Biology The Unity and Diversity of Life

Fifteenth Edition

Chapter 2
Life’s Chemical Basis

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 2.1 Mercury Rising (1 of 3)

Emissions from coal-burning power plants, such as the

Navajo Generating Station, are by far the largest source
of mercury pollution worldwide. Mercury, a toxic
substance ends up in the tissues of aquatic organisms
and fish that humans eat.
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 2.1 Mercury Rising (2 of 3)

Mercury—naturally occurring toxic metal

– Most located in rocky minerals
– Released into the atmosphere by volcanic activity and
burning coal
– Combines with carbon to form methylmercury
Methylmercury
– Ends up in the tissues of aquatic organisms
– Large predatory fish contain large amounts

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 2.1 Mercury Rising (3 of 3)

Humans who eat fish and shellfish ingest mercury, which

damages the nervous system, brain, kidneys, and other
organs
– Takes months or years to be cleared from the body
– Can build up if small amounts are ingested regularly

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 2.2 Building Blocks of Matter (1 of 8)
• Atoms consist of:
– Positively charged protons
in nucleus
– Uncharged neutrons in
nucleus
– Negatively charged
electrons orbiting the
nucleus
• Charge—electrical property
– Like charges repel;
opposite charges attract

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 2.2 Building Blocks of Matter (2 of 8)

• All atoms have protons

– Most have about the same number of electrons as
protons
• Atomic number—the number of protons in the nucleus
– Determines the type of atom, or element
• Elements
– Pure substances
– Consist only of atoms with the same atomic number
• Number of protons, neutrons, and electrons
– Used to predict how elements will behave

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 2.2 Building Blocks of Matter (3 of 8)

Periodic table
– Arrangement of the
elements by atomic
number
– Invented by Dmitry
Mendeleyev
– Each element is
represented by a symbol
typically related to its Latin
or Greek name

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 2.2 Building Blocks of Matter (4 of 8)

Isotopes and Radioisotopes

• All atoms of an element have the same number of
protons
– Can differ in number of other subatomic particles
• Isotopes—differ in number of neutrons
• Mass number—the total number of neutrons and
protons in the nucleus of an isotope

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 2.2 Building Blocks of Matter (5 of 8)

Examples of isotopes
Carbon 12 (12C)
– Most common carbon isotope
– Contains six protons and six neutrons
Carbon 14 (14C)
– Example of a radioactive isotope (radioisotope)
– Naturally occurring
– Unstable nucleus breaks up spontaneously
 Emits radiation (radioactive decay)
 Becomes Nitrogen 14 (14N)

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2.2 Building Blocks of Matter (6 of 8)

– Decay occurs at a
predictable rate
 Basis of carbon dating

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 2.2 Building Blocks of Matter (7 of 8)

• Tracers
– Substances with a detectable component
– Radioisotopes are often used
– Widely used in research
• Medical application of radioisotopes
– PET (positron-emission tomography)
 Allows us to see a process within a person’s body using a
radioactive sugar or other tracer

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2.2 Building Blocks of Matter (8 of 8)

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 2.3 Why Electrons Matter (1 of 6)

Electrons
– Have mass but no size
– Move fast but never collide
– Orbit the nucleus in shells or energy levels.
 First shell ≤ 2 electrons
 Second shell ≤ 8 electrons
 Third shell ≤ 8 electrons
 Each successive shell represents a higher energy level.

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 2.3 Why Electrons Matter (2 of 6)

– Fill shells from innermost to outermost

– Gain energy by absorbing only the amount needed to
boost it to the next energy level (shell)
– Emits energy in precise amounts

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 2.3 Why Electrons Matter (3 of 6)

When atom’s outer shell is

filled with electrons, it is in
a stable state (e.g.,
helium, neon, and argon).
Stable atoms have little
tendency to interact with
other atoms

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 2.3 Why Electrons Matter (4 of 6)

• When atom’s outer shell has a vacancy

– Has room for another electron
– Tends to get rid of electrons by interacting with other
atoms
– Chemically active
• Free radicals—atoms with unpaired electrons
– Very unstable
– Dangerous to life

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 2.3 Why Electrons Matter (5 of 6)

• Ions—atoms with unequal number of protons and

electrons
• Atoms become ions when they gain or lose electrons in
their outer shells by interacting with another atom.
• Ions carry a net charge (positive or negative)
• Example:
Na + Cl → Na+ + Cl–
(atoms) (ions)

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2.3 Why Electrons Matter (6 of 6)

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 2.4 Chemical Bonds (1 of 9)

• Chemical bond—attractive force arising between two

atoms when their electrons interact
• Molecules
– Formed when atoms interact
– Held together by chemical bonds
• Compound—molecule consisting of two or more
elements

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 2.4 Chemical Bonds (2 of 9)

Chemical bonds make atoms into molecules.

Chemical bonds hold atoms together in a particular
arrangement that defines the type of molecule. This is a
model of a water molecule. Every molecule of water
consists of two hydrogen atoms bonded to the same
oxygen atom.

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 2.4 Chemical Bonds (3 of 9)

• Ionic bonds
– Atoms are held together by
mutual attraction of opposite
charges
– Can be quite strong
– Example: table salt (NaCl)
• Polarity
– Separation of charge

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 2.4 Chemical Bonds (4 of 9)

• Polarity
– Separation of charge

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 2.4 Chemical Bonds (5 of 9)

• Electronegativity
– Measures atom’s tendency to pull electrons away from
another atom
• Covalent bonds
– Occur when electrons from different atoms share a
space in a shell
– Can be stronger than ionic bonds
 But not always stronger

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 2.4 Chemical Bonds (6 of 9)

Atoms fill vacancies by sharing electrons. Two electrons

are shared in each covalent bond. This is a model of
hydrogen, a gas in air. Two hydrogen atoms, each with
one proton, share two electrons in a covalent bond.

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 2.4 Chemical Bonds (7 of 9)

Structural Formulas
• Line between two atoms indicates a single covalent
bond
• Double line indicates a double bond
– Two atoms sharing two pairs of electrons
– Stronger than a single bond
• Triple line indicates a triple bond
– Two atoms sharing three pairs of electrons
 Stronger than a double bond

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2.4 Chemical Bonds (8 of 9)

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 2.4 Chemical Bonds (9 of 9)

Comparing bond polarity Bonding refers to a range of

atomic interactions. Here, polarity is represented in color;
red indicates negative charge; blue, positive charge.
Uncharged regions are white.
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2.5 Hydrogen Bonding and Water (1 of 11)

• Water has unique properties

– Molecule has no overall charge
– Oxygen atom carries slight negative charge
– Hydrogen atoms carry slight positive charges
– Polarity attracts them to one another

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2.5 Hydrogen Bonding and Water (2 of 11)

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2.5 Hydrogen Bonding and Water (3 of 11)

Hydrogen bond:
• Attraction between a covalently bonded hydrogen atom and
another atom taking part in a separate polar covalent bond
• Not a chemical bond
• Forms and breaks more easily than covalent or ionic bonds
• Collectively quite strong
• Extensive hydrogen bonding gives liquid water special
properties
– Makes life possible

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2.5 Hydrogen Bonding and Water (4 of 11)

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2.5 Hydrogen Bonding and Water (5 of 11)

Water’s Special Properties: Hydrophilic

• Water is an excellent solvent
– Other substances can easily dissolve in it
• Hydrophilic
– Water-loving
– Hydrophilic substances dissolve easily in water
• Solution
– Uniform mixture
– Example: salt dissolved in water
– Proportions of substances in a solution can vary

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2.5 Hydrogen Bonding and Water (6 of 11)

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2.5 Hydrogen Bonding and Water (7 of 11)

Water’s Special Properties: Hydrophobic

• Concentration
– Amount of solute dissolved in a given fluid amount
• Hydrophobic
– Water-dreading
– Hydrophobic substances do not interact with water
 Example: oils

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2.5 Hydrogen Bonding and Water (8 of 11)

• Cohesion
– Hydrogen bonds collectively exert a continuous pull on
individual water molecules
– Plays a role in surface tension
• Evaporation
– Water molecules escape from liquid water surface as
vapor
– Resisted by hydrogen bonding

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2.5 Hydrogen Bonding and Water (9 of 11)

Cohesion of water molecules

provides the surface tension
that enables this insect to
walk on water.

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2.5 Hydrogen Bonding and Water (10 of 11)

Temperature—measure of the energy of motion of atoms

and molecules
• Water stabilizes temperature
– Hydrogen bonding keeps water molecules from moving
as much as they would otherwise
• Temperature stability
– Important part of homeostasis
– Molecules of life function within certain range of
temperature

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2.5 Hydrogen Bonding and Water (11 of 11)

Individual water molecules pack

less densely in ice than they do
in water, which is why ice floats
on water. Sheets of ice that
form on the surface of ponds,
lakes, and streams can insulate
the water under them from
subfreezing air temperatures.
Such “ice blankets” protect
aquatic organisms during long,
cold winters.

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 2.6 Acids and Bases (1 of 7)

pH—a measure of the number of hydrogen ions in a

water-based fluid
• Pure water has a neutral pH of 7
• Lower pH fluids have more hydrogen ions than higher
pH fluids
Water molecules will dissociate into hydrogen (H+) and
hydroxide (OH–) ions.

H 2O  OH   H  H 2O
water molecule hydrogen ion hydrogen ion water molecule

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 2.6 Acids and Bases (2 of 7)

Acids
• Substances that give up hydrogen ions in water
• Have pH below 7
• Example: lemon juice (pH 2)
• Acids range from weak to strong
• Gastric fluid inside stomach is strongly acidic (pH 1–2)

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 2.6 Acids and Bases (3 of 7)

Bases
• Accept hydrogen ions from water
• Have pH above 7
• Example: baking soda dissolved in water

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2.6 Acids and Bases (4 of 7)

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 2.6 Acids and Bases (5 of 7)

Carbonic acid (H2CO3)

– Forms when carbon dioxide gas dissolves in blood
plasma
– A weak acid
– Gives up a hydrogen ion in water
 Becomes a bicarbonate
Buffer—set of chemicals that act to keep pH stable
– Example: carbonic acid and bicarbonate together
– When base is added, carbonic acid gives up hydrogen
ions to become bicarbonate

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 2.6 Acids and Bases (6 of 7)
 Hydrogen ions replace those that base removed from the
system
– When acid is added, hydrogen ions released by the acid
combine with the bicarbonate
– pH remains stable, between 7.3 and 7.5
– Addition of too much acid or base can overwhelm the
system

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2.6 Acids and Bases (7 of 7)

CO2  H 2O  H 2CO3
carbondioxide water molecule carbonic acid


H 2CO3  H  HCO3
carbonic acid hydrogen ion bicarbonate


H  HCO3  H 2CO3
hydrogen ion bicarbonate carbonic acid

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