EET3210

Energy Technology

”Nuclear energy”
Physics, reactor technology, control, safety and risk.

Autumn 2017
Wilhelm Rondeel
USN TF

University College of Southeast Norway

 Hydro power exercise - solution
• a) Name the three most common types of hydro power turbines.
What are the main characteristics for each of them?
Solution:
”Pelton”: - see slide 22 – “Electric Power Systems”
“Francis”:- see slide 24 – “Electric Power Systems”
”Kaplan”:- see slide 25 – “Electric Power Systems”

• b) A hydro power plant has maximum power capacity output of 165 MW.
The utilisation time is 2700 hours.
What is the annual energy output of the plant?
• Solution:
With a utilisation time of 2700 hours and an installed capacity of 165 MW,
the annual energy production is:
2700* 165 MW = 445500 MWh or 445 GWh/year

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 Solution to exercises, continued:
• c) A hydro power system has a catchment area of 420 km 2.
The annual precipitation in the relevant area is 1250 mm. The average head of the power plant is 460 meter.
Assuming no losses by evaporation, overflow, etc. – doing a simplified calculation, - what is the annual
production of this power system? We assume an efficiency factor of 96 % for the installation.
Specific weight of water 1000 kg/m 3 and the gravity constant 10 m/s2
The installed capacity (MW) of the station is 225 MW.
What is the utilisation time, and what is the average flow (m 3/second) through the turbine at full power?

• Solution:
Annual energy: E = m*g*h = (420*106 m2) *1,25 m*1000 kg/m3)*10 m/s2*460 m *0,96
23,2 8
= 23,2*1014Joule equal to *10 kWh or 644 GWh. (1 kWh = 3.6×106 J (or 3.6 MJ))
3,6
• d) The installed capacity (MW) of the station is 225 MW.
What is the utilisation time, and what is the average flow (m 3/second) through the turbine at full power?

Solution:
Definition of utilisation time: 644000MWh=Utilisation time*225MW
644000
Utilisation time: =2862 hours
225
When the power plant runs at full power, the total annual production could thus be finished in
2862 hours. The amount of water flowing trough the turbine during this time is the annual total
volume of water from question c) –
420*106 m2 *1,25 m = 525*106 m3. This volume through the turbine in 2862 hours gives:
525∗106
= 51 m3/s
2862∗60∗60
• e) What kind of turbine would you choose (slide 26)?
• Solution: According to slide 26 a Francis turbine would be well suited. (next page!)
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 Approximate application areas

“Rule of the thumb” for power output:

Energy from reservoir: E=m*g*h

M – mass
g – gravity constant
h – head, or height

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4
 Hydro power exercise - solution
f) Operation of a run-of-river power station.
A run-of-river power station has an average head (difference in height between inlet and outlet) of
15 meter.
The average flow is 150 m3/second, and the efficiency is in the “normal” range.
1. What is the average power output, electrical?
2. What kind of turbine would you choose?
3. What will happen if the operator increases the flow through the turbine to be higher than the
incoming flow of the river?
4. What will happen if the opposite happens?
5. How much energy is lost (%) if the operator reduces the upside surface level 10 centimetre
below the top of the inlet dam?
Solutions:
1. Formula from slide 26: P(kW)=8*Q(m3/s)*h(m)=8*150*15 =18 MW or “applying the
physics”, - m(kg/s)*g*h(m)*η = 150*1000*9,81*0,91*15=20 MW – slightly more optimistic!
(The total efficiency is included in “rule-of-thumb” formula.)
2. One would choose a Kaplan turbine.

3. The water level behind the dam would be reduced,

and we would loose head – energy and power!
4. One would get overflow, and loose energy and power!
5. One would get a reduced power output, - the reduction would be 0,1/15=0,67 %.
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 Key elements in this lecture section

• Nuclear power in a global and climate change perspective.

• The physics of nuclear energy, the fission process.
• The chain reaction and how to control it, nuclear bombs and
peaceful applications.
• The basic elements and control of nuclear fission reactors.
• The specific risks related to present nuclear power reactors.
• Nuclear radiation and risks to humans.
• Short evaluation of nuclear accidents.
• The future of nuclear energy, and new technologies, - like
fast breeders and fusion reactors.

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 Nuclear power stations 2010 – about 440

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Nuclear power plants under construction
Total: 58

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 Life Cycle Analysis – Carbon intensity in construction
and operation.

The amount of steel and concrete pr. kWh produced during operational lifetime is about 8
times higher for wind power than for nuclear power. Mainly caused by short utilisation time.

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 Nuclear energy, origin and scale

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 Specific energy content of some fuels

Energy content (lower combustion value)

Light Fuel Oil

Natural Gas

Wood Chips

Coal
Uranium
Hydrogen

Nuclear energy originates from strong nuclear forces (million times stronger than chemical),
Fossil or bio combustion involves the chemical forces (electron sphere of the atom).

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 The atom and the nucleus

Negative electrons.

Nucleus consisting of
positive protons and
neutral neutrons.

Atomic number
(protons) determines
chemical properties.

Mass number
determines weight
characteristics of the
nucleus.
Nucleus 10.000 Isotopes, same
Times smaller than the atom! ”chemistry”,
but different weight.

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 Fission, - splitting the atom
The neutral neutrons are able to penetrate into the positive nucleus and initiate reactions.

1 MeV (million electron volt) =

1.609 x 10 -13 Watt-second

When an uranium atom is split in nearly to halves, the total mass after the process is
smaller than before. The difference is converted to energy:
E = mc2
Theoretically 1 g fissile material may generate 20.000 kWh heat.

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 The fission proces

Observe the time

scales involved!

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 Distribution of fission products
Fission of U-235, U-233 or Pu-239

The fission products contain

“too many” neutrons and are
therefore unstable.

Decay by β og γ – radiation
to a stable state.

Important fission products:

Iodine-131 – T1/2 - 8 days.

Cesium-137 – T1/2 - 30 years.

Releases from Fukushima

dominated by these two elements.

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 Energy released in the fission proces

165 MeV ~ fission products - kinetic

7 MeV ~ gamma radiation
6 MeV ~ kinetic energy neutrons
7 MeV ~ β radiation from fission products
6 MeV ~ γ radiation from fission products
9 MeV ~ neutrinos – “disappears” in universe!

200 MeV ~Total

About 13 MeV (6+7) decay heat from fission products,

contribute with energy after the chain reaction has been stopped.

1 MeV (million electron volt) = 1.609 x 10 -13 joule (or Ws)

Number of atoms in 1 gram uranium: 2,53*1021 – releases 22.500 kWh in total fission energy.
(200*1,6*10-13*2,53*1021)/3,6*106=22.500 kWh)

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 Uranium isotopes – fissile and fertile
Uranium 235, uranium 238 and plutonium

Fissile

Formation of fission products

0,7%

Fissile
Fertile

Formation of transuranic elements

99,3%

Natural uranium contains 0,7% of the fissile, isotope uranium 235.

The rest is fertile uranium-238.
Light Water Reactor fuel is normally enriched to 3 -5 % U235.
In the reactor a portion of uranium-238, by absorbing a neutron, will convert to
Pu239, - which is fissile and will contribute to about 30% of the energy output.
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 Uranium enrichment – with centrifuges

Zippe centrifuge Cascade with centrifuges – has replaced

the more energy intensive diffusion process

Different enrichments for different purposes:

Thermal reactors normally < 5%,
238U – heaviest, concentrates in
the periphery. 235U flows further Fast reactors >20%.
to next stage through centre. Bomb >80%.

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 The chain reaction and how to control it

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 The chain reaction

The fission process releases energy and new neutrons, the latter may take
part in a further chain reaction.

Criticality factor – C =

Nr. of neutrons (gen. (n))

Nr. of neutrons (gen. (n+1))

C<1 subcritical
C=1 critical
C>1 supercritical

When supercritical –
growth is exponential

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 Critical mass for a chain reaction

Top: The sphere with fissile

material is too small, the
volume (≈R3) too small in
relation to surface (≈ R2), too
many neutrons escape, and no
chain reaction is possible.

Middle: By increasing diameter

the ratio of volume to surface
improves, and one may get a
sustainable chain reaction.

Bottom: By introducing a
neutron reflector neutrons are
By using a neutron reflector, only about 11 pounds (5
kilograms) of nearly pure or weapon's grade plutonium
retained, and critical mass is
239 or about 33 pounds (15 kilograms) uranium 235 is
needed to achieve critical mass.
obtained with less fissionable
material
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 The (unfortunate) link between weapons and reactors
Extremely high energy density – “efficient” weapons!

”Mike” – Hydrogen – Fusion bomb – 10 Mt

”Fat Man” – Pu – fission bomb –
Strength equivalent to all
Nagasaki - 20 Kt
bombes dropped in World War II

Kt and Mt are kilotons and megatons

of TNT explosives respectively.
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 ”Little Boy” – Hiroshima – bomb –
based on U-235

Critical mass obtained by ”shooting” one under-critical part into another.

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 Moderator and control rods –
basic elements in a thermal reactor

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 The function of the moderator

• The neutrons released in fission has very high energy and velocity, - nearly half
the speed of light.
• The majority of commercial reactors are so-called THERMAL reactors, based on
the fission of 235U, or 239Pu. The fission process is more efficient if the neutrons
have a velocity in balance with the temperature in the reactor (thermal). This
energy level for the neutrons corresponds to velocities in the range of about
2200 m/s. The loss of (thermal) neutrons by absorption in uranium 238 is much
lower than for the fast neutrons.
• The neutron velocity is slowed down by collisions with the moderators nucleus.
The slowdown is most efficient when the weight of the colliding particles are
equal. The colliding partners then “exchange” velocities. The moderator should
then consist of light elements, - and the preferred moderators are water
(hydrogen), heavy water (deuterium) or graphite (carbon).
In addition the moderator must have a low absorption of neutrons.
• Typical diffusion lengths of neutrons, from release to absorption or fission
(point to point, not travelled length):
– H2O : 2,85 cm D2O : 116 cm C : 54 cm

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 Control of nuclear reactions

• The nuclear processes are controlled by the neutrons.

• In case of an atomic bomb, the preferred process is to create
an overcritical mass fast and efficient, and then to keep the
mass together as long as possible to obtain a large share of
the fissionable material taking part in the reaction.
• In the nuclear reactor the neutron density (flux) is controlled
by absorption mechanisms in so-called control rods (normally
cadmium) and absorber material added to the cooling liquid
(normally boron in the moderator /water).
• Commercial reactors approved in OECD – countries have to be
designed such that the chain reaction should stop if the
reactor is overheated. (But there will still be some rest heat generated by
radioactive decay of fission products to take care of after shut-down.)

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 Negative feed-back in reactors

• In order for the reactor to be stable and self-controlled, there has to be a

negative feed-back mechanism in the reactor. This means that in case of
a reduced power off-take, the reactor should, by a built-in negative
physical feed-back, reduce its neutron flux and the power production.
• Power depends on the neutron density (flux), and as 238U absorbs more
neutrons at higher temperatures, a negative feed-back is obtained.
• The so-called ”Void coefficient”, expresses how a steam formation in the
cooling water (which is usually also the moderator) influences the power
level. A negative void coefficient is normally required to get a reactor
design approved. If the water starts to boil, the reaction should stop.

• The Chernobyl reactor had a strong positive ”void coefficient” at low

power levels.

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 Power level in the reactor

• The power level depends on the number of fission reactions per

unit of time.
• A simplified formula:

Power - P=Φ*NT*σf*w

where - P the power level (watt)

- Φ neutron flux (density – velocity)
- NT number of fissionable nuclei in the reactor
- σf fission cross section, - likelihood of a fission reaction
- w energy released in each fission
• As the fuel is burned out (NT reduced), and keeping constant power
output, the neutron flux (Φ) has to be increased. This requires
withdrawal of control rods or removal of some boron in the cooling
water (moderator).

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 Power level after (emergency) stop
• Even if the chain reaction has been stopped in an emergency situation, for example with
a LOCA – Loss Of Cooling Accident, the reactor will still produce some heat. The heat
13
comes from radioactive decay of the fission products (200 =0,065 MeV), and is depending on
the power level in the reactor immediately before the stop.
• A simplified formula for the power level, as a function of time, from about 10 seconds
after shut down:
Pf=P0*A*1/tα
Pf : total decay heat (watt)
P0 : reactor power level before shutdown
A : a constant – for a basically 235U reactor about 0,066
α : a constant – for the thermal reactor about 0,2
t : time, in seconds
• Directly after shutdown the level will be about 6% of pre-shutdown, after 24 hours it will
be reduced to about 0,7%.
• If the cooling of the reactor core is lost completely, the decay heat may lead to
meltdown of the reactor core.
• In Fukushima, after some days, the power level was down to about 12 MW, -
enough for the supply of heat to the district heating system in Porsgrunn on a
very cold winter day!

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 Example calculation

• A reactor based mainly on fission of 235U is shut down on emergency.

• Power level before shut down was stable at 800 MWe (electric supply to
grid).
• The electric efficiency of the power plant at was 33%.
• Apply the simplified formula below to calculate the power caused by
decay of the fission products 1 hour after emergency shut down.
Pf=P0*A*1/tα
Pf : power from decay of fission products
P0 : reactor power level – thermal – before shut down
A : a constant – for a reactor with mainly 235U- ca. 0,066
α : a constant, for the same reactor type as above ca. 0,2
t : time, in seconds

Thermal power release before shut down: 800 MWe/0,33 = 2424 MWt

Thermal power from decay after 1 hour (formula):

P1t = 2424*0,066*(1/(60*60)0,2) = 194/5,14 = 30 MW

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 The nuclear reactor

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 Nuclear fuel, design and fabrication

Step 1
Uranium oxide
“Yellowcake”
Step 2 Step 3
Pellets Fuel elements

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 Nuclear power plant – PWR
Pressurised (light) Water Reactor – the most common reactor

Heat exchanger between

reactor core and turbine cycle.

Natural water as moderator and cooling. Fuel enriched 235U to about 3 – 5 %.

Temperature of fuel pellets ≈ 400 – 500 °C
Water temperature in pressure vessel about 300 °C and pressure 150 bar.
With these temperatures and pressures, chosen on the basis of safety and
temperature limits for materials involved, an efficiency in the order of 30 - 34 % is common.

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 The total efficiency of the thermodynamic process is given by the
temperatures differences in the thermal cycle

Most common nuclear reactors are based on

steam turbine technology.

The maximum temperature allowed is relatively low,

The pV - diagram of the Carnot cycle and limits the efficiency to about 33% - due to:

-Temperature limitations for the fuel elements

-Reduced pressure for safety reasons

These limitations are of relatively minor importance

due to low fuel cost!
But there is a lot of waste heat to get rid of!

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 BWR - Boiling (Light)Water Reactor

Natural water as moderator

and for cooling.

NO heat exchanger
between core and turbine.

Turbine steam slightly

radioactive.

Steam temperature 290 °C

and 80 bar pressure in
reactor vessel.

Fuel enriched 235U

to about 3 – 5 %

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 CANDU – Heavy Water Reactor

Pressure tank replaced

by pressurized tubes.

Moderator and cooling by

heavy water – deuterium,
which has very low
absorption of neutrons.
(The nucleus has already
one neutron more than
normal.)

Low absorption of
neutrons makes
operation with natural
uranium possible.

Refuelling during
operation possible, - and
partly necessary, due to
low neutron
concentration with
natural uranium.

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 For sustainability reprocessing is necessary!
Better utilisation of fuel, and reduced volume of waste

UF6

The spent reactor fuel

Reprocessing involves proliferation risks,
by the separation of refined Plutonium,
which may be used for a bomb.
But reduces the problems with waste.

Without reprocessing only about 1 % of the uranium is utilised!

(included energy from converted Uranium 238 to Plutonium 239)
The main purpose of reprocessing is to remove the fission products.
The fission products are “poison” (absorbs neutrons) in the reactor, and leads to a halt in the chain reaction.

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 Waste in power production – nuclear and coal,
some comparisons.

• Based on today's most commonly applied technology,

50 kg uranium ore (0,23 kg uranium oxide) would
generate the same number of kWh`s as 5 tons of coal.
• Electricity from a 1000 MWe nuclear power plant
produces at full power ca. 25 tons high level
waste(from the fuel elements) per year.
• In comparison a 1000 MWe coal fired power plant
produces ca. 300,000 tons of ashes, and releases
approximately 5 million tons of CO2 , per year.
(Total CO2 emissions from Norway is about 50 million
tons per year.)

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 Nuclear waste – long term challenge!

Shielding and
Geological deposit

The transuranic (heavier than uranium) elements are

the main problem.
However, most of them also have a potential as future fuel,
In so-called fast reactors.
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 The characteristics of nuclear energy
and safety

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 The special risks with nuclear power

• A thermal power plant operated on fossil fuels like gas or coal, may be
shut down (and will afterwards release no more energy) by:
– Stop the fuel supply, or
– Stop the supply of oxygen (air)
• Nuclear challenge nr. 1: (Chernobyl)
A nuclear reactor has at start – up “all it needs” to operate at full
power for more than a year. Loss of control may lead to
catastrophic high (power) energy release.
The energy release in the reactor is controlled by controlling the
neutron flux, - by handling of the neutron absorbers (cadmium rods
or boron in the coolant).
• Nuclear challenge nr. 2: (TMI and Fukushima)
Even after shutting down the reactors nuclear chain reaction,
large amounts of heat will still be released by decaying fission
products. Cooling is vital, and emergency cooling systems
extremely important.

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 Radioactive radiation and human risk

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 Possible danger with nuclear power; -
Radioactive radiation exposure and biological effects

Alpha – sources, like Plutonium

or Polonium, are only dangerous
Helium nucleus when inhaled or eaten.
Electron
The normal unit for measuring human
radiation exposure is Sieverts (Sv),
Gamma rays
or more practical - mSv.

Total – average USA: 3,6 mSv

Three types of radiation.

Radiation exposure, natural variation:

Normal range - from 1 – 20 mSv
About 150 mSv natural radiation has been found,
without negative effects on population.
Chernobyl, 1994: Pripyat – 25 mSv

and
Air travel – cosmic radiation exposure – ca. 10 μSv/hr
Maximum Tokyo after Fukushima – 23.3.2011 – 0,14 μSv/hr
148 Bq/m3 Radon indoor ~ 8 mSv/year
Norwegian action limit – 100 – 200 Bq/m3
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 Threshold or Linear relationship?

Is all radiation dangerous,

or is it only when a certain
threshold has been exceeded?

It is not irrelevant whether a

medicine is portioned with
1 tablet every day during 1 year,
or to take 365 in a single day!

A substantial increase
in nuclear power utilisation
necessitates a more realistic
and fact-based attitude
towards nuclear radiation
and health risks!

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 Cancer and background radiation – USA statistics
Source: AECL

Trendline?

The linear hypothesis contra the threshold hypothesis!

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 Accidents with nuclear reactors:
Three Mile Island,
Chernobyl and
Fukushima

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 Three Mile Island USA – LOCA (Loss Of Cooling Accident)
PWR reaktor

28.3 - 1979
Reactor 2 – 900 MWe
Valve failures and
operator error.
Cooling after shut-down
challenge. No health
consequences
externally.

But the movie –

”The China syndrome”
was a big success!

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 The Chernobyl – disaster - 26.4 1986

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 Radioactive fall-out over Europe after Chernobyl

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 Chernobyl and radiation doses – relative importance

Measurements in the United Kingdom

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 The Chernobyl reactor design

Characteristics:

- graphite moderated

- without containment

- strong ”positive void”

- extremely unstable
at low power

- critical design of
control rods

The reactor was operated by incompetent personnel in conflict with standard safety procedures.
The reactor came out of control, and the power generation immediately before the explosion is
estimated to about 100 times nominal power or more. The (radioactive) graphite caught fire, and
without containment structure large amounts of radioactive material was released to the
atmosphere.

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 Chernobyl examined by international agencies

5 SEPTEMBER 2005 | GENEVA

As of mid-2005, fewer than 50 deaths had been directly

attributed to radiation from the disaster, almost all being
highly exposed rescue workers, many who died within
months of the accident, but others who died as late as
2004.
Among these are 9 children who died of thyroid cancer,
which probably might have been prevented if iodine
treatment had been applied.

Furthermore, the report concludes that there is no

scientific documentation that indicates any negative long
term health effect to the general public.

The new numbers are presented in a landmark digest

report, “Chernobyl’s Legacy: Health, Environmental and
Socio-Economic Impacts,” just released by the Chernobyl
Forum. The digest, based on a three-volume, 600-page
report and incorporating the work of hundreds of
scientists, economists and health experts, assesses the
20-year impact of the largest nuclear accident in history.

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 Nuclear power in Japan

Japan imports 80 % of its energy consumption. Only 8% of the electric power is

hydropower. Approximately 30 % is nuclear, an increase to 50% is (was?) planned.

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 Fukushima Daiichi NPP – 760 MWe BWR

When the earthquake was registered the power plant shut down according to standard procedures.
External power was lost, and diesel emergency generators started for emergency cooling.
These had been in operation for nearly 1 hour when the tsunami struck.
The plant was protected against a 5,7 m tsunami, - the one which came was about 14 m high!
The diesel generators located at ground level were drowned, and power for the cooling was lost!

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 Localization of the Fukushima- power plant

Height of the Tsunami ca. 14 meter!

Emergency diesel generator

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 The Fukushima power plant after the accident

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 The Fukushima area after the tsunami

Destroyed infrastructure made the immediate rescue work extremely difficult!

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 Calculated heat generation at Fukushima after emergency shut down

Heat delivered by district heating

in Porsgrunn at a cold winter day!

The first decay heat was cooled by the diesel driven

emergency system (before the tsunami struck).
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 The challenge is cooling of reactor vessel and the spent fuel

Without sufficient cooling the core overheated, and (partly?) melted. A chemical reaction between the
hot metal cladding of the fuel elements and water produced hydrogen, which subsequently exploded.

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 Summary (2016) for Fukushima

• Three employees at the power plant have died, caused by the

earthquake and tsunami – NOT radiation.
• Nobody among the general public have received doses that could
endanger
their health.
• There have been 2400 workers active in the rescue operation.
Among these eight have received
doses slightly above 250 mSv.
• It is not expected that any of these
will experience any negative
health effects.

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 The future of nuclear energy

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 Energy supply and sustainability

Sustainability:
Nuclear energy based on
present thermal reactors can
most probably not to be
regarded as a sustainable
technology.

What is a “FAST
REACTOR”? (FR)

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 Fast Breeder Reactors necessary for sustainability of nuclear energy

European
Strategic Research
Agenda
2009

Thermal reactors

Fast breeders

USA – Department of Energy – Generation IV program.

Waste is accumulating, and uranium resources (235U) are depleted!
Fast Breeder Reactors may utilise 238U – which make up 99,3% of natural uranium.
Today's waste may be turned into a resource.

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 Many neutrons pr. fission – necessary basis for ”breeding”

Isotop Neutron energy

Thermal Fast
235U 2,07 2,30
239Pu 2,11 2,70
233U 2,30 2,45
To obtain ”breeding”, conversion of more fertile to fissile than fissile material consumed
in the process, the number of new free neutrons pr. fission must be higher than 2,0.
One neutron used for conversion, and one for next fission.
Some neutrons are lost to the surroundings and absorbed in the reactor.
The number 2,07, for 235U, is too low for breeding in a uranium based thermal reactor.

Thorium (233U is derived from 232Th) favourable in thermal reactors (breeding may be possible), uranium
(239Pu is derived from 238U) is better in fast reactors.

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 The sodium cooled fast reactor - SFR

A number of full scale prototypes of this reactor are, and have been,
in service, for many years. China has recently started a new one.
It can burn the waste from the thermal reactors, and it can breed uranium
into plutonium (for application in fast or thermal reactors).
It can utilise 238U, and the fuel supply is no longer a limit to sustainability.

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 Sodium – cooled fast reactors
and a new Chinese reactor connected to the grid

USA
Was in operation from 1963
to 1994
Chinese fast breeder reactor
connected to the grid in 2011
Fast Breeder Reactors are not commercially available today. Especially Russia, France and Japan have substantial experience.
In total there have been 22 Fast Reactors in operation, a number of them at a capacity comparable to a full scale power plant.
Accumulated they have supplied about 20TWh of electric energy since the start – up in 1946.
A number of them have been in operation for more than 30 years.

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 Energy from fusion – a solution for the future?

A typical fusion reaction

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 Fusion – the ITER – project
Clean nuclear power for the future?
Burning deuterium and tritium, - vast
resources.
ITER agreement from 2005.
• Demonstration reactor 500 MW in France.
• Start up originally 2017 – expected 2027.
• Full-scale experiments 2035 at earliest.
• Cooperation between:
EU
China
USA
India
Japan
S. Korea
Russia
• Challenge – produce more energy
than it consumes!

Competitive – economically when?

New initiatives Its big!

•General Fusion
•Tri Alpha etc.
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 Fusion - New initiatives

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 Nuclear energy, do we need it?
Most probably, because:
• Fossil fuels are finite.
• The CO2 challenge – especially connected with the alternative coal.
• Cost – and the economic development in emerging economies.
• Large footprint of renewables.
• The intermittent nature of wind and solar (lecture next week) and lack of
electric energy storage capacity.

BUT – the most commonly applied nuclear technology today is

probably not sustainable!

In a long term perspective development of new nuclear technologies as

“Fast reactors”, “Fusion reactors” or other solutions is necessary to meet the
challenges related to both resources and handling of waste.

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 Exercise 1 – Coal or Nuclear?

Global Electricity Production – towards 2050

Source: Partly WEC/OECD

We assume a “Business As usual” scenario for the development of global electricity

production towards year 2050.
Annual electricity generation in 2050 may then be 48.000 TWh, - compared with about
21.000 TWh today.
The share of coal fired power production is assumed to be 38 % - not much different
from todays.
Coal fired power plants and Nuclear power plants are both well suited for base load
production, and for the power system nuclear is an excellent substitute for coal.

What would be the consequence for the global CO2 emissions if all coal powered
electricity production in 2050 had been replaced by nuclear power plants.
Assume CO2/kWh for coal (lowest value, fuel only) and for nuclear (fuel only -
zero) from slide 9.
A global CO2 emissions estimate for 2050 is a total of 55 000 mill. tons/year.

What would be the reduction/year of CO2 emissions?

What is would be the share of CO2 emission caused by coal power production in 2050?

University College of Southeast Norway

 Exercise 2 – nuclear energy
• a) Give a short description of the two isotopes of Uranium, including the function of these
in a thermal standard nuclear reactor.
• b) How much energy (approximately) is released in one single fission process, of for
example U235?
- How is this energy release divided between instant and delayed thermal energy?
• c) In comparison with fossil fuel fired power stations, what are the two main reasons for
the special challenge connected to the operation and control of nuclear power stations?
• d) Waste treatment and challenges.
A 1000 MWe nuclear power plant produces at full power 25 tons of high level waste per
year, and a coal fired power plant of the same size produces about 5 million tons of CO2 in
a year.
The specific weight of the nuclear waste (mostly uranium) is set to 19,0 and for CO2 in the
liquid phase to 1,0.
The Oslo Town-hall has a volume of about 160.000 m3.
For how long can we operate the two different power plants before we may have filled the
Oslo Town-hall with nuclear waste or with CO2 (without directly comparing the two challenges!!)
• e) A PWR with an thermal to electric efficiency of 33% experiences an emergency shut
down. The stable electrical power level before shut-down is at 800 MW.
- What was the thermal output of the reactor before shut-down?
- What is the thermal power output of the reactor 48 hours after shut-down
(formula slide 29)

University College of Southeast Norway Nuclear Energy page 72

 Back-up slides – on Thorium

University College of Southeast Norway Nuclear Energy page 73

 Attitudes towards nuclear power –
reactions to the Fukushima accident

Media coverage of the Fukushima disaster

in Germany and rest of Europe

Indication of an irrational attitude in Germany?

University College of Southeast Norway

 The difference between uranium and thorium:
Thorium 232 and uranium 233

Thorium 232 is fertile, but not fissile for thermal neutrons

By absorbing a neutron, thorium-232 will be converted to

uranium-233, - which is fissile.
The process takes ca. 27 days, through some steps.
Formation of uranium 233 from thorium 232 is more efficient (thermal
neutrons) than converting uranium 238 to plutonium 239.
Insignificant formation of transuranic elements in the thorium based
process.

University College of Southeast Norway

 Thorium and uranium – analogies and differences

Thorium has to be compared with fertile 238U and not fissile 235U.
The Thorium-cycle generates less transuranic elements (actinides).

University College of Southeast Norway