LIST OF SYMBOLS & ABBREVIATION

A.R - Aspect Ratio

b - Wing Span (m)
C - Chord of the Airfoil (m) C
root - Chord at Root (m)
C tip - Chord at Tip (m)
Cm - Mean Aerodynamic Chord (m) C
CD - Drag Co-efficient
CD0 - Zero Lift Drag Co-efficient
Cp - Specific fuel consumption (lbs/hp/hr)
CL - Lift Co-efficient
D - Drag (N)
E - Endurance (hr)
e - Oswald efficiency
L - Lift (N)
M - Mach number of aircraft
Mff - Mission fuel fraction
R - Range (km)
Re - Reynolds Number
S - Wing Area (m²)
Sref - Reference surface area
Swet - Wetted surface area
Sa - Approach distance (m)
Sf - Flare Distance (m)
Sfr - Free roll Distance (m)
Sg - Ground roll Distance (m)
TT - Thrust (N)
Tcruise - Thrust at cruise (N) Ttake-
off - Thrust at take-off (N)
Vcruise - Velocity at cruise (m/s)
Vstall - Velocity at stall (m/s)
Vt - Velocity at touchdown (m/s)
Wcrew - Crew weight (kg)
Wempty - Empty weight of aircraft (kg)
Wfuel - Weight of fuel (kg)
Wpayload- Payload of aircraft (kg)
W0 - Overall weight of aircraft (kg)
W/S - Wing loading (kg/m²)

1. i
GOAL DETERMINATION AND MISSION SPECIFICATIONS

INTRODUCTION

Aircraft design is an iterative process. The design depends on many factors such as
customer and manufacturer demand, safety protocols, physical and economic constraints
etc. It is a compromise between many competing factors and constraints and accounts for
existing designs and market requirements to produce the best aircraft. The design starts
out in three phases:

(a) Conceptual Design

This involves sketching up a variety of possible configurations that meet the

required design specifications. Fundamental aspects such as fuselage shape, wing
configuration and location, engine size/power plant size and type are all
determined at this stage. Constraints to design are all taken into account at this
stage.

(b) Preliminary Design

At this stage the design configuration arrived at in the conceptual design phase is
then tweaked and remodelled to fit into the design parameters. Major structural
and control analysis is also carried out in this phase. Aerodynamic flaws and
structural instabilities if any are corrected and the final design is drawn and
finalised.

(c) Detail Design

This phase deals with the fabrication aspect of the aircraft. It determines the
number, design and location of ribs, spars, sections and other structural elements.
All aerodynamic, structural, propulsion, control and performance aspects have
already been covered in the preliminary design phase.

1. ii
GOAL DETERMINATION
The goal is to design a flying model Boeing 747 aircraft is a low wing airliner by four turbofans,
with a distinctive raised forward passenger deck and cockpit. It carries 300 passengers.

MISSION PROFILE

The required mission profile for airplane to be designed is given in Figure in below,

1. iii
 GENARAL CHARACTERSTICS:

S. Name of Crew Lengt Wing Wing Empt Power Max Aspec Dry Capac Heigh
No the h Span Area y Plant take t Thrust ity t
Aircraft (m) (m) (m^2) Weig off Ratio (KN) (m)
ht Weig
(Kg) ht
(Kg)
1 737-100 2 28.65 28.35 100 28100 P&T 50300 8 64 124 11.23
JT8D

2 737-200 2 28.65 28.35 102 31600 P&T 52400 8 77 136 11.23

28.35 JT8D

3 737-300 2 33.41 28.9 101.6 32700 P&T 62800 9.11 90 149 11.15
4 JT8D

4 737-500 2 31.00 28.9 110.6 31300 P&T 60550 9.46 90 132 11.15
8 JT8D

5 737-600 2 31.2 35.8 112.6 36378 P&T 66000 9.45 101 140 12.53
JT8D

6 737-700 2 33.63 35.8 125.6 38147 P&T 66000 8 117 148 12.55
JT8D

1. iv
 Sl.no Name of Cruise Range Service Thrust/we Rate of Wing
aircraft speed (km) ceiling ight climb loading
(Km/hr) (m) (m/min) (kg/m2)
1 737-100 786 2850 10670 0.407 1800 310

2 737-200 786 4300 10700 0.407 1800 395

3 737-300 786 4200 11277 0.407 1800 368

4 737-500 786 4444 11277 0.407 1800 450

5 737-600 833.8 5970 12500 0.407 1800 350

6 737-700 833.7 6370 12500 0.407 1800 421

1. v
1. vi
1. vii
1. viii
 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

CREW 4

PASSENGER CAPACITY 100-180

LENGTH 30 m (98ft 5 inch)

WING SPAN (b) 27.2 m (89ft 2 inch)

WING AREA (S) 80.1 m2 (862.18 ft2)

ASPECT RATIO(b2/S) 9.3

38,506 kg (84,891
MAX TAKE OFF WEIGHT lb)(corrected)

EMPTY WEIGHT 31620 kg (69,710 lb)

FUEL WEIGHT 10,405 kg (22,939 lb)

ROLLS ROYCE TAY 620-

POWERPLANT 15 TURBOFAN

NO OF ENGINES 2

THRUST 60 KN

1. ix
DESIGN DATA SHEET

PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
940 km/h (0.78
MAX SPEED mach, 584 mph)
890 km/h (0.74
CRUISE SPEED mach,553 mph)
4,820 km (n 2,995
RANGE miles)
SERVICE CEILING 11,640 m(38,188 ft)

MISSION SPECIFICATION

The aircraft undergoes a simple mission. The need of fuel is necessary only for the
shown cruise. The reserve fuel as mentioned above is needed during loiter.
PAYLOAD: 150 passengers at 75kg each and 25kg of baggage each.

CREW: 2 pilots and 2 cabin attendants at 200lbs and 30lbs baggage each respectively.

RANGE: 2502nm, followed by 1 hour loiter followed by a 100nm flight to alternate.

ALTITUDE: 33,100 feet (For the design range). CRUISE

SPEED: M=0.74, at 38,100 ft.

CLIMB: A dir6-ect climb to 33,100 ft. at Max. WTO is desired. POWERPLANTS: 2 Turbo-fan

engines.

MISSION SPECIFICATION

The aircraft undergoes a simple mission. The need of fuel is necessary only for the
shown cruise.

1. x
WEIGHT ESTIMATION

Airplane must normally meet very stringent range, endurance, speed and cruise speed
objectives while carrying a given payload. It is vital in predicting the minimum airplane weight
and fuel weight needed to accomplish a given mission. We know the lift acquired is directly
proportional to the weight of the aircraft. Hence the estimation of weight for a given aircraft
plays a key role in design analysis.

Payload Weight Validation (WPL):

WPL = No. of passengers*(Wt.of passenger+Wt.of baggage)

= 150*(75+25) WPL

= 15000 kg

Crew Weight Validation (WCREW):

WCrew = No. of crew members*(Crew wt. +Baggage)

= 4*(75+10)

WCrew = 340 kg

1. xi
Approximate Take-off Weight(WTO(approx)):
WTO(approx) = 38393 kg [From Design data sheet]

Now, taking into consideration the appropriate mission phases:

Airplane Take Off Climb Descent Landing

Type

0.995 0.980 0.990 0.992

Business Jets

Transport 0.970 0.985 1.000 0.995

Military 0.990 0.980 0.990 0.995

Trainers
Superson ic 0.995 0.92-0.87 0.985 0.992
Cruise

1. xii
For takeoff, segment 0-1 historical data’s shows that,

𝑊1/𝑊0 = 0.97.

For climb, segment 1-2 historical data shows that,

W2 = 0.985 W1

Aircraft Design Project - 1 For loiter, segment 3-4 ignoring the fuel consumption during
descent we assume,

𝑊4/𝑊3 = 1

For landing, segment 4-5 based on historical data we assume that,

𝑊5/𝑊4 = 0.995

For landing, segment 4-5 based on historical data we assume that,

𝑊5/𝑊4 = 0.995

1. xiii
The Brequet’s range equation is used to calculate the value of
𝑤3𝑤2. As we all know that maximum range is covered during cruise we considering this
equation,

R = (𝑣∞/𝑐𝑗)(𝐿/𝐷)ln (𝑤2/𝑤3)

L/D values of similar type of aircrafts we come to know that the approximate the value of
L/D for our aircraft to be 15.
So,

𝐿/𝐷 =15

From the comparative data sheet,

V∞ = 872 km/hr
R = 7200 km

For Business & transport jets

We found the values of cj as 0.6 hr-1

So now substituting these values in the Brequet’s range equation,

R = (𝑣∞/(𝐿/𝐷)(ln 𝑤2/𝑤3)

= (940/.6)(15)ln(W2/W3) ln(w2/w3)=(4820/23500)=

0.225 (w2/w3)=1.25

W3/w2=0.8

1. xiv
Mission Fuel Fraction Weight Validation (MFF):

The fuel fraction of each phase is defined as the ratio of the end weight to the begin
weight.

MFF = (w1/w0)x(w2/w1)x(w3/w2)x(w4/w3)x(w5/w4)

0.97x0.985x0.8x1x0.995

MFF = 0.796

Fuel Weight Validation (WFUEL):

WFUEL = (1-Mff)* WTO appro

= (1-0.796)*38393

WFUEL = 7832.2
Approximate Operational Weight Validation (WOE(approx.))

WOE(approx. ) = WOE(approx.)- WFUEL- WPL

= 38393-7832-9180

WOE(approx. ) = 21381 kg

Tentative Empty Weight Validation (WE(tent)):

WE(tent)= WOE(approx) -WTFO - WCREW

Where ,

WTFO = 0.5% of WTO(approx)

= 21381-0.005*38393-378

WE(tent) = 20811 kg

1. xv
Maximum Takeoff Weight Validation (WTO):

WTO = WE(tent)+ WFUEL+ WPL+ WCREW

= 20811+7832.2+9180+378

WTO = 38201.134 [CORRECTED]

Aircraft Empty Weight Validation (WE) can be further split up into:

WE=Wstruc +WPP + WFE

We estimate the Gross Wt.

(Wg) =0.9* WTO =34381 kg

From the Group Weight Jet Transport data, Wstruc =0.321

Wg

HenceWstruc = 11061.45 kg

WFE = 0.169
Hence WFE = 5828 kg

WPP = 0.114

Wg

Hence WPP = 3921.5 kg

Hence the empty weight WE = Wstruc +WPP + WFE

= 11061.45+3921.54+5828.15
1. xvi
WE = 20811 kg
POWERPLANT SELECTION
As estimated from the design data sheet, the aircraft to be designed requires a thrust of 60kN.A
consolidated list of the various engines that tally with the thrust required for the given aircraft is tabulated
below.

Engine Name Dry weight SFC Max Thrust

Rolls- Royce TAY 620

1501 69.93 61.60
GE-CF34- 8
1200 71.2 64.54
Rolls- Royce TAY 650
1595 69.93 67.16
Rolls- Royce BR710-48
2104 72.97 66.72
Rolls- Royce
1856 77.02 54.00

Hence, the optimum choice of engine, from those listed above would be the Rolls-Royce
TAY 620 engine which meets the demand of weight and thrust required at similar payload
such as the one under design.

In our design, we select 2 rear engines, namely Rolls-Royce TAY 620 Turbo Fan
Engine to meet the given design standards.
 Rolls-Royce TAY 620 Description

Manufacturer ROLLS-ROYCE

Type of the engine TAY -620

TURBOFAN

Thrust at SL/ISA 61.6 kN (13850 lbs)

Inlet mass flow 184 Kg/s(408 lb/s)

Bypass Ratio 3.04

Overall Pressure Ratio 16.0

Fan diameter 1.17 m(44 inch)

Engine weight 14220.57

Kg(3135lbs)

Engine length 2.4 m(94.8 inch)

Turbine entry Temperature 1305 K

Specific fuel consumption 69.93Kg/kN.hr(0.69

(SFC) lb/lbf.hr)

Fuel consumption(Eg 300 NM 2063 KG

flight)
 ROLLS-ROYCE TAY620

FUEL WEIGHT VALIDATION

The choice of a suitable engine, having been made, it is now possible to estimate the
amount of fuel required for a flight at the given cruising speed for the given range.

Wfuel = (𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔∗𝑻𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 𝒂𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒆∗𝑹𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆∗𝑺𝑭𝑪∗𝟏.𝟐)/ 𝑪𝒓𝒖𝒊𝒔𝒆 𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚

The factor of 1.2 is provided for reserve fuel.

Thrust at altitude is calculated using the relation:

=Ρalt/ ρo Altitude =
10800m = 35433ft
𝜍 = 𝜌 𝑎𝑙𝑡 𝜌0 = 0.3715/1.225 = 0.303
Cruise velocity = 872km/hr = 242.2m/s To = 320kN
𝑇𝜍= 320×0.3031.2
𝑇𝜍= 76.363kN = 7784.2kg
SFC = 0.4hr-1 (at medium thrust setting)

Number of engines = 3
CALCULATION:
Wfuel = 3×7784.2×7200×0.4×1.2 872

Wfuel = 92,553.42 kg

WING SELECTION AERODYNAMICS:

Wing Configuration:
In the wing design, we have two considerations
1. The geometric shape of the wing

2. Determination of mean aerodynamic chord

3. Wing location relative to the fuselage

GEOMETRY OF THE WING:

Wing geometry is described by

Plan-form shape

Aspect ratio (which is already obtained from comparative graphs)

Wing sweep

Taper ratio

Aerofoil shape and thickness along the span

Geometric twist (change in aerofoil chord incidence angle along the span).

The maximum design velocity is 940 km/h (.78 M) - below the transonic region. We
choose to use a swept wing.
Initially the primary aerodynamics data was obtained from the design data sheet. The parameters
known include

Wing span, b = 27.2m

Wing Area, S = 80.1 m^2

Aspect ratio, AR = b^2/S = 9.3

Taper Ratio λ = 0.36 (from Roskam book – BAE 196-200)

We know that taper ratio, λ = Ct = 0.36Cr

Where,

Ct is the root chord Cr is the

tip chord Ct =0.36 Cr

Also

S/2 = b/2 (Ct + Cr )/2

80.1/2 = 27.2/2 ((0.36 Cr + Cr ) / 2

Hence Cr = 4.33m

Also Ct = 1.56m

A leading edge sweep angle of 15°. Hence we get the plan form as shown
Lift Coefficient (CL)
• Amount of lift generated depends on:
•
–
coefficient (CL)
Lift=(1/2 ρ V^2)SCl=qSCl

• CL is a measure of lifting effectiveness and mainly depends upon:

•
–

compressibility effects (Mach number), viscous effects (Reynolds’ number).

Generation of Lift

• Aerodynamic force arises from two natural sources:

– Variable pressure distribution.
– Shear stress distribution.
• Shear stress primarily contributes to overall drag force on aircraft.
• Lift mainly due to pressure distribution, especially on main lifting surfaces, i.e. wing.
• Require (relatively) low pressure on upper surface and higher pressure on lower
surface.

• Any shape can be made to produce lift if either cambered or

inclined to flow direction.
Classical aerofoil section is optimum for high subsonic lift/drag ratio
CALCULATION:

General Lift equation is given by,

Lift=(1/2 ρ V^2)SCl=qSCl

Lift at Cruise
𝜌 = 0.3715 (at the cruising altitude of 10800m) V = 242.2 m/s
S = 400.72 kg/m2
CL(cruise) = 0.63022 (from the wing and airfoil estimation)

Substituting all these values in the general lift equation,

L = 12×0.3715×242.22×400.72×0.63022
Lift at cruise = 2751761.6 N

Lift at Take-Off
𝜌 = 1.225 (at sea altitude)
V = 0.7 x Vlo = 0.7 x 1.2 x Vstall S = 400.72
kg/m2
CL(take-off) = 2.508 (flaps extended and kept at the take-off position of 20o)

Substituting all these values in the general lift equation,

Lift Curves of Cambered and Symmetrical airfoils

DRAG ESTIMATION:

DRAG:
- Drag is the resolved component of the complete aerodynamic force which is parallel to
the flight direction (or relative oncoming airflow).
- It always acts to oppose the direction of motion.
It is the undesirable component of the aerodynamic force while lift is the desirable component

Drag Coefficient (CD)

Amount of drag generated depends on:

o Planform area (S), air density, flight speed (V), drag coefficient (CD)

CD is a measure of aerodynamic efficiency and mainly depends upon:

o Section shape, planform geometry, angle of attack, compressibility effects

(Mach number), viscous effects (Reynolds’ number).

Drag Components
- Skin Friction:

o Due to shear stresses produced in boundary layer.

o Significantly more for turbulent than laminar types of boundary layers

• Form (Pressure) Drag

o Due to static pressure distribution around body - component resolved in
direction of motion.

o Sometimes considered separately as forebody and rear (base) drag components.

• Wave Drag
o Due to the presence of shock waves at transonic and supersonic speeds.
 LANDING GEAR CONFIGURATIONS

A B

Wheel diameter(inch) 1.63 0.315

Wheel width(inch) 0.1043 0.48

MAIN LANDING GEAR

No. of wheels = 4

Wheel diameter = A (Wm) ^B

= 1.63(18,426) ^0.315
= 0.91m (35.95 inch)

Wheel width = A(Wm)^B

= 0.1043(18,426)^0.48

= 0.29m (11.63inch)

NOSE LANDING GEAR

No. of wheels = 2

Wheel diameter = A (Wn) ^B

= 1.63(1652.43)^0.315

= 0.4272m (16.8inch
 Wheel width = A (Wn) ^B

= 0.1043(1652.43)^0.48

= 0.0927m (3.65inch)

Determination of position of landing gear

Xacwb = xn-Vht at/a

Where, xacwb = aerodynamic centre of wing body

xn = neutral point
Vht = horizontal tail volume ratio

at/a = lift slope ratio of tail to wing

Static margin = (xn – c.g)/chord

Lets assume static margin = 18%

xn = 3.16*0.18+16.95 = 17.51m

From the above result, it shows that position of the landing gear is longitudinally stable.

By assuming that xacwb = x (ac)wing

x (ac)wing = xn - vht

= 16.81m

Therefore wing is placed such that the aerodynamic centre of the wing is placed at 16.81m
behind the nose
To find the distance of leading edge of the wing from nose

= 16.81 – 0.47 – 0.79

= 15.55m

Main landing gear is placed at the centre of the wing Therefore,

The location of the centre of the wing = distance of the leading edge of the wing from nose

+ (root chord/2)

= 15.55 + 4.33/2

= 17.715 m
This shows the main landing gear is located 17.71m behind the nose of the airplane. Let us
locate the nose wheel so that it can be conveniently folded rearward and upward into the
fuselage. Set the nose wheel location of 4.43m as shown.
3D Views of aircraft:
AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE THRUST:

RANGE & ENDURANCE

Range is technically defined as the total distance traversed by the aircraft on a tank of fuel.
Endurance is the total time the aircraft stays on air on a tank of fuel. One of the critical
parameters influencing range and endurance is the Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption which
amount of fuel consumed per unit thrust per unit time. Range and Endurance are found using
the Breguet Formula.

ENDURANCE

E = 1 CL ln WO

Ct CD W1

Where, Ct ` - Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption WO

- Gross Weight of aircraft

W1 - Weight of aircraft without Fuel

= 301 min or 5.02 hrs

RANGE:
R = 2 x 0.2334 x 0.514x105 x 6.937 x 22.57

Range = 3756.6 km
TAKEOFF PERFORMANCE

Up to this point we have discussed the aircraft performance at zero accelerations. But finite
accelerations are required for further estimation of parameters. For takeoff the pilot
accelerates with afterburning thrust of 60kN.

Takeoff Distance = 1.44 W2

g ρ S CL,max T

= 1.44 x (34654.91 x 9.81)2

9.81 x 1.225 x 80.1 x 2 x 60000

Takeoff Distance = 1440.82 m

LANDING PERFORMANCE

The ground roll after the plane has touched down has to be calculated. To
minimize the distance required for complete stop the pilot has decreased the thrust to zero after
touched down, so T=0. Spoilers are deployed so lift tends to zero. Drag shoot is also actuated
leads to 20% increase in drag. The maximum lift coefficient with flaps fully employed at
touchdown is 2.4.

Landing Distance(SL) = 1.69 W2

g ρ S CL,max {D + μr(W-L)}

where, μr - Co-efficient of rolling friction (0.4)

Landing Distance = 531.45 m