Lecture 7. Interpretation of a Text. Part II.

Lecture Outline
1. Procedures of stylistic analysis.
2. Final interpretation of the artistic whole.
3. An approximate scheme of overall stylistic analysis of a fiction text.
Key words: stylistic analysis, interpretation, artistic whole. 

1. Procedures of stylistic analysis.

The following procedures in stylistic analysis can be suggested to facilitate the process of decoding
information contained in any type of text.
The first procedure is to ascertain the kind of text being dealt with. This procedure may be called the
taxonomic stage of analysis. Taxonomyis the science of classification. It states the principles
according to which objects are classified. There is an immediate need to get a clear idea as to what
functional style this or that text belongs. Furthermore, the taxonomical analysis will bring to mind a
definite model of a text in the given style. Sometimes it is not enough to state that the text belongs
to, let us say, the style of official documents. It is necessary to specify what kind of a document is
being analysed. Thus, it is very important to find out whether the text is a memorandum, or a note, or
a protest, or a pact, etc. If the text is one that belongs to the belles-lettres style, it is necessary to
point out what kind of a text it is, viz. a poem (what type), a story, a novel and further, within it, a
description, a portrait, a conversation (dialogue), the author's narrative, his speculations, etc.
The second procedure, which may be called the content-grasping stage, aims at an approximate
understanding of the content of the giventext. It does not claim to be a complete and exhaustive
penetration into the hidden purport of the author. The conceptual information will bedisclosed at later
stages in the analysis.
However, this superficial grasping of the general content is an important stage, it should stand out
against a deeper understanding of the information the text contains in the broad meaning of the
term.
The third procedure, which might be called semantic, has as its purpose the close observation of the
meanings of separate words and wordcombinations as well as of the significations of the various
sentences and supra-phrasal units. This stage of the analysis predetermines the lines of further
analysis which will reveal the deeper information. In maintaining this procedure it is vitally important
not to lose sight of the fact that, as has been pointed out before, the meanings of words and the
significations of the sentences and SPUs are liable to modifications under the integrating power of
the whole of the text, its gestalt. It is advisable at this stage of analysis to consult dictionaries
inasmuch as dictionaries will show the polysemy of the words, thus enabling the student to
distinguish a simultaneous realization of two or more meanings of a word in the sentence.
The fourth procedure, which should be called the stylistic stage, aims at finding out what additional
information might be imparted by theauthor's use of various stylistic devices, by the juxtaposition of
sentences within a larger frame of utterance.
The fifth procedure, which conventionally might be called the functional stage of analysis, brings us
back to the second one, i.e. the content-grasping stage. This analysis sets the task of investigating
the conceptual information contained in the whole of the text. In maintaining
this stage of analysis the student should assemble the previously acquired data and make a kind of
synthesis of all the procedures.
There is no hierarchy in maintaining analysis procedures but the suggested sequence has proved to
be the most efficient in getting a deeperinsight into what constitutes the notion text.
In order to show how these procedures work, each procedure separately and all of them together, it
is advisable  to subject the given below text to ascrupulous stylistic analysis. This, as has been
described above, aims at disclosing the content-conceptual information contained in the text. But in
order to achieve this aim, i.e. to get a clear idea of what the content-conceptual information consists
of, it is necessary to come to an understanding of the order in which the factual information of the
text is arranged.
In prose the factual information is more or less coherently exposed, although there are certain kinds
of prose where the factual informationdoes not follow the principle of coherence. Moreover, there are
kinds of prose in which the thread of factual information is broken and a mental effort on the part of
the reader is required to assemble the separate parts in their correct relation one to another. Also,
apart from the two kinds of information mentioned, there exists a third one which is called sublinear
information. This is sometimes referred to as the hidden information in the text.
As it is necessary to reveal how the different procedures aim at disclosing the conceptual information
(it would be, in fact, impossible to do soin a brief outline of the way the procedures work), a very
short passage has been chosen--the first two stanzas of the poem "The Raven" by E. A. Poe.
Once   upon a  midnight   dreary, while  I  pondered,  weak  and
weary,
Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore--
While     I    nodded,     nearly     napping,    suddenly     there    came
a tapping,
As of some one gently rapping--rapping at my chamber door.
"'Tis some visitor'" I muttered, "tapping at my chamber door--
Only this and nothing more."
Ah, distinctly I remember, it was in the bleak December,
And each separate dying ember wrought its ghost upon the floor,
Eagerly I wished  the morrow;--vainly I had sought to borrow
From my books surcease of sorrow--sorrow for the lost Lenore--
Nameless here for evermore.
According to the schedule given above we can find in these two stanzas almost everything that can
be subjected to four of the five procedures, i.e. to the taxonomic, content-grasping, semantic and
stylistic stages of the analysis. The only procedure which cannot be maintained is the functional
stage because, as has been mentioned, this stage bringing us back to the second of the indicated
positions of analysis, requires a retrospective study of the conceptual information of the whole text.
Here, however, we deal with two stanzas only, hence
we can but guess at the further factual information the text contains. And so it will hardly be possible
to achieve a synthesis of all the procedures.
The taxonomic procedure ascertains that the excerpt under analysis is poetry. This is due to the
arrangement of the sentences and phrases, the combinations of the words, the rhyming scheme and
the rhythm which we can quite easily discern from reading. These and some other
features of poetry are described in the body of the book where we deal with the style of poetry.
We give only a most general description of the taxonomic aspect of the above stanzas. It ought to be
deeper because this stage of analysis manifests itself in various forms, varied compositional designs
and in many pragmatic functions.
There are various compositional designs of stanzas, metres, lines. In the poem chosen for analysis
the lines are almost all equal in length and present a definite scheme that can easily be drawn by
scanning. Thus we state that in each line there are 16 syllables and in each line
the stress is placed on the first, third, fifth syllable and so on, i.e. on the odd one. The even syllables
are unstressed, for example: "Once upon a midnight dreary..." So this is trochaic octometer with a
peculiar rhyming scheme: In the first line, "Once upon a midnight dreary
when I pondered weak and weary..."--there is inner rhyme. Inner rhyme again appears in the third
line. This system of rhyming becomes particularly clear a little further.
As to the second procedure, named the content-grasping stage, it aims at disclosing the factual
information contained in the stanzas. The content may be given in a few words: a sad melancholy
man is sitting alone in his chamber reading and thinking of his lost beloved, vainly trying to find
consolation in books. This is clear even from a cursory reading. That is all we can infer from this
stage of the analysis.
The most relevant procedure of investigation, which discloses the inner relations between the facts
expressed and the content-conceptual information, is the semantic stage. It presupposes a detailed
analysis of the meaning of words, word-combinations, sentences, and
even of larger units such as whole stanzas. To show how this may be done, we must analyse nearly
every word separately. For instance, if we take the first two lines:
"Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary,"--
we observe that the word "pondered" catches our attention. If we look it up in the Concise Oxford
Dictionary we will find the nuances of meaning of this word: "weigh mentally; muse over". These
definitions reveal specific shades of meaning when compared to the word "think".
Contextually, "to ponder" denotes meditative thinking, deep emotional involvement in the subject.
The semantic analysis of the words "weak" and "weary" in the same lines shows us that the man is
not only tired but also unable to solve the problems he sets before himself. It might well be
mentioned here that the use of these two alliterate words, which are paired synonyms, deepens the
meaning contained in each word separately and thus new nuances of meaning are added to each
word thus making them one semantic unit.
In the third line: "Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore"--the se-
mantic analysis reveals what is meant by "forgotten lore". By leaping a little ahead the reader may
draw the conclusion that "forgotten lore" is magic, and "many a volume" is books in which the man
has been seeking ways to meet his beloved in the other world. If we subject each word of the poem
to such a detailed semantic analysis we shall be able to get a clear idea of the author's thoughts and
feelings.
It must be noted that the semantic procedure should not be solely confined to the analysis of words;
it should also embrace the syntactic and compositional arrangement of the text. Thus in the given
excerpt the transfer from the first stanza to the second can be described as a deviation from the
main topic that is dealt with--the second stanza is a lyrical digression,  a kind  of "discontinuum".
The structural design of the sentences within the two stanzas should also be taken into
consideration. There are parallel constructions, anadiplosis along with other syntactic features. It is
understandably impossible to bring out all the peculiarities of the syntactic arrangement of the
sentences in the above two stanzas, but those we have mentioned show what is meant by the
semantic investigation of the structure of the poem.
As to stylistic analysis, we should single out repetition as the key device expressed at all levels
(phonetic, lexical, syntactical). It is necessary to take into account cases of direct repetition:
"rapping--rapping," "sorrow--sorrow," and paired synonymous repetitions reinforced by alliteration:
"weak and weary", "quaint and curious". Stylistically relevant are instances of inversion: "Eagerly I
wished the morrow;--vainly Ihad sought to borrow..."--the words eagerly" and "vainly" are used to
intensify the meaning. The effect is further strengthened by the parallel constructions formed by the
above-mentioned words.
The analysis of, we might call it,the "vertical" line of words used, particularly adjectives, reveals the
general gloomy atmosphere in which the mood of the poet is characterized. If we bring together such
epithets as "dreary", "weary," "bleak," "dying (ember)," "lost (Lenore)" as well as the nouns
"midnight," "sorrow," "ghost," "December" we can see that these words by realizing their dictionary
and acquired additional contextual meanings contribute to the description of the depressed state of
mind of the poet.
Stylistic analysis can be successfully maintained providing the preceding stages have been well
investigated; it is the function of stylistic analysis to gather together all the data drawn from the
taxonomic, content-grasping and semantic stages of investigation. Only then will the stylistic analysis
disclose the idea of the work as conceived by the author.
We  must remember  that the suggested example provides only a general idea as to a possible
approach to analysis of texts, as we have dealt with only a part of a text, not a whole text.
Nevertheless, this cursory analysis will serve the reader as a sample; it will direct his attention to the
necessity of carrying out the different procedures, for if any of them is omitted it will be rather difficult
to get at the final content-conceptual information.

2. Final Interpretation of the Artistic Whole

A literary work is an artistic whole which is created by the interaction of all its elements: the
characters, setting, plot, plot structure, language, literary techniques, etc. The writer employs all the
different linguistic and extralinguistic elements, carefully plans them to fit one another in order to
accomplish his purpose -- to convey the message and impress his readers.
Among the various prose forms of fiction the short story is characterized by a more tightly knit
structure. It generally has a limited number of characters, a restricted time span. It is devoted to a
single predominant event and includes only a few actions. Nevertheless it contains deep implication.
Therefore, the linguistic and literary elements in the story are expressively more loaded, they carry
greater weight of significance, contribute greatly to the message of the story and to the total effect it
produces.
When interpreting fiction one must bear in mind that contents and form are inseperable. There may
be no form without contents, as there may be no contents without a certain form. A work of art is
formed contents. Any change of the form of the literary work results in a change of its contents, and
vice versa.
Contents and form in literature are relative notions. What seems to be 'contents' on one level may
turn out to be 'form' on a higher level. Thus plot and character are generally referred to as contents.
But plot and character are at the same time the form of expressing the message,
One might think that contents are prior to form, as the writer imagines the characters and
circumstances before he writes about them. But, is V.Kozhinov indicates, the author's intention is not
as yet the contents of his work. It is only when the intention acquires definite material form and
structure, does it acquire contents.
All the elements work together to accomplish the author's message. They all serve to evoke a
rational and emotional response towards the different aspects of life and human nature that are
revealed by the writer.
One can remember here the saying by a modern philosopher and philologist S.Averintsev that
"philology is a service of comprehension and the functions of the "service of comprehension” are
realized not only through the text interpretation but also through educating humanity and culture of
feelings”. 

Words  and phrases  for interpreting  fiction plot and structure

Plots may be simple, complex, intricate
exposition
complications
climax
denouement
the opening sentence (paragraph)of the story
the closing sentence (paragraph)
an internal conflict
an external conflict
Settings may be realistic, historical, fantastic, exotic, rural, etc.
to establish the setting
to set the story in ...
the events are set in ... a straight line narrative structure a complex narrative structure a circular
narrative structure a frame structure
the simple and clear structure of the story the span of time the story covers digressions
to interrupt the narrative with digressions Literary techniques: retardation, foreshadowing, flashbacks
to the past
Means of characterization
character-images
landscape-images
animal-images
object-images
the central (main, major) character
the protagonist
the hero, heroine
the villain
the antagonist
a foil
to serve as a foil to ...
to act as a foil to (for)... the author's mouthpiece a type
a caricature
a simple (or flat) character a complex (or well-rounded) character moral, mental, physical, spiritual
characteristics direct characterization indirect characterization
to reinforce characterization
to contribute to characterization, individualization, verisimilitude to depict (to portray, to describe)a
character to evaluate (to assess, to rate, tojudge)a character's actions to share a character's
emotions
to arouse warmth, affection, compassion, delight, admiration, dislike, disgust, aversion, resentment,
antipathy, etc.
Narrative method
the omniscient author
the observer-author
an onlooker, an observer
The story is told from the point of view of an onlooker (an observer, a character who participates in
the events). The events are presented through the perception of ... The events are presented
through the eyes and mind of ... the dominant point of view the dramatic form the pictorial form
The story is presented in the dramatic (pictorial) form. a reliable (or unreliable) narrator
The narrator enters into the mind of ... (a character) The narrator reveals the personality of ... The
narrator shares the viewpoint of ... The narrator gives a biased view of ... a first-hand testimony the
immediacy and freshness of the impression
to increase the immediacy and freshness of the impression
to stimulate imagination
to increase the credibility of the plot
to stimulate the reader to make his own judgements
to make the reader draw his own conclusions
Tonal system
The tone may be formal, semi-formal, informal, conversational, casual, sympathetic, cheerful,
vigorous, serious, humorous, mock-serious, lyrical, dramatic, excited, agitated, passionate,
impassive, detached, matter-of-fact, dry, impartial, melancholy, moralizing, unemotional, pathetic,
sarcastic, ironical, sneering, bitter, reproachful, etc. to assume a formal (informal, etc.) tone The tone
is maintained by a number of stylistic devices. The atmosphere may be peaceful, cheerful,
cheerless, gloomy, etc.
to create the necessary atmosphere (mood)
to convey the atmosphere Attitudes may be agreeable, optimistic, involved, detached, impassive,
indifferent, critical, contemptuous, ironical, cynical, etc.
to evoke a certain attitude
to share the author's (narrator's, character's) attitude
to jeer, to sneer, to mock, to satirize
to ridicule, to poke fun at a humorous effect a deliberate exaggeration
an unexpected comparison
a round-about way of naming things
the irony of life
the irony of the situation
The message of literary work
contents and form
The contents are rendered vividly. theme
a story on the theme of ... the main problems
to raise (pose) a problem
to reveal its relevance the writer's standpoint (views)on a moving, exciting, impressive story to
awaken (arouse) interest to retain interest
to hold the interest of the reader
to excite (evoke) a feeling, an emotion, a state of mind, the sense of being a witness
to arouse the reader's excitement, concern, curiosity, emotions to excite one's mind to touch one's
heart to stir one's imagination a response
to evoke (or elicit) response an accent
to lay the accent (stress) on, to accentuate, to emphasize , to enforce a gifted, talented writer a
means of conveying the message an artistic detail a particularity presupposition a means of
cohesion recurrence, repetition parallelism
the author's message the objective message a traditional symbol a personal symbol implication
to express something implicity, indirectly
to imply, to suggest, to hint at
to be suggestive, to have implication
to understand the implied meaning verisimilitude
a true-to-life story, a realistic story to create an impression of truth to render reality, to represent life
to reveal different aspects of human nature, human relationships, people's fates,
errors, conflicts, heroism, etc. to lay bare, to expose, to reveal

3. An approximate scheme of overall stylistic analysis

of a fiction text.
Below is an extract from Approximate Scheme of Overall Stylistic Analysis of a Fiction Text
suggested by L. P. Yefimof in his book "Practical Stylistics of English":
*The text (extract, excerpt, episode, passage, piece, paragraph) under consideration (analysis)
comes from
-(indefinite) a work of literature (novel, story, short story, tale, play, fable, poem) written by ... name
of the author,
-(definite) the book (novel, story, short story, tale, play, fable, poem) ... name of the work ...written by
... name of the author.
*The author (writer, poet) is famous for (known as an) ...a bit of information about the author and his
works, style of writing.
*The extract concerns (is devoted to, deals with) ...
*The basic theme is ...
*From the point of view of presentation the text is
-the ls7 3rd person narrative
-rather a description than a narration
-rather a narration than a description
-a mixture of narration and description
with some a) insertions of direct/ interior/ represented speech;
*The sentence structure is (predominantly) a) simple; b) composite; c) complicated by the following
predicative complexes ...; homogeneous/ heterogeneous enumeration of ... It is aimed at exciting
(evoking) a feeling/ an emotion/ a state of mind/ the sense of being a witness of a particular
logical(complex, confused) philosophical (moral, social) consideration (observation).
*The text segmentation is realized by the following graphic means: ...
*The tone of the piece of literature is formal/ semiformal/ informal/ conversational/ casual/
sympathetic/ cheerful/ vigorous/ serious/ humorous/mock-serious/ lyrical/ dramatic/ excited/ agitated/
passionate/ impassive/ detached/ matter-of-fact/ dry/ impartial/ melancholy/ moralizing/ unemotional/
pathetic/ sarcastic/ ironical/ sneering/ bitter/ reproachful, etc. It becomes obvious owing to:
a)         such cases of morphemic foregrounding as repetition of the root.../
the prefix.. ./the suffix.. ./the inflexion
b)the morphological transposition of...;
c)the following phonetic stylistic phenomenon/ -na:...
*The characterization of the person-image/ landscape-image/ animal-image/ object-image ...mention
the person/non-person image.. . is achieved with a number of stylistic devices.
Thus, thanks to the
-associated (unassociated) epithet(s) ...
-dead (original) nominational (cognitive, imaginative) simple (sustained)
metaphor ..., etc.
we may perceive the optimistic/ involved/ critical/ contemptuous/ ironical/ cynical, etc. attitude of the
narrator/ interlocutor(s).
A deliberate exaggeration .../anunexpected comparison (simile) .../-round-about metonymic
(metaphoric) way of portraying (exposing, revealing enforcing, rendering, bringing out, ridiculing, etc)
the positive (negative, contradictory, complex/ well-rounded) character of... produces the effect of
To stimulate/ stir imagination (to arouse warmth/ affection/ compassion/ delight/ admiration/ dislike/
disgust/ aversion/ resentment/ antipathy, etc.; to increase the credibility of the plot; to stimulate the
reader to make his own judgement; to increase the immediacy and freshness of the impression,
etc. ) theauthor makes use of ... name the stylistic devices, etc.