 0.650, fr = 0.350, Em = 3.60 GPa, and Er = 76.0 GPa
(a) Ec = fmEm + frEr
Ec = 0.650(3.60) + 0.350(76.0) = 28.9 GPa
(b) Ec’ = EmEr/(fmEr + frEm)
Ec’ = 3.60(76.0)/(0.650(76.0) + 0.350(3.60)) = 5.40 GPa
8.3 A composite sample of carbon reinforced epoxy has dimensions of 30 cm by 30 cm by 0.625 cm
and mass of 0.81 kg. The carbon fibers have a modulus of elasticity of 345 GPa and a density of

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Solutions for Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing, 4/e (published by Wiley) © MPGroover 2010
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0.002 kg/cm3. The epoxy matrix has modulus of elasticity of 4.2 GPa and a density of 0.001
kg/cm3. What is the volume fraction of (a) the carbon fibers and (b) the epoxy matrix in the
sample? Assume there are no voids in the sample.
Solution: Vc = 30(30)(0.625) = 562.5 cm3
ρc = mc/Vc = 0.81/562.5 = 0.0014 kg/cm3
(a) fm = 1 – fr
ρc = fmρm + frρr
ρc = (1-fr)ρm + frρr
ρc = ρm - frρm + frρr = ρm - fr(ρm - ρr)
fr = (ρm - ρc)/(ρm - ρr) = (0.001 – 0.0014)/(0.001 – 0.002) = 0.40 = 40%
(b) fm = 1 – fr fm = 1 − 0.40 = 0.60 = 60%
8.4 In problem 8.3, what is the predicted value for the modulus of elasticity (a) in the longitudinal
direction and (b) the perpendicular to the carbon fibers?
Solution: fm = 0.60, fr = 0.40, Em = 4.2 GPa, and Er = 345 GPa
(a) Ec = fmEm + frEr Ec = 0.60(4.2) + 0.40(345) = 140.52 GPa
(b) Ec’ = EmEr/(fmEr + frEm)
Ec’ = (4.2)(345)/(0.60 (345) + 0.40 (4.2)) = 6.94 GPa
8.5 A composite has a matrix of polyester with Kevlar-29 fibers. The volume fractions of polyester and
Kevlar are 60% and 40%, respectively. The Kevlar fibers have a modulus of elasticity of 60 GPa in
the longitudinal direction and 3 GPa in the transverse direction. The polyester matrix has a
modulus of elasticity of 5.6 GPa in both directions. (a) Determine the modulus of elasticity for the
composite in the longitudinal direction. (b) Determine the modulus of elasticity in the transverse
direction.
Solution: fm = 0.60, fr = 0.40, Em = 5.6 GPa, and Er = 60 GPa
(a) Ec = fmEm + frEr Ec = 0.60(5.6) + 0.40(60) = 27.4 GPa
(b) Ec’ = EmEr/(fmEr + frEm) Ec’ = 5.6(60)/(0.60(60) + 0.40(5.6)) = 8.79 GPa

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