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The Role of Educators in the Success of African-American Students

Xaiver S. Williams

James Madison University

Education 300 Honors Option Research Paper

Dr. Timothy Thomas, Research Advisor

November 2020

© 2020
Xaiver S. Williams
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
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Table of Contents

Purpose.............................................................................................................................................3

Dedication........................................................................................................................................4

Acknowledgements..........................................................................................................................5

Black or African-American: The Identity of Students Matters.......................................................6

The National Profile of African-American Students.....................................................................10

Two Challenges that hinder the Success of African-American Students......................................23

The Impact of African-American Teachers...................................................................................35

The Role of Educators...................................................................................................................41

References.....................................................................................................................................49

About the Author...........................................................................................................................53

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Purpose

The purpose of this research paper is to identify the role of educators in the success of

African-American students in the K-12 public education system. Systemic racism has altered the

ability for African-American students to succeed in public education and I intend to provide

educators with the data and guiding principles in order to help African-American students

succeed in the K-12 public education system.

As an aspiring music educator who plans to also serve as a high school administrator, I

recognize the importance that educators have in the classroom. The teachers that I have had

during my experience in K-12 education have led me to want to be a role model for the students

in my future band room. As an African-American male, I believe that my purpose in teaching is

to help other students that look like me understand that they have value, purpose, and meaning in

life. Benjamin Franklin once said, “Tell me and I forget. Teach me and I remember. Involve me

and I learn.” There is a strong need for more African-American male role models in the school

system to involve our young African-American men and women in opportunities that will lead to

their overall success in life.

The questions that will help guide this research are:

• What is the profile of African-American students in the U.S. national data on all students?

• What are the two major issues affecting African-American high school students?

• What situations exist in the current system of (benefits and challenges) recruiting African-

Americans to the teaching profession?

• What are the positive effects of African-American students having African-American

teachers?

• What are guiding principles for teachers to support African-American students to be

successful?
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I dedicate this paper to Dr. Adam S. Neely

He left an impact on the lives of many African-American students as they worked hard to be

critical thinkers, world changers, and leaders.

Thank you, Dr. Neely!

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Acknowledgements

I would like to thank Jesus Christ for ordering my steps in the process of writing this

paper. He has blessed me with an amazing circle of support that has been very encouraging

throughout my educational endeavors. To my parents, Tracy and Lytisha, thank you for raising

me to be a strong-minded young man! Through it all, God has been faithful, and I am grateful to

have you two as my parents. I love you! To my brother Israel, I love you and thank you for

letting me be your big brother. To my family, thank you for always looking out for me over the

years and letting me sit at the adult’s table. I promise to continue to make you all proud!

To Dr. Timothy Thomas, Professor Jay Varner, and Ms. Samantha Haling, thank you for

serving as great mentors and advisors in the process of this paper. Our collaboration in this

process has been life changing for me as a scholar. To my friends of the International

Baccalaureate Programme – Hampton High School Class of 2019, peers in the JMU School of

Music, and JMU Centennial Scholars Program, thank you for always being the supportive group

of friends that I know I will always have in my corner. To my girlfriend, Tamia, thank you for

supporting me throughout this college experience. You are truly a blessing and I am beyond

grateful for your compassion and encouragement as I work to become a better person each day!

Thank you to Senior Pastors Dr. Lesley and Caleb McClendon and Youth Pastor Chris

Cox of C3 Hampton, City of Hampton School Board and Administration, City of Hampton City

Council, and members of the City of Hampton community for your support. A special thank you

to Mrs. Amy Fatek, Mr. Ronzel Bell, Ms. Pamela Elliott, Mrs. Carrie Hundley, Mr. Erik Wilson,

Mr. Kevin Davis, Mrs. Tiffany Hardy, Ms. Shameka Pollard, Mr. Ernriekus Williams, and Ms.

Kimberly Sharpe for serving as an example of the educator that I aspire to be in the years to

come.
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Black or African-American: The Identity of Students Matters

Our identities are shaped through character, life experiences, and culture. Each of us hold

an identity that’s akin to a barcode – traits that can be quickly scanned to find the value or worth

of something. Our identity is like a QR code that is uniquely designed for one specific purpose, a

thumbprint that can open any door we want. Our identity defines who we are as people and is the

one thing that distinguishes who we are from those around us. My identity is important. Your

identity is important. Of course our student’s identity is important. But what role do the people

around us have in developing our identity? Does the environment of our schools potentially alter

the personality of our students?

The role of an educator in the development of a student’s identity is unique. Our purpose

is to invest in the future leaders that our students will be. We work to help students gain the

necessary knowledge to be life-long learners. I would like to propose that one of the greatest

strategies to help a student succeed is for the educator to first believe in the student and then help

them develop their unique identity. For this to happen, educators have to recognize the historical

context that is associated when we identify who our students are. When it comes to African-

American students specifically, scholars have noted that identity in the classroom is important in

reaching academic achievement. Dr. Colette Boston from the Los Angeles Unified School

District and Dr. Susan R. Warren, Professor and Director of Diversity Programs at Azusa Pacific

University suggest that,

For African American youth, the school setting may evoke the fear of being stereotyped

or the fear that they are not valued, in addition to other contextual factors that increase

the risk of educational failure. Understanding the significance of the role that sense of

belonging has on the academic achievement of African American youth is important

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information for researchers, administrators, and educators charged with implementing

policy, curriculum, and academic supports to ensure the success of these youth (Brown &

Warren , 2017).

For people of color, the racial labels used in our nation have been a topic of discussion

since the late 1980s thus having an impact on the success of students in schools. Names such as

Negro, Black, Afro-American, and African-American are just a few of the examples that have

circulated throughout the years. It is crucial that, as educators, we recognize that our role in the

classroom is to create an environment that is conducive for all students to be accepted and

respected. Based on the research that was acquired, I believe that it is important for educators to

develop an awareness of how to have personal conversations in regard to racial identity in the

classroom as it can lead to a meaningful relationship between student and teacher while also

gaining an awareness of the historical and cultural context that comes from these racial labels.

A 1989 New York Times article by Pulitzer Prize winner Isabel Wilkerson, writes about

the pivotal moment as people of color advocated for their identity to be changed from Blacks to

African-Americans during the civil rights movement. Jesse Jackson, a civil rights activist, is

known for leading the movement for this change as he believed that “Black tells you about skin

color and what side of town you live on. African-American evokes discussion of the world”

(Wilkerson, 1989). Those that argued that the change was not necessary stated, “the term

African-American should refer to the descendants of slaves brought to the United States

centuries ago, not to newcomers who have not inherited the legacy of bondage, segregation and

legal discrimination” (African-American, 2020). Jackson and his supporters believed that the

term Black did not fully represent the culture of African-Americans or the potential they had in

society. An author and rapper by the name of Sean XLG Mitchell agreed with Jesse Jackson by
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stating, “If we use the term Black, we are doing ourselves a disservice. Black only identifies with

the color of our skin, but it has no cultural connections to who we are as people” (Brown, 2019).

Before the word Black was used, people of color were referred to as negros. This word

was derived from the Portugal slave owners that saw that their slaves were black and utilized the

translation from their native language which was Negro. Furthermore, when the Atlantic slave

trade began, European settlers ignored the fact that these slaves identified themselves as Africans

and insisted on calling them negros. As time progressed, roughly three centuries from the first

time the negro word was used, the term Colored began to be used which segregated people of

color from Whites. During the early 1900s, organizations such as the National Association for

the Advancement of Colored People began to form to help unify, support, and advocate for

colored people and the need for racial equality. MSNBC reporter Lawrence O’Donnell (2015)

discussed in a news report that as the civil rights movement began, the use of the word negro and

colored was no longer an option once the right to vote was established and after the proclamation

of the statement “Black Power.”

Identifying our students as African-American or Black should be based on the comfort of

our students, but we must first have to acknowledge the significance word choice in our

classroom has when creating an environment where students are accepted and respected. John

Browne II, an education consultant who specializes in developing culturally courageous systems

and collaborative leadership for achieving equity and excellence, writes, “Our self-identity has a

lot to do with how we are perceived and treated by both significant and nonsignificant

others...Schools have an enormous influence on how we come to see ourselves, the hopes and

dreams we acquire, and our achievement motivation” (Browne, 2012). As educators, our students

spend more time in our classroom than their own homes. With this realization in mind, we must
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recognize the power educators have when it comes identifying our students and the impact that

we may have on how they choose to identify themselves.

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The National Profile of African-American Students

How can an educator help a group of people if they do not understand the challenges that

the specific group is facing? To effectively help African-American students in their academic

success, it is vital to understand the current data on how these students perform in the classroom.

Several forms of data explain the achievement gap visible in the African-American community.

These gaps are noticed in standardized testing, school diversity, and literacy achievement levels

compared to other students that do not identify as African-American. This data provides a

snapshot of where we are and help us better understand our role as educators in helping African-

American students succeed in the classroom. Understanding the unique racial identity African-

American students have around the nation, their academic performance, and the administrative

practices in the disciplinary process has on their success is crucial to recognizing our role as

educators in advancing the achievement rate of African-American students.

Racial Identity

Figure 1 Percentage distribution of public students enrolled in prekindergarten through 12th grade.

One of the sources that I will use to analyze the profile of African-American students in

our nation is a report from The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). NCES is the
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primary federal entity for collecting, analyzing, and reporting data related to education in the

United States. The most recent data they have collected is a 2018 report titled: Status and Trends

in the Education of Racial and Ethnic Groups. Figure 1 reports the percentages of students

organized by race across the four regions in the United States. Collected from Fall 2000 to Fall

2015, the data shows that all four of the regions have a majority of white students enrolled in

Pre-K-12 public schools (de Brey et al., 2019). However, the data indicates a recent change in

the Western region with Hispanic students becoming the majority population. Figure 1 also

shows us the current stance on diversity in public education around the nation.

Most African-American students are located in the southern portion of the United States.

As shown in Figure 1, 23% of the nation’s African-American population is in schools in the

southern region. This information is crucial to recognize as we cannot help a group of students if

we cannot respectfully identify where the need is. The largest African-American population of

students is in the Southern region and seems to be the most diverse amongst the races identified

in the graph. While the cultural shift is noted from the Figure 1, this can also propose a severe

problem for white educators in the South that may have never had any cultural education

experiences.

Students in the African-American community need educators that are properly trained on

the social and emotional learning that needs to be implemented for minority groups to succeed in

predominantly white public-school systems. Professors of counseling from the University of

South Alabama and Clark Atlanta University have suggested, “School personnel who lack a

critical understanding of their biases and the impacts of culture on learning may construe their

pedagogy and interventions as race-neutral or culturally neutral” (Shell et al., 2019, p. 8). When
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using this information to understand the racial identity of our African-American students, we

must continue to align our pedagogy and learning expectations in order to effectively support

African-American students and determine how we can better meet their needs as educators.

Academic Performance

Emanuel James Rohn, American entrepreneur, author and motivational speaker, once

said, “If someone is going down the wrong road, he doesn’t need motivation to speed him up.

What he needs is education to turn him around” (Johnson, 2018). Whether you see education as a

form of power or a weapon to change the world, the core principle of being properly educated is

something that all young people in the 21st century deserve. Despite a person’s race, color,

religion (creed), gender, gender expression, age, national origin (ancestry), disability, or sexual

orientation, proper education establishes the foundation for young people to be the future leaders

of our nation.

Reading Performance

As we look at how African-American students perform academically around the nation,

data has shown that there is a severe achievement gap that is affecting the success of African-

American students. The next two graphs are 2017 reports from the Nation’s Report Card, also

known as the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP). NAEP is the largest

continuing and nationally representative assessment of what our nation’s students know and can

do in subjects such as mathematics, reading, science, and writing.

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Figure 2 Trends in fourth-grade NAEP Reading average

Figure 3 Black students’ trend in fourth-grade NAEP Reading scores

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Figure 4 White students' trend in fourth-grade Reading scores

Figure 2, Figure 3, and Figure 4 show the current trends for fourth-grade NAEP reading

average scores on a scale from 180 to 500. 210 to 239 is a basic level, 240 to 269 is a proficient

level, and 270 to 500 is an advanced level. With a downward symbol in the bottom left corner

indicating a lower score in 2019 than 2017, we can see that African-American students are

reported to be below the basic level and have been for the past 27 years since NAEP began

collecting this data.

The Children’s Reading Foundation is an organization that advocates the importance of

helping children read on grade level by the end of third grade and develop the required skills for

a successful school career. Their research has recognized, “Children from all walks of life must

learn to read proficiently. Reading is the most crucial academic skill because it is the foundation

for learning. Through third-grade children are learning to read; after third grade, students read to

learn...Without a strong foundation in reading, children are left behind at the beginning of their

education.” (“Third Grade Reading Success Matters”, n.d.). If reading is as crucial to the

development of a student’s academic achievement, the numbers reported above are unacceptable.
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Some would argue that African-American students have made progress over the years as the line

shows a slight increase and that achievement should be celebrated. I would concur but suggest

that a nearly below-average score is not to be celebrated if we are not acknowledging the

achievement gap that is present. Also, the data shows that we are beginning to head back to the

original starting point where the data was first reported back in the 1990s.

Figure 5 Trends in eighth-grade NAEP Reading average

Figure 6 Black students’ trend in eighth-grade reading scores

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Figure 7 White students’ trend in eighth-grade reading scores

Figure 5, Figure 6, and Figure 7 show the current trend in eighth-grade NAEP reading

average scores, by selected student groups. While there is an increase in the literacy of eighth-

grade African-Americans students, the data shows how students are behind and barely at the

proficient level according to the NAEP standards. This data presents figures that should concern

all educators. We must find strategic ways to close the literacy gap for African-Americans when

it comes to reading achievement in today’s public-school system. Once these students are

behind, the data is proving that they will remain behind and suffer because of the lack of

awareness and attention educators have towards this issue.

Math Performance

Grace Chen, an educator, education researcher, and writer, states that “Math and science

are the backbone of the education system in the United States today, as STEM fields come to the

forefront of the global marketplace” (Chen, 2020). The next set of graphs in this paper will show
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the reports from the NAEP on mathematic scores of students in the fourth, eighth, and twelfth

grades from 1990-2017.

Figure 8 Average NAEP mathematics scale scores for 4th-grade students

Figure 9 Average NAEP mathematics scale scores of 8th-grade students

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Similar to the NAEP reading scores, these data present the same trends for scores in the

mathematics area. Once the fourth-grade students were behind with a 223 in mathematics as

shown in Figure 8 they were still behind with a 260 in the eighth grade as shown in Figure 9. The

problem is not getting African-American students to improve from one grade to the other; rather,

how do we help African-American students meet the achievement level on-time, so they are not

trying to catch up with other students running the risk of being behind for the duration of their K-

12 public education?

There are the two areas where African-American students are lacking support, thus

creating a problem in their overall success: reading and mathematics, two foundational elements.

The problem is that African-American students are facing now is harming their entrance into

colleges and universities because of standardized testing such as the SAT and ACT. If these tests

focus on the knowledge that students have in the areas of reading, writing, and mathematics,

African-American students are at a disadvantage because of the data that I presented Figure 2-4.

Furthermore, standardized testing can prohibit the success of African-American students due to

the quality of education they receive based off of their public education. The standard that

colleges and universities set ultimately disqualify and force African-American students to work

harder in order to be successful at a post-secondary institution.

If admission is based on the numerical values that are associated with the students testing

then it is obvious as to why the African-American students will be low in numbers because their

scores are less likely to be the same as their other racial counterparts. In other words, if African-

American students are reporting low numbers now in reading and mathematics, their

performance level most likely will not be any higher on a national examination, such as the

SAT/ACT, if they are performing nearly below average by the data provided by the NAEP. This
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is where educators can have an instrumental role in helping African-American students by

reevaluating strategies to effectively prepare these students to succeed academically.

Disciplinary Actions

Figure 10 Percentage of public students who received out-of-school suspensions

During a 2012 NPR interview with John Donvan, Assistant Secretary for Civil Rights of

the U.S. Department of Education stated, “African-Americans, about one in five will be subject

to at least one out-of-school suspension sometime during their schooling career and over one in

10 African-American girls. So while there is no one answer or one solution to these problems,

for sure we know that this kind of disparity is hugely concerning” (Donvan, 2012). Another area

of data from NCES that needs to be addressed is the percentage of public-school students who

received out-of-school suspensions by race from 2013-2014. From the data shown in Figure 10,

gender roles and racial identity are two areas of emphasis that educators must be aware of in

determining their role in student success.

First, male out-of-school suspension rates are higher in every racial category on the chart.

This shows us that our male students are more likely to be disciplined in our schools than female

students which provides an interesting perspective since there are more females in the nation

than males (Duffin, 2020). Secondly, African-American students are the most commonly

disciplined race in both male and female categories. In Figure 1, the focal point of a change in
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racial demographics within our public education system was discussed. However, what progress

can be made in supporting African-American students in being successful when African-

Americans are the most to be disciplined and the lowest academically performing students in

their school? In other words, how can we help students if we punish them by preventing them

from being in the school?

Research by Riddle and Sinclair (2019) has noted that “these disparities are particularly

concerning as they are associated with long-term outcomes, including employment and

involvement in the criminal justice system” (p. 8255). Furthermore, Riddle and Sinclair write,

“Overall, there is consistent evidence that black students’ behaviors are both perceived as more

problematic and are punished more harshly compared with white students” (Riddle & Sinclair,

2019, p. 8255). Disturbingly enough, this data is beginning to prove that not only are the public

schools in our nation failing African-American students by affecting their future through rigid

punishment. Public schools around the nation are specifically continuing a cycle of

disproportionate punishment of African-American males which continues to perpetuate a school-

to-prison pipeline in our nation.

Dr. Russell J. Skiba and Natasha T. Williams from Indiana University’s Equity Project

concluded in their research,

“Racial disparities for Black students, Black males in particular, are ubiquitous. Nearly

40 years behavioral referrals tend to be overrepresented in the use of exclusionary

discipline, out-of-school suspension, and expulsion...Regardless of the method, such

studies have provided little to no evidence that African American students in the same
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school or district are engaging in more seriously disruptive behavior that could warrant

higher rates of exclusion or punishment” (Skiba & Williams, 2014).

This information goes against the dream that the Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. had on

the steps of the Lincoln memorial. Dr. King's dream focused on the judgment of people not by

the color of their skin, but by the content of their character. These statistics provide a negative

representation of how we, as a field of educators, judge the character of African-American

students in the public education systems by implementing unfair and harsh disciplinary policies.

When African-American students commit minor offenses such as being disrespectful or causing

classroom disturbances, their disciplinary action should not result in out-of-school suspension,

especially when we compare those offenses to ones committed by thier white counterparts such

as illegal actions like smoking and vandalism.

African-American students cannot thrive in a school division when they are not given the

proper attention for them to succeed academically and are disciplined for minor offenses

compared to other races in the school system. Several negative effects can come from the

injustices African-American students receive from this inadequate form of education and harsh

discipline. One of the biggest impacts is an involuntary involvement in the school to prison

pipeline which is causing many African-American males around the nation to succumb to the

criminal justice system at younger ages. As educators, we have a job to help empower,

encourage, and inspire young people to dream big and know that the sky is the limit. This is only

possible if we are cognizant of our role in helping African-American students succeed. We must

first know where they are located, their current academic performance level compared to other

races, and the negative relationship that discipline and academic achievement have in the life of
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African-American students. Until educators understand their role, their impact in the classroom

will continue to be a part of the problem and not the solution.

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Two Challenges that Hinder the Success of African-American Students

Low Parental Involvement

Challenges that African-American students face in public education not only occur

internally (classroom or school environment) but also externally (community or home). While

obstacles in academic performance appear to be more visible through quantifiable data, research

has shown there are two additional challenges that hinder African-American students from being

successful and reaching their full potential in the classroom: low parental involvement and

economic stability.

It takes more than just educators to help African-American students succeed in the

classroom. Parents have a prominent role in the success rate of students regardless of race.

Department of Education researchers have determined, "It is well documented that family

involvement is a "win/win" for both students and schools. Thirty years of research shows that

students benefit by achieving higher grades, better attendance and homework completion, more

positive attitudes toward school, higher graduation rates and greater enrollment in college" (What

Research Tells Us, 2000). Parental involvement not only ensures that students will be supported

with assistance for assignments outside of the classroom, but it also contributes to the positive

learning community that all schools hope to have for their students. With the times that we are

experiencing today with a global pandemic, parental involvement must be an area of focus in

every educator’s classroom in order for students to reach a level of success. George White, a

member of the New America Media and America's Wire Writers Group, states, "The 'lack of

parental involvement' is the biggest issue affecting Black students' quality of education" (White,

2014). If we want our African-American students to succeed in the classroom, we have to

encourage parental involvement and understand the role parents have in the success process.
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Figure 11 Living Arrangements of children: 2015

Census data has shown that, "Black children (55 percent) and Hispanic children (31

percent) were more likely to live with one parent than non-Hispanic White children (21 percent)

or Asian children (13 percent)" (Vespa, et. al., 2012). In 2015, Child Trends surveyed the living

arrangements of children by race. Figure 11 shows the arrangements of students living with two

married parents, mothers only, fathers only, and living with no parents. African-American

students are more likely to live with their mother only as opposed to living with both parents. A

reason why African-American students suffer from low parental involvement throughout their

educational experience can be attributed to who is in the home. Most African-American students

are living with their mother which means one primary source of income is providing for the

essentials such as food, shelter, and transportation.

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Figure 12 Living Arrangements of children: 1960-2015

Since Child Trends began to collect this data information, we can see that there was a

drastic increase in mother only living arrangements from 1970 to 1975. The data in Figure 12

shows there is an increase from 1960 to 1970 in both living with mother and father only

categories. Research has suggested that this increase has been attributed to childbirths out-of-

wedlock. David G. Backer, and associate professor of political science at Kent State University –

Stark Campus states, “decisions to have children out-of-wedlock, it is alleged, occur more often

when employment options for women are limited and declining” (Backer, 1999). Additionally,

when women had children out-of-wedlock it did not often result in a marriage, but a separation

of the father and mother. As time progressed from 1970, the number of women giving birth to

children out-of-wedlock has continued to grow and explains the rising numbers of children living

with their mothers only as illustrated in Figure 12. While this was a situation that appears to be

gender specific, the group most affected was the African-American community.
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Figure 13 Percentage of children under age 18: 2018

In 2018 the National Center for Education Statistics reported a similar form of data. In

Figure 12 conducted by Child Trends in 2015 compared to Figure 13 from 2018 shows that the

data is consistent in whom African-American Children live with. African-American students are

more likely to live with their mother as opposed to a married or father only household.

Furthermore, the number of mother only living arrangements is continuing to increase and is

almost parallel to the average of all students living in a two parent household. Drs. Bartz,

Collins-Ayanlaja, and Rice (2017) from Eastern Illinois University and the Illinois Association

of School Boards, write, "It is essential that school personnel have a positive "outward mindset"

toward the involvement of African-American parents. The outward mindset is indicative of

school personnel viewing the roles and attributes of African-American parents as crucial to an

effective parent involvement program."

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As educators, we have to be intentional about building connections that help support

African-American students despite the living situations that they may be in. It is crucial to

understand that the problem is not necessarily students lack parental involvement, but rather they

lack parental access. The challenges that single parents face in being active in their child’s

education is one that must be handled with grace and empathy from the educator. Students

should not be labeled by their situation, but by the work that they put into being successful.

Parent engagement is needed more than ever as some scholars have noted that, "Low-income or

minority families feel that staff makes them uncomfortable or shows a lack of cultural

awareness. If a parent-teacher relationship wasn't established early in the year, parents also may

not know whether they're welcome at school" (“How Parent Involvement”, 2019).

Intentional communication leads to effective collaboration which can facilitate the steps

necessary to help increase the success of African-American students in our public education

system today. Getting parents involved in the education of their children should not occur only

when something negative takes place. We must build connections with the parents of our studens

early and understand how important it is to have them involved in the success of African-

American students. This involvement could serve as participation in the Parent Teacher

Association, serving as a chaperone for a field trip, or helping for a fundraising event. Creating

an environment that welcomes parental involvement is an area that needs significant focus and is

hard to accomplish if a school is not initially invested in establishing that partnership for overall

success. Creating a space for parental involvement may lead to student success in their

academics, social/emotional development, and readiness for life. Our willingness to go above

and beyond for our students must be a collaborative effort by any means necessary.
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Economic Disparity

If African-American students are more likely to live with one parent, specifically the

mother, several economic factors may prohibit students from being successful. Mark Santow,

associate professor of history at the University of Massachusetts, and Richard Rothstein,

Distinguished Fellow of the Economic Policy Institute and a Senior Fellow (emeritus) at the

Thurgood Marshall Institute of the NAACP Legal Defense Fund, (2012) wrote in an article

published by the Economic Policy Institute, "African-American children from low-income urban

families frequently suffer from health problems that lead to school absences; from frequent or

sustained parental unemployment that provokes family crises; from rent or mortgage defaults

causing household moves that entail changes of teachers and schools, with a resulting loss of

instructional continuity; and from living in communities with high levels of crime and disorder,

where schools spend more time on discipline and less on instruction and where stress depresses

academic success." I would like to argue that a parent's income significantly affects where and

how a student is educated thus resulting in the lack of resources and support African-American

students receive.

Income Affects Success

The success of African-Americans has not changed drastically over the years. The same

data that was noted in the academic performance section of African-American students being

behind in the fourth grade would relatively be the same for their parents. With this information in

mind, education level and salary level are both correlated with one another. Scholars have stated

that, "Research indicates that the level of education is strongly related to both income and

wealth. Households with higher levels of education tend to have more liquid assets to withstand

financial storms, diversify their savings (investments), and maintain low levels of debt relative to
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assets" (Wolla & Sullivan, 2017). If the research that Wolla and Sullivan conducted in 2017 is

considered when assessing the next graph conducted by the U.S. Census Bureau, we can

conclude that the level of education African-Americans receive is significantly low thus resulting

in having a low-income status.

Figure 14 Real Median Household Income: 1967-2018

Figure 14 does not specify the specifics of the living condition, rather it only informs us

of the median household income by race and Hispanic origin from 1959 to 2018. From 1965,

which was during one of the pivotal moments in the civil rights movement, to 2018, we see that

African-Americans saw roughly a $12,000 increase in income. A little over $41,000 may be

enough to provide for one person, but when you have to provide for children that may want to be

in sports, extracurriculars, honor societies, or other community activities, there is a burden that

may be placed on a person.

 30

Figure 15 Median weekly earnings (in dollars) and unemployment rate (in percent) by educational attainment, 2017

Figure 15 intensifies the magnifying glass and informs us of what a weekly pay would be

for an individual based on their educational attainment level. As stated, African-Americans

would fall into the educational attainment level of an Associates' degree because of their median

level of household income. This also would lead to African-Americans having a higher

possibility of unemployment rate which would lead to an increase in job instability further

resulting in economic disparities being more prevalent.

 31

Figure 16 Unemployment rates: 1973-2018

Figure 16 shows the annual averages unemployment rate by race and Hispanic or Latino

ethnicity from 1973-2018. With African-Americans being ranked the highest to be unemployed,

how can we expect parents to be involved when they can not financially provide for their

students? How can African-American parents help their children when they have to work several

jobs to ensure that they will not be unemployed and run the risk of being homeless? This

information leads us further to discuss how African-American families can fall into the poverty

level due to high unemployment.

 32

Figure 17 Poverty Rate and Percentage Point Change

Figure 17 is a portion of the research conducted by the U.S. Census to discuss Income

and Poverty in the United States in 2018 (Semega et al., 2020). With the median income of an

African-American household being $41,0000, it can be argued that African-Americans are more

likely to be in poverty than any other race. When we connect this information back to the

likelihood of African-American students living in a mother-only household, this graph shows

how the poverty level of that living arrangement is significantly high. 26.8% of families with a

female householder without a spouse are in poverty. 47.7% of families with a female

householder without a spouse and have children under the age of 6 are in poverty. 39.1% of

families with a female householder without a spouse and have children under the age of 18 are in

poverty.

Race is not indicated on this chart, but if African-Americans are more likely to live in a

mother-only household, have the lowest income median, the highest rate of unemployment, and

are noted for low representation of parental involvement, income plays a significant role in the
 33

success of African-American students. Furthermore, the income also controls the community in

which an African-American student lives in thus resulting in the quality of education they can

receive from their school.

Income Affects School Quality

In an article in The Edvocte, Matthew Lynch writes that "This is a particular blow to

areas with high rates of poverty. Students in these areas not only suffer from lack of resources at

home, but their schools must also scrape by on the minimum" (Lynch, 2016). African-Americans

did not choose their challenge when it comes to income. Most African-American students do not

attempt to get a job until after middle school due to federal regulations setting 14 years old as the

minimum age for employment.

Research has proven that students in low-income communities are placed in the

classroom of less experienced teachers that received the lowest scores on licensure exams

(Barshay, 2015). Also, "a district with more black and Hispanic students had lower-ranking

teachers than a district with more white and Asian students. A school with more low-income

students had lower-ranking teachers than a school with a wealthier student body in the same

district" (Barshay, 2015). Students living in these communities have lower home values results in

fewer taxes collected for the school system to be supported. African-American students in these

communities not only have a lack of resources due to their family economic status, but they also

are provided an inadequate form of education due to a lack of qualified teachers effectively

building relationships with students and their families. I am not blaming teachers for failing

students. However, when there is a majority of students living in low-income housing within a

school division, the results of teacher pay, quality resources, and opportunities for students to

learn via real-world experiences may become limited.

 34

As educators, recognizing the role that we have in the classroom begins with

understanding who is sitting in our classroom. Students have lives outside of the period that they

sit in our classroom. When we have to do a better job of connecting to our students and

understanding the circumstances that they have no control over. To put it differently, this is an

example of how the Matthew effect is prevalent in our education more than ever. Researchers

have said that “the Matthew effect refers to the notion that over time, better readers get even

better, and poorer readers become relatively poorer” (Morgan et al., 2008, p.87).

If change does not occur, African-American students may continue to fail. If change does

not take place, African-Americans will continue to experience a lack of education that will affect

their future goals and aspirations. If change does not occur, college will continue to be a

challenge for African-American students academically and financially. If change does not

transpire, we will continue to see systems such as the school-to-prison pipeline grow in the

African-American community leading to higher incarceration rates for African-American boys at

young ages. This information is a call to action for us to make a difference and revaluate the role

we have as educators.
 35

The Impact of African-American Teachers

Diversity in the school system is a national discussion pertaining to the population of

both students and teachers. The need for African-American teachers in the school system has

been an area of focus for centuries, and research has been conducted on the significance African-

American educators have in the classroom. Sabrina Hope King, an Assistant Professor for the

College of Education at the University of Illinois at Chicago states, “African-American teachers

are of critical importance not just because children need to see that teachers of color exist or that

people of color can assume leadership positions. They are needed because of their many other

roles, perspectives, and practices” (King, 1993).

Researches have identified “the racial makeup of the teacher workforce has been

relatively stagnant over the past few decades at about 80% white and mostly female”

(Gershenson & Jacinto, 2019). Laura Fay, a staff reporter with The 74, a non-profit, non-partisan

news site covering education in America, writes “The reasons for the gap are many: hiring bias,

certification tests that teachers of color are less likely to pass, a racial gap in bachelor’s degree

attainment, and lower retention rates for teachers of color, among other factors” (Fay, 2018). The

recruitment of more African-American teachers in our public education system needs to be

addressed, and its results may benefit African-American students significantly.

Educators serve as mentors and role models for their students. With a lack of African-

American teachers in the school system, there is a chance that African-American students may

miss the opportunity to be educated by a teacher that looks like them in the classroom. It has

been stated that “Minority teachers can also serve as cultural ambassadors who help students feel

more welcome at school or as role models for the potential of students of color” (Partelow,

Spong, Brown, & Johnson, 2017).

 36

Figure 18 Percentage distribution of teachers in public elementary and secondary schools

Figure 18 shows the percentage distribution of teachers in public elementary and

secondary schools, by race/ethnicity for School years 2003–04 and 2015–16. The data shows that

the individuals standing before our children and educating them are more likely to be white men

and women. Researchers have indicated that this has been a consistent trend of data since the

Supreme Court voted on the Brown v. Board of Education ruling. Once this ruling overturned the

Plessy v. Ferguson case and deemed it to be unconstitutional, many white educators began to

fear what education would look like in the classroom due to racial integration of students and

educators. Due to this fear, a displacement of black educators began to occur. James E. Haney, a

professor in the department of History and Geography at Tennessee State University writes, “It is

estimated, for example, that between 1955 and 1957 approximately 317 black educators in

Oklahoma lost their jobs because of integration while West Virginia reported a loss of twenty-

five teachers and administrators because of the Brown decision during the same period” (Haney,

1978).
 37

Furthermore, Haney states that,

“During the first few years after the Brown decision, it was slowly discovered that there

were many ways in which black educators could be removed from the classroom and thus

reduce or eliminate their role in the education of black and white children. Some were

demoted or given lower paying jobs, in lieu of their displacement. Principals of black

schools, for example, were usually reassigned as assistants to white principals or

supervisors in the central office where they busied themselves trying to find something to

do; classroom teachers in black schools were made librarians in white schools or, in some

cases, were fired outright” (Haney, 1978).

The lack of African-American teachers in the classroom in today’s society is due to the

cumulative effects of systematic racism that took place in the school system towards African-

American students and educators. For context purposes of what systematic racism is, NAACP

President Derrick Johnson calls systemic racism "systems and structures that have procedures or

processes that disadvantage African Americans" (Koppelman, 2020). Over 60 years ago, many

young African-American students lost the opportunity to be led in the classroom by someone that

looks like them thus minimizing their chances of obtaining a solid educational foundation.

Although the demographics of educators in the classroom have changed over time, the placement

of African-American teachers in the classroom is still in the hands of white educational leaders.

Erica Hines, the network director for the National Center for Teacher Residencies, and

Michael Hines, an assistant professor with the Stanford Graduate School of Education wrote a

2020 article titled: Want to Support Black Students? Invest in Black Teachers. They write,

“Black students who have even one Black teacher during elementary school are more

likely to graduate high school and consider college. Black students with Black teachers
 38

experience less exclusionary discipline and fewer office visits, a crucial break in the

school-to-prison pipeline, a disturbing and widespread trend in which school-discipline

interactions lead to interactions with the criminal justice system” (Hines & Hines, 2020).

Figure 19 Percentage of students in public schools by race

Figure 20 Percentage of teachers in public schools by race

 39

Emily Hanford is a senior producer and correspondent for APM reports and has two

decades of experiences as a reporter, producer, editor, news director and program host. Figure 18

and Figure 19 she shares data that shows the relationship between the demographics of students

and teachers in the school system. Hanford’s research concluded that there are four points that

are significant in recruiting more African-American teachers in the classroom. The two I believe

that are crucial for educators to understand are:

1. When a black student has a black teacher, that teacher is much less likely to see behavioral

problems with that student than when the same black student has a white teacher.

2. When black students have black teachers in elementary school they perform better on

standardized tests.

Having more African-American teachers can help develop a climate and culture that

recognizes the need for an understanding of cultural responsiveness within a school building.

The data has shown that African-Americans perform low on mathematical and reading

assessments, they are more likely to be punished for minor offenses compared to students of

other races/ethnicities, and they may experience low parental involvement. African-American

teachers can help advocate for what is best on behalf of their students. An increase in African-

American teachers can lead to an increase of positive role models and mentors for students in the

school building. Having African-American role models and mentors can lead to an increase in

academic achievement which can help students develop the necessary skills to be well rounded

citizens in our society while decreasing the school-to-prison pipeline in the African-American

community.
 40

The Role of Educators

A. P. J. Abdul Kalam, an Indian aerospace scientist and the 11th President of India once

said, “Teaching is a very noble profession that shapes the character, caliber, and future of an

individual. If the people remember me as a good teacher, that will be the biggest honour for me.”

The educator’s role is very unique and requires a passion like no other. Educators have the

responsibility of shaping the future of our nation in so many ways compared to any other

profession in our world. For a doctor to be able to practice medicine, they must first go through

K-12 education. For a pilot to be able to land a plane, they must first go through K-12 education.

If a person wants to be President of the United States of America, they must first go through K-

12 education.

Whether it is a private or public K-12 education system, the classroom is the birthplace of

dreams, goals, and a plethora of aspirations. It is our job as educators to ensure that we are

providing all students an equal opportunity to reach a level of success that will prepare them for

the real world. To better our role as educators in supporting the success of African-American

students, we must focus on relationships, leadership, and accountability.

African-American students are experiencing disadvantages in several areas throughout

their K-12 educational experience which may affect their dreams, goals, and aspirations. The

research has displayed key areas that must be addressed for our African-American students to

achieve a higher success rate in the classroom. Educators must be cognizant about the identity of

their students, their academic achievement, challenges outside of the classroom that may affect

their academic performance, and the need for teachers that look like them. I have conducted

interviews and consulted professional development books of experienced educators and

 41

specialist to suggest guiding principles that would help identify the role educators have in the

success of African-American students.

Building Relationships

Jennifer Menzel, a high school English teacher for 17 years, has taught students ranging

from college preparatory classes such as Advanced Placement and the International

Baccalaureate Programme to level two and inclusion classes. Being in a predominately African-

American high school, Mrs. Menzel is aware that her students will walk into her classroom and

only see her as a middle-aged white woman and that they will not trust her as an educator. She

stated in our interview,

One of the first steps that I have to take is breaking down the wall a little bit...a little

bit...and I don’t mean kicking it down. It has to be taken down gently. So, I have to create

trust connections with every single one of my kids because if they do not trust me then

they will not do anything for me. If they do not trust me, then there is a ‘then why should

I do it for you’ mentality. The worst thing is a white person telling them that ‘I really

understand the pride of a Black student.’ No, you don’t do that. You show them! You

show them in little ways and sometimes it is so nuanced that I do not often know how to

explain it (J. Menzel, personal communication, November 4, 2020).

Our actions truly speak louder than our words. We must get to know our students to build

bridges and tear down barriers. If we can show our African-American students that we care

through our actions, we can improve the way our students connect and learn in the classroom.

Every child is different, and their identity is unique. An investment in getting to know the people

in our classroom will lead to a special inclination from our students to want to involve
 42

themselves more in the learning process. If we do not give our all to our students, we cannot

expect them to give their all to us as their educators.

Shameka Pollard is the Executive Principal of Hampton High School. Before her role as

Executive Principal, Ms. Pollard served as a high school assistant principal and math teacher. As

Executive Principal, she has noticed that parent engagement is one of the factors that make the

education process effective in helping students succeed. During my conversation with Ms.

Pollard, her wisdom and years of experience led her to share a statement for educators to

understand their role as a leader in building meaningful relationships with our students and their

parents through effective communication.

As educators, it is our responsibility to keep the parents informed and for us to involve

them based on what we do and not so much having them being involved based on what

they do. As a building principal right now as we are in a virtual setting, I am interacting

so much more with parents through email, through telephone calls, and through a new

parent communication system that we have, and the response has been amazing. Prior to

now, it did not always take place that way. I think schools have always wanted parents to

come to us, but now we really have to go to them (S. Pollard, personal communication,

November 6, 2020).

To better serve our African-American students, we have to initiate and actively engage in

forms of communication with parents/guardians. If we are going to invest our time as educators

in the classroom to help our students succeed, we need to equally invest in involving parents in

what is happening in the classroom by developing a genuine relationship.

I also interviewed Freshman Academy Principal, Mr. Ernriekus Williams. Prior to Mr.

Williams joining Hampton High School as Freshman Academy Principal in 2019, he was an
 43

English teacher at the high school level. Mr. Williams believes that the role of educators is

important in the success of all students. But when it comes to minority families, authenticity as

an educator is key!

Personality is something that you will not learn in a textbook, but people know when

something is not genuine. Particularly, as a minority educational leader, a lot of times you

can be taught that to be professional means to abandon all things culturally relevant to

you. We need to try to emulate our counterparts or we need to speak a certain way and

act a certain way. Parents, especially those of a minority background, know when it is not

you. A lot of parents already have an uneasiness with school buildings because they feel

intimidated. So, creating that environment where they feel like they are talking to a real

person who cares about their real concerns makes a parent a lot more willing to come into

your building to have conversations with you and support anything that your school has

going on (E. Williams, personal communication, November 6, 2020).

As educators, we must be authentic with our parents and students. Our ability to be

ourselves will create a space where parents can be themselves as well. If our focus is on building

relationships with students and their families, then as a leader in the classroom, the teaching, and

learning of the content will come easier because of the genuine connection that has been created

between the educator and African-American parents.

Leadership

Principal Baruti Kafele is a well-known educator, motivational speaker, and school leader

hailing from the state of New Jersey. Principal Kafele’s list of accolades has guided his

determination to inspire educators around the world. In his book Closing the Attitude Gap: How

to Fire Up Your Students to Strive for Success, he states how he strongly believes that “unless
 44

we focus on the attitudes of black males first and foremost, we are only spinning our wheels; the

best math, reading, and writing strategies that money could buy aren’t going to raise black male

students’ achieving alone” (Kafele, 2014, p. 5). Additionally, he states how, “Despite these

realities, you have the power to make the students in your classroom soar. You are a life-changer

and a life-builder; you have the tools and the resources to make your students believe they can

fly” (Kafele, 2014, p. 120).

As educators, we are the role models of what leadership looks like. A great leader must

first understand why they do what they do to execute how they do it. For us to encourage our

students to be successful, we have to do as Kafele mentioned and focus on the attitudes of the

students that are in our classroom, specifically African-American students. But before we can fix

the attitude of the people we are teaching; we must first ensure that the one doing the teaching

has the proper attitude towards education. Kafele states that “black males must have an ‘attitude

of excellence’ before actually experiencing excellence” (Kafele, 2014, p. 5). I concur but believe

that attitude must come from the educator first and that begins with a recognition of the

significance of leadership an educator must have to support their students in being successful in

the classroom.

Principal Kafele also states that “Some argue that students’ home environments make the

biggest difference; others argue for students’ socioeconomic status, the overall school

environment, or the classroom teacher. I contend that all these variables have a significant

influence on students – but none more so than students’ teachers” (Kafele, 2016, p. 7). When

educators see their role in the classroom as significant and recognize that their students will be

successful because they lead it, then and only then, will educators be able to redefine their role in

how to contribute to the success of African-American students.

 45

Accountability

Dominique Jones, commonly known under his stage name “Lil Baby” wrote in one of his

songs The Bigger Picture, “It's bigger than black and white. It's a problem with the whole way of

life. It can't change overnight, but we gotta start somewhere” (Jones, 2020). Educators are

responsible for providing the best form of education to students in order for them to succeed

beyond the classroom. We must hold ourselves accountable for being culturally responsive of

our actions to the situations that our students may face while being a member of our classrooms.

This research focused on the role educators have in helping African-American students, but the

bigger picture is understanding that there is a problem in our education system, and we have to

start somewhere for change to happen.

Dr. Brent Lewis is the inaugural Associate Vice President for Diversity, Equity and

Inclusion (DEI) at James Madison University. Before his new role at JMU, Dr. Lewis served as

chief diversity officer and director of identity, culture and inclusion with Randolph College in

Lynchburg. As a former elementary school educator, Dr. Lewis believes that the role educators

can have in being accountable for the success of African-American students is meeting them

where they are and embracing their culture in the classroom through cultural competence.

I remember in the curriculum in my undergrad, we took a course called Teaching

through a Multicultural Lens. That class had Black people, White people, Latinx folks in

the class, but it was taught by a Black woman and she taught us as undergraduate

students how to engage with all of your students. How to build relationships with their

parents. How to build relationships with the people in the community that your school is

in, because that is the thing about K-12. The school is centered in a neighborhood or
 46

neighborhoods depending on where you are. I taught in a Title One school, so to teach

there you had to really be skilled in understanding students from different background

and understand that their parents may not look like you and even if they did, you may

not behave the same. You may not have the same background. You have to be able to

adjust and be flexible. It’s also about Professional development. Once you start teaching,

you still need active engagement with colleagues in your school and outside of your

school (B. Lewis, personal communication, November 19, 2020).

Figure 10 discussed the out of school suspension rate and the percentage of races that are

suspended in the school system. To work towards a solution in decreasing the number of

suspensions in the African-American community, it is critical that educators hold themselves

accountable to understand why African-American students may act in the way that they do. An

investment from educators in building cultural competence is what is needed, not a punishment

of out-of-school suspension. Students some time do not need to be lectured because of their

actions; they need an outlet to talk about what led to it.

Allahjah Smith, is an alum of James Madison University and serves as the Diversity,

Equity and Inclusion President Engagement Fellow program. While her aspirations are not

towards the education field, she does believe that educating people can be done in many ways;

one of which is in her role as the DEI Engagement Fellow. She had one African-American

educator that has served as a role model for her throughout her education experience and

believes that education should be founded on the principle of on collective why.

Not only leading with your personal why, but the shared why should be that learning is

very valuable. Educators should have a passion for learning, but also be cognizant that

you should be learning as well. You should constantly be learning and changing your
 47

viewpoints as you learn new things. Nothing should be stagnant. You will always have a

new group of students and there is no one specific way of learning, so educators have to

be openminded to new approaches (A. Smith, personal communication, November 19,

2020).

I believe that accountability is governed by our "Why?” When we ask ourselves why we

do what we do as educators, we are holding our self to a standard of accountability, we are

internally recognizing that we do what we do in the classroom will align primarily with why we

intend to do it in the first place. For example, my why is to serve as a role model for young

African-American students and engage the students in my class to learn how to be leaders and

believe in themselves to be successful. That “why” then serves as a blueprint for me to recognize

how I teach, what I teach, and when I teach it in the classroom.

When I think of great educators that demonstrate a unique commitment to help African-

American students succeed in the classroom, I think of Dr. Adam Neely. Dr. Neely was the

International Baccalaureate Programme Coordinator at my high school, and I often think about

the first time Dr. Neely and I met during my eighth-grade year. He told me that as long as I

remained focused and trusted his guidance, I would be successful throughout my high school

career and beyond. Sadly, Dr. Neely passed in August of 2019. His impact on the students that

he served in the school system made his passing a very difficult situation to come to grips with.

If Dr. Neely was still here today, I would ask him what his “Why?” was. I strongly believe that is

what made him a great educator and role model for my friends and I in the International

Baccalaureate Programme at Hampton High School.

For educators that really want to know how to support the success of their African-

American students better, ask yourself why you do what you do! Ultimately, if you do not know,
 48

neither will your students. It is our role as educators to build relationships, know what it means

to serve as a leader in the classroom, and hold ourselves accountable to better support African-

American students in their success throughout K-12 education.

 49

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About the Author

Xaiver Williams is a Music Education major with a minor in Honors Interdisciplinary

Studies at James Madison University (JMU) in Harrisonburg, Virginia. Born and raised in

Hampton, Virginia, Xaiver graduated from THE Hampton High School Home of the Crabbers

with Highest Honors as an International Baccalaureate Diploma Candidate. Growing up in his

church, Calvary Community Church (C3 Hampton), he has developed and molded his passion

for leadership and service at a very young age. As a high school student in the band program at

Hampton High School from 2015 to 2019, he served as a member of the concert band,

symphonic band, jazz band, and marching band. Currently, Xaiver is a student in the Trumpet

Studio of Dr. Christopher Carrillo. Under his leadership and musical expertise, Xaiver has

performed in the James Madison University Concert Band under the direction of Mrs. Amy

Birdsong and Mr. Scott Rikkers and the James Madison University Wind Symphony under the

direction of Dr. Stephen Bolstad. Xaiver is a member of the JMU Marching Royal Dukes and a

student in the JMU Centennial Scholars Program. He aspires, after graduation in May 2023, to

teach high school band and to encourage students in the Commonwealth of Virginia how to

develop their passion for music through the love of playing an instrument. Additional aspirations

of Xaiver's include serving as a high school principal and running for political office in the

Commonwealth of Virginia. His motivation to succeed is attributed to the wise words of St.

Jerome, "Good. Better. Best. Never let it rest. Til' your good is better and your better is your

best!"