EE 367 – POWER GENERATION AND SUPPLY

SYLLABUS

Energy Sources: Location and Characteristics of Fossil and Nuclear Fuel. Fuel Processing
and Environmental Safety Limitations.

Thermal Power Plant: Basic Thermodynamic Cycles. Principles of Energy Conversion

Using Steam. Brief Description of Performance and Efficiency of Steam Turbines, Internal-
Combustion Power Plant, Gas Turbine.

Nuclear Power Plant: Schematics of Nuclear Power Plant; Brief Treatment of Fission and
Fusion Reaction and Expected Yield.

Hydro Power Plant: Principles of Energy Conversion Using Water. Criteria for Siting Hydro
Plant. Elements of Hydro-Electric Power Plant, Types of Hydraulic Turbines, Performance
and Efficiency Characteristics; Technical Description of Hydro Power Schemes in Ghana.
Brief Treatment of Pumped-Storage Schemes.

Economics of Power Generation: Capital Plant Cost, Operational/production Costs.

Determination of Unit Cost of Energy Generated. Incremental Cost Curves. Optimal Active
Power Dispatch Using Incremental Cost Techniques for Lossless and Lossy Networks.

Single line diagram: Circuit Arrangements of Transmission and Distribution Systems

Elements and Layout of Generating Stations. Normal Power System Voltage and Line
Ratings. Comparison of DC 1-phase and 3-phase AC transmission Circuits.

Per Unit Notation: Reduction of System Values of Power Systems to Per-unit With
Reference to Base Values. One Line and Impedance Diagrams.

Transmission Line Parameters: Generalised line parameters (A B C D). Short, Medium and
Long Line Equations. Natural Load. Losses of Transmission Lines. Computer-based
Solutions to Problems to be encouraged.

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1 INTRODUCTION TO POWER GENERATION

1.1 Generation of electrical energy

The most common method of generating electrical energy is by means of electrical machines
generally called Generators when the power generated is a D.C and Alternators when the
power generated is an A.C. These machines are essentially convertors which converts
mechanical energy into electrical energy i.e. these machines must be mechanically coupled to
a prime mover.

The alternate method of generating electricity without the use of prime mover consists of
magneto hydro-dynamics, thermionic and thermoelectric generation, but all these method are
still in experimental stages.
The prime mover to which the alternators or generators are coupled , in turn, looks on the
following for sources for energy.

1.2 Energy Sources

Energy sources may be put into two main categories:

 Conventional or primary energy sources and

 Unconventional or renewable energy sources

1.2.1 Conventional or Primary Energy Sources

These are energy from water, fossil fuels (such as coal, oil and natural gas) and nuclear
fission. The fossil fuels may also be called Chemical Energy Sources.

1.2.1.1 Water

The bulk of installed electrical energy generation capacities in Ghana are at hydro power
stations at Akosombo and Kpong. The potential energy of water is harnessed to turn a
hydraulic turbine to produce electricity.

1.2.1.2 Fossil Fuels

Coal, natural gas and oil are a major source of energy for electric power generation especially
in most developed countries where these fuels are abundant. Natural gas is obtained from
deep wells sunk into the soil. Oil wells also yield gas in addition to the oil. The combustion
of coal, oil or natural gas in boilers produces steam at high temperatures and pressures which
is passed through steam turbines to produce power. Gases at high pressures and temperatures
obtained by burning fossil fuels can also be used directly to turn a gas turbine to produce
electrical power.

1.2.1.3 Nuclear Power

In nuclear reactors, 235U atoms fission after they have been bombarded with neutrons. The
difference in mass between 235U and the fission products is converted into kinetic energy and
heat in accordance with Einstein’s equation. The heat is used to produce steam to turn a
steam turbine.
Fusion is when smaller atoms join together to form bigger atoms. Heat is also produced
during fusion and there are no radiation problems. The fuel is also abundant in sea water but
the control of the reactor temperature – several hundred million degrees - is a problem.

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1.2.2 Unconventional or Renewable Energy Sources

These are energy from the sun, rivers, tides, wind, or wood. They may also be called
Environmental Energy Sources. Technologies are being developed to harness these energy
sources for electricity generation because the world population is fast increasing and the
fossil fuels are getting depleted.

1.2.2.1 Solar Energy

The sun is the source of almost all the energy on the planet: river-, tidal-, wind-, fuel wood-
and fossil fuel-energies can all be traced to the sun. The following technologies are being
developed to make use of solar energy in a more direct manner.

a) Using a conventional steam generation scheme, mirrors and lenses (called concentrators)
are used to concentrate solar energy in boilers to produce steam at 5000C to drive a
conventional steam turbine.
b) Photovoltaic Cells or Photocells are used to produce electricity directly from solar energy.
The cells consist of silicon or gallium arsenide wafers having efficiencies of 10% and 16%
respectively. Photocells produce potential differences of about 0.5V and current densities
of about 200A/m2 in full solar radiation.
c) In principle one can pump a liquid sodium/potassium mixture through pipes covered with
material which absorb and keep all incident radiation. The liquid metal could be heated up
to 5000C. With an accumulator filled with salt that melts during the day and gives out heat
during the night, we can run a conventional steam turbine.

1.2.2.2 Wind Energy

Windmills (or wind turbines) are used as prime movers to generate electricity. Wind power
plants manufactured in Europe and the USA can be grouped into three scales of operation.

a) small : 0.5 – 10kW for isolated single premises

b) medium: 10 – 100kW for communities
c) large : say, 1.5MW for connection to the power supply system.

1.2.2.3 Geothermal Energy

One can make use of heat from deep inside the earth crust as a source of energy. Thermal
energy from hot springs has been used to produce electricity in Italy since 1904. In northern
California, steam from wells sunk in a natural steam field called the Geysers is passed
through turbines to generate electricity. By deep boring to about 2km to reach hot volcanic
rocks water can be pumped down and the steam produced used to generate electricity
(Iceland).

1.2.2.4 Sea Waves Energy

The power in a wave is proportional to the square of the amplitude and to the period of the
motion (period of wave ≈ 5 to 10s). The sea motion can be converted into mechanical energy
in a number of ways. One method is by using the Salter cam (or duck) designed by Stephen
Salter of Edinburgh University for optimum power extraction. A wave entering sets the beak
of the duck into oscillation. Conversion of the float movement to electricity is difficult
because of the slow motions. One form of energy conversion being investigated is the use of
highly geared reciprocating alternator giving a variable frequency output.

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1.2.2.5 Tidal Energy

The level of water in the large oceans of the earth rises and falls according to predictable
patterns. The main periods of these tides are diurnal at about 24 hours and semi-diurnal at
about 12 hours 25 minutes. The movement of the water produces tidal current which may
reach speeds of approximately 5m/s in coastal and inter-island channels. The best known
large scale tidal electricity generating plant is the 240 MW La Rance in France. The practical
devices for tidal flow power will be similar to river flow power systems.

1.3 Thermal Power Plant

One can distinguish between a thermal power plant with internal combustion and a plant
with external combustion (steam turbine). An engine with internal combustion is called a
combustion engine and examples are gas turbines and diesel generators. In these engines the
combustion takes place among the moveable parts of the engine.

1.3.1 Thermal Power Plant (Steam turbine).

This employs steam turbines to run the alternators. The steam is obtained from high pressure
boilers. The fuel burnt in the boilers can be either solid liquid or gaseous. The solid fuel
which can be used in a boiler are bituminous coal, brown coal and peat...Generally
bituminous coal is used having volatile matter from 8 to 33% and ash content 5 to 15% .To
increase the efficiency of the boiler the coals are burnt in a powdered form.

The liquids which can be used are: fuel oil , crude oil ,petrol and paraffin oil . Out of these
generally fuel oil is used for firing the boilers; the other types of fuel are of better quality and
are used in internal combustion engines.
Figure 1.1 illustrates the conversion of heat energy into mechanical energy while Figure 1.2
is a line diagram of the thermal generating station. The scheme of generation can be divided
in two phases: i) Formation of steam in the boiler house ii) generation of electricity in the
generator room.

In the Boiler House, the fuel is burnt and the heat generated is used to convert water into high
pressure steam which is further superheated in the super heater. The superheated steam is
passed in the turbine to rotate the turbine blades, thus it converts heat energy into mechanical
energy. The pressure of the steam decreases and its volume increases. After imparting energy
to the turbine rotor it passes out of the turbine blades into the condenser. In the condenser the
cold water is circulated with the help of pump which condenses the low wet steam. This
condensed water is further supplied to low pressure water heater where the low pressure
steam increases the temperature of this feed water; it is then fed again into a high pressure
heater where the high pressure is used for heating . The method of taking out steam from
turbines for feed water heating is called bleeding of the turbines which increase the overall
efficiency .of the boiler. The cold water used in the condenser becomes too hot as it comes
out of the condenser; for it to be better used it is cooled by means of cooling tower.

The turbine in the generating room acts as the prime mover of the alternator which generates
electrical energy. The generator is connected through circuit breaker to the busbar. The
overall efficiency of the thermal station is 20 to 26% and the plant load factor varies from
39% to 44% depending on the plant capacity.

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 Fig 1.1: To illustrate the conversion of heat energy into mechanical energy

Coal storage

Coal
handling
Chimney
Ash storage
Ash storage Plant
Boiler
Air heater

Super heater Busbar

Exciter
High pressure
feed water
Turbine
heater
Condenser Alternator
Boiler feed
water pump
Cold water
circulating
Lower pressure
pump
feed water
heater

Condensate
extraction Cooling Tower
pump

Fig 1.2 Schematic diagram of thermal power station (steam)

1.3.2 The Diesel Engine

A diesel engine is a prime mover that obtains its energy from a liquid fuel generally known as
diesel oil and converts this energy into mechanical work. An alternator or a generator
coupled to it converts the mechanical energy developed into electrical energy. It is also
described as the compression ignition type power source in which the heat for igniting the
fuel charge is obtained from the compression of air in the engine cylinder before the fuel is
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introduced into it .The main difference between diesel engine and steam turbine is that in the
first case chemical energy of combustion is released inside the cylinder while in the second
case the energy developed during combustion of fuel is first transferred into steam and this in
turn develops mechanical power in the turbine.. The diesel engines are most popular with
small generating stations and with consumers who will like to have their own power supply
for emergency reasons. They are also needed in medium sized power installation too either to
supply the peak load for small duration or for seasonal load.

1.3.2.1 Working of diesel engines

A diesel engine obtains its power from burning of fuel within the engine cylinder. The
combustion of the fuel produces increased temperatures and pressure in the cylinder. Thus the
mechanical power so developed is transmitted through the connecting rod to the crankshaft
resulting into a turning effort. The action can be better followed with the help of diagrams
shown in Fig 1.3

At Fig 1.3 (a) the inlet valve opens and gasoline-air mixture flows into the cylinder as the
piston moves down;

At Fig 1.3 (b) all the valves are closed, the piston moves upward and compresses the gas; the
injection of fuel starts near the end of compression.

At Fig 1.3 (c) all the valves are closed ,firing of the spark plug ignites the gasoline-air
mixture, raising it to a high temperature

At Fig 1.3 (d) the gases, now at high temperature and pressure, expand against the piston and
forcing it downward the power stroke;

Exhaust
valve

Crankshaft Connecting rod

(a) Intake (b) Compression (c) Ignition (d) Expansion (e) Exhaust
(power stroke)
Figure 1.3 Four-cycle internal combustion engines:

At Fig 1.3 (e) the exhaust valve opens, the rising piston forces the burnt gases out of the
cylinder through the exhaust pipe; the intake valve then opens, and the whole cycle repeats.
For diesel engines that are used for electricity generation are equipped with turbo chargers.
The charger compresses the air that is supplied into the combustion chamber. The amount of
air is therefore increased and the combustion is more complete. The energy used to compress
the air is more than compensated for by the increase in the engine capacity of about 15 to 20
percent of effective exhaust turbines.

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1.4 The Gas Turbine
The installation consists of turbine, combustion chamber and a compressor driven by the
turbine. The compressed air is delivered to combustion chamber where the continuous
combustion of the injected fuel oil is maintained, the hot gases then drive the turbine.

The use of gas turbine as prime mover has certain advantages over steam plant, although with
normal running it is less economical to operate. The main advantage lies in the ability to start
and take up load quickly. Hence the gas turbine is coming into as a method for dealing with
the peaks in the system loads. A further use of a gas turbine is as a synchronous compensator
assists in maintaining voltage levels. Even on economic grounds it is probably advantageous
to meet peak loads by starting up gas turbines from cold in order of 2 sec rather running spare
steam engine continuously. Figure 1.4 show a schematic diagram of gas turbine plant
constructed to supply electrical power. Under every component is the pressure and
temperature of the gas after it has flowed through the component. The values may vary for
different constructions.

Figure 1.4: A schematic diagram of a gas turbine plant

Figure 1.4 is a schematic diagram of a gas turbine. Air is sucked in through the Air Intake
(AI) and compressed in the Low Pressure Compressor (LPC) to a pressure of about 3.5-6bar.
Small gas turbines have only one stage of compression. For bigger plants built to last long,
the air is cooled in a heat exchanger and compressed further before it is fed into the
combustion chamber. The cooling reduces the volume of air to about a third of the original
volume. This reduces the strain on the High Pressure Compressor (HPC).

With the double compression the pressure is raised up to 10-15bar. Air at this pressure is fed
into the combustion chamber where the fuel (oil, gas, coal, etc.) is burnt to raise the
temperature to about 8000C. Temperatures above this will reduce equipment lifespan. At
this temperature and pressure the gas expands through the High Pressure (HP) turbine which
drives the HPC and on through the Medium Pressure (MP) turbine which drives the LPC.
The gas then expands through the Low Pressure (LP) turbine at much reduced pressure (2-
3bar) and temperature (400-5000C) towards atmospheric pressure. The LP turbine is the
power turbine and drives the generator over a mechanical coupling.

At Aboadze, a multi-stage compressor is on a single axle which is coupled to the

turbine/generator axle

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1.5 Prime Movers for Thermal Power Plants
All power stations use prime movers, and these are usually turbines that are used to turn the
generators. In small plants, the reciprocating-steam engine or the diesel engine is used. The
turbine consists of a single-blade or a ring of blades or a series of blades connected in tandem
or cascade to the same shaft.

The mode of controlling the power from a turbine is either by moving the blades, changing
the pressure and velocity of the steam (gas), changing the nozzle opening, etc. The mode of
control determines the type of turbine. For thermal stations, the turbines are either impulse or
reactive type. Modern turbines are a blend of the two types.

1.5.1 The Impulse Turbine

It is the one in which the pressure over the moving blade is kept constant, while the steam is
expanded in the nozzle. Due to the very large ratio of expansion, the steam leaves the nozzle
at a very high velocity. Eg. De Lavalt Turbine

1.5.2 The Reactive Turbine

It is one in which the pressure drops continually over the fixed and moving blades, the blade
velocity being relatively low. Eg. Parson’s Turbine. Due to the many losses in these
turbines, the efficiency is very low, about 25-40%.

1.6 Energy Conversion Using Water (The Hydro Power Plant)

The hydro power station converts the potential and kinetic energies stored in water into
electrical energy by the use of hydraulic turbines coupled with generating units. The energies
in the water are first transformed into rotational mechanical energy and then into electrical
energy. The transformations from one form of energy to the other takes place at a very high
efficiency.
Since water is the source of energy, the continuous availability of water throughout the year
is absolutely necessary for the proper operation of a hydro-electric power station. The
analysis of availability of hydro-electric power must therefore include a study of rainfall
patterns, run-off and stream flow, the head and facilities for storage. Generally, hydro-power
schemes are multi-purpose, that is, they are used not only for power generation, but also for
irrigation, domestic water supply, etc.

The power produced at a hydro power plant is a function of the head, the flow rate and the
efficiency of the plant. The governor maintains the speed of rotation and therefore the
frequency of the generator voltage constant. When the load increases the governor increases
the flow of water flowing through the turbine to match generation with demand.

There are three main types of hydro-power plants depending on the head of water, namely:
a) high-head station
b) medium-head station
c) low-head station
1.6.1 High-head Station
The head is in excess of 600m and the flow rate is low. High-speed Pelton turbines are used.
At a high-head plant the intake is at a distance from the power house and they are joined
together by the penstock. The amount of impounded water is usually small. They are found
in the Alps and other mountainous regions.

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1.6.2 Medium-head Station
The head is between 60m and 600m. Medium-speed Francis turbines are used. The
generating station is fed by water held behind a dam. The dam is usually built across a river
bed in a relatively mountainous region. A great deal of water is impounded behind the dam.
A typical medium head plant is shown in Figure 1.5 below.

Figure1.5: A typical medium-head hydro power plant

1.6.3 Low-head Station

Figure 1.6: A typical low-pressure plant

Figure 1.6 shows a typical low-pressure plant. The head is low and low-speed Kaplan or
Francis propeller turbines are used. The low-pressure plant must have high discharge (flow)
rate to produce an appreciable amount of energy. These generating stations often extract the
energy from flowing rivers (run-of-river stations). The turbines are designed to handle large
volumes of water at low pressure. The intake and the power house are built together and the
waterway is built for a high discharge.

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1.6.4 Basic Components of a Hydro-Plant
a). Dam – made of earth, rock or concrete, and is built across riverbeds to channel water to
the power house and to create storage reservoirs.
b). Spillways – they are provided next to the dam to discharge water whenever the reservoir
level is too high or threatens to become too high.
c). Penstock – the system carrying water from the reservoir to the power house is generally
divided into two parts: non-pressure conduits which may be open canals or tunnels carved
through a rock. They feed one or more penstocks (huge steel pipes) which bring the water
to the individual turbines.
d) Scroll-case – it surrounds the runner. It receives water from the penstock and distributes
it uniformly around the circumference of the runner.
e). Wicket gates – Inside the scroll case, these adjustable gates control the amount of water
flowing into the turbine, thus regulating the turbine output power.
f). Draft tube – Water that has passed through the runner moves next through a carefully
designed vertical channel called draft tube. The draft tube improves the efficiency of the
turbine. It leads out to the tail race, bringing the water into the downstream river bed.

1.6.5 Advantages of Hydro-power Stations

i) Hydro-power stations have much less running cost as compared to thermal power stations.
ii) They are relatively simple in construction, robust and require low maintenance.
iii) They respond to changing loads without much difficulty, and are thus used to meet peak
load requirements.
v) The water after turning the turbines can be used for irrigation, domestic water supply, etc.
vi) The plant is quite neat and clean.

1.6.6 Disadvantages of Hydro-power Stations

i) High capital and other investment costs for generators, civil engineering works, etc.
ii) High cost of transmission lines.
iii) Power delivery dependent on the weather (rainfall, evaporation, etc.)
iv) Dam construction may lead to the destruction of forests, ecosystems, etc.
v) Dam construction may lead to the displacement of communities, etc. and may require
resettlement.
vi) Dam construction takes a relatively long time (5-10years).

1.6.7 Choice of Site for Hydro-Electric Power Plants

The following points must be noted in the selection of a site for a hydro-power plant:

a) Sufficient quantity of water at reasonable head.

b) Site should allow for strong foundations with minimum cost.
c) No possibility of leakage of water.
d) Water reservoir to be constructed must have large Catchment Area so that that a large
amount of water can be collected in it.
e) Selected site must be easily accessible.
f) There should be a possibility of stream diversion during construction period.

1.6.8 The Water Power Equation

Water is allowed to fall through a height (called the head). The water falling through this
head gains kinetic energy which it then imparts to the blades of hydraulic turbines.
The available output power, P, is given as
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P = gqh (1.1)

Where,
h: available head in (m), i.e., the height between the water level at intake and tail race
of the dam :
q: discharge or flow rate in (m3 /s) through the turbine
g: acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m/s2
: density of water (in 1000 kg/ m3)
: total efficiency of the plant

[The rate of change of potential energy with time is given by m x g x h / s, where m = volume
per second x density x acceleration due to gravity]

Substituting the values of the density of water and the acceleration due to gravity, we obtain

P = 9.8qh (kW) (1..2)

Worked example

Example 1
A large hydropower station has a head of 324m and an average flow of 1370 m3/s. The
reservoir is composed of a series of lakes covering an area of 6400 km2. Calculate:
a) available hydropower
b) number of days this power could be sustained if the level of the impounded water were
allowed to drop 1m (assume no evaporation or precipitation, and neglect water brought in
by surrounding rivers and streams)

Solution 1
(a) The available hydropower is

P  9.8qh  9.8 1370  1 324  4350 MW

b) A drop of 1m in the water level corresponds to 6400  10 6  1 m3 volume of water.
Because the flow rate is 1370 m3/s, the time for all this water to flow through the turbines is

volume 6400  10 6
t 
flow rate 1370
 4.67  10 6 s or 1298 h or 54 days

1.7 Hydraulic Turbines

The three types of hydraulic turbines are the Pelton, Francis and Kaplan turbines. Typical
heads for which the different turbines are used is given below:

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i) Pelton - > 600m head
ii) Francis - 60 – 600m head
iii) Kaplan - < 60m head

1.7.1 The Pelton Turbine

The Pelton turbine is a free jet turbine where the blades are in free air and driven by water
jets from nozzles. Figure 1.7 shows a Pelton turbine with a vertical axis and six nozzles. The
flow rate is changed by adjusting the position of the concentric nail in the nozzle (Figure 1.8).
When the nail is put out fully no water flows through the nozzle. To avoid a high pressure
build up in the penstock the nail is closed slowly. When there is a rapid load rejection, the jet
diverter diverts some of the water from reaching the turbine. The diverter is removed as the
nail closes.

Figure1.7: A Pelton turbine with a vertical axis and six nozzles

Figure 1.8: A diagram showing how flow rate is controlled in a Pelton turbine

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1.7.2 The Francis Turbine
Water enters the Francis turbine (Figure 1.8) from a scroll-case that distributes water evenly
around the circumference of the turbine. The water is conducted to the turbine blades by the
wicket-gates. The flow rate is adjusted by controlling the wicket gate opening.

Figure 1.9: A Francis turbine runner rated 750MW being installed at the Grand Coulee Dam
1.7.3 The Kaplan Turbine

Kaplan turbines (Figure 1.9) are used for low heads especially when the flow rate is high.
For a Kaplan turbine both the wicket gate opening and the movable turbine blades can be
used to regulate the power output. This turbine has higher rotational rate and therefore the
generators are cheaper and the dimensions are smaller. The Kaplan turbine has better
efficiency for varying head and flow rates compared to the Francis turbine.

1.7.4 Efficiency of Hydraulic Turbines

Typical efficiency curves for different turbines are shown in Figure 5.6 below.

Figure 1.10: Efficiency curves for different turbines

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1.8 Pumped-Storage Hydro Plants
Pumped-storage hydro-plants are designed to save fuel costs by serving the peak load (a high
cost load) with hydro energy and then pumping the water back into the reservoir at light load
periods (at a lower cost). These plants may involve separate pumps and turbines or, more
recently, reversible pump turbines.

The system consists of an upper reservoir and a lower reservoir connected by a penstock and
associated generating/pumping station. During power system peaks, the station acts like an
ordinary hydro power source, supplying electric power as water flows from the upper to the
lower reservoir. However, during light load periods, the alternator operates as synchronous
motor, driving the turbine as an enormous pump. Thus water flows from the lower to the
upper reservoir, thereby storing energy in preparation for the next system peak.

Storage reservoirs have limited storage capability and typically provide 4 – 8 or 10 hours of
continuous operation as a generator. Frequently, special interconnection arrangements may
facilitate pumping operations, where one purchases low-cost, off-peak energy. In some
systems, the systems operator will require a complete daily refill of the reservoir when there
is concern over the availability of capacity reserves. In those instances, economy is secondary
to reliability.

Peak power alternators have ratings between 50MW and 500MW. The pumped-storage
system has two advantages:

1. The base power station is larger and consequently more efficient.

2. The peak power station is much smaller and therefore less costly.

1.9 The Nuclear Power Station

Nuclear power is now a well-established source of electricity world wide. The most common
types of reactors are light water reactors (Pressure Water Reactors and Boiling Water
Reactors). Worldwide there are currently about 430 reactors operating in 25 countries and
providing about 17 percent of the world’s electricity. The nuclear power station is a
latecomer to the league of energy production plants but it is fast becoming a very important
source as fossil fuels sources become depleted.

More than 40 million kWhs of energy can be produced from 1 tonne of natural uranium.
Over 16,000 tonnes of coal or 80,000 barrels of oil will need to be burned to produce the
same amount of energy.

1.10 Fission

Nuclear energy is released when a heavy nucleus splits into smaller atomic nuclei. Most
reactors that are in service today use uranium as fuel. Fissionable 235U makes up only 0.7%
of naturally occurring uranium. The rest is made up of 238U which is not fissile. 238U can
however mutate into plutonium-239 which is fissionable and can contribute up to half of the
energy produced in reactors. Before uranium can be used as fuel for reactors it is enriched
through diffusion or centrifugation to increase the 235U concentration to 2-3 percent.

When a 235U nucleus absorbs a neutron it becomes unstable and splits into new nuclei (Figure
1.11). The newly formed atoms are called fission products and are usually radioactive.

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 Figure 1.11: Diagram showing fission reactions

Typical fission products when uranium is bombarded by a neutron are represented by

235
U n  148
La  Br  3n
86
(200MeV)
uranium → lanthanum + bromine

The sum of the atomic mass unit (amu) on the right is less than atomic mass unit on the left.
Energy is therefore released according to Einstein’s equation
E  mc 2 (J) (1.3)

where m = loss of mass c = speed of light [ ≈ 3x108 m/s ]

By assigning atomic masses units to elements in the above fission reaction we obtain

235.124 +1.009 => 147.96 +84.938+3.027

where mass unit of 235U= 235.124; 148La= 147.96 ; 86
Br =84.938 and n=1.009.

The mass deficiency on the right hand side of the above mass equation is 0.207 a.m.u or
0.3436 10-27 kg ( 1 a.m.u = 1.66 10-27 kg =931 MeV ) . One 1 kg of Uranium contains
26.029 1023 atoms .
Using E  mc we obtain the equivalent release of energy that may be obtained from one
2

1 kg of 235U as E = 0.3436 10-27 26.029 1023 (3x108 ) 2 = 80.49 1012 J / kg

Most of the energy produced during fission is in the form of kinetic energies of the fission
products. When the fission products collide with other atoms their kinetic energies are
converted to heat. Other fissile material used in nuclear power plants are Plutonium-239,
used in fast breeder reactors and Thorium-232.

1.11 Fusion

Energy is also released by fusion. An example is the fusion of two heavy hydrogen atoms to
produce helium.
1 H 2  1H 2 2 He3  n (4.03MeV)

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1.12 Main Parts of a Nuclear Power Plant

Moderator – Slow (thermal) neutrons split uranium-235 nuclei more effectively than fast
neutrons. Moderators slow down neutrons without absorbing them. Slowing down the
neutrons makes it possible for them to initiate other fissions. The moderator may be ordinary
water (light water), heavy water or graphite.

Reactor – There are several types of nuclear reactors. The most important ones are:

1.12.1 Pressure Water Reactor (PWR):

The coolant is water kept under such a high pressure so that it cannot boil off into steam.
Ordinary (light) water or heavy water is used. For light water, one needs UO2 enriched with
2-4 % uranium-235 as fuel. Figure 1.12 shows a PWR. There are two closed circuits; the
primary circuit which includes the reactor and the secondary circuit which includes the
condenser and the turbine. The water that passes the reactor is warmed up to 3200C but due
to the high pressure (150bar) it does not boil. The hot water moves into the steam generator
where steam is produced in the secondary circuit. Efficiency of plant 30 – 35 percent.

Figure1.12. Schematic diagram of a Pressure Water Reactor

1.12.2 Boiling Water Reactor (BWR):

The coolant is ordinary water boiling under high pressure releasing steam to drive the turbine
(Figure 5.9). The water is heated to a temperature of about 2900C (70bar). The steam is
dried before being released into the turbine. No heat exchanger is required. Enriched UO2 is
used as in any light water reactor. Efficiency of plant 30 – 35 percent.

16
 Figure 1.13: A Boiling Water Reactor

1.12.3 High Temperature Gas Reactor (HTGR):

Coolant is an inert gas such as helium or carbon dioxide. This reactor operates at high
temperature (typically 7500C), and so graphite is used as a moderator. The steam created by
the heat exchanger is as hot as that produced in a conventional steam boiler. Consequently,
the overall efficiency of these nuclear stations is about 40%.

1.12.4 Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR):

It is able to generate heat and create additional nuclear fuel. The core of the nuclear fuel
consists of Plutonium-239. This is surrounded by a blanket of material containing Uranium-
238. No moderator is used and consequently, the fast neutrons generated by the splitting of
Plutonium-239 (239Pu) are absorbed by Uranium-238 which then transmutes to fissionable
Plutonium-239. The blanket is removed after some time to recover the substances containing
Plutonium-239 for re-use.

Figure 1.14 shows a typical FBR. The core is compact and the heat generated is high.
Sodium is used for effective cooling and the primary system may reach a high temperature of
5600C at one atmosphere. The whole reactor core is immersed in a sodium bath. Heat is
transferred to the secondary system in the heat exchanger. Steam is produced in the
secondary heat exchanger located in the steam generator.

17
 Figure.1.14: A Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR)

The fuels are fed to the reactors in the form of rods or pellets. The energy density of fuels
used in the reactors is very small but this is still much better than fossil fuel.

Worked Example

Example 2

A fuel bundle of natural uranium dioxide has a mass of 22.2kg when first inserted into a
heavy-water reactor. If it releases an average of 372.5kW of thermal energy during its 19-
month stay in the reactor, calculate the:
a) total amount of heat (in J) released
b) reduction in weight (in g) of the bundle, due to the energy released

Solution 2
(a) The average power released is Pav  372.5 kW .
Total time in second is t  19  30  24  3600  49,248,000 s
Total amount of heat released,
H  Pav  t  (372.5 103 J / s)  49,248,000  1.8345  1013 J
(b) Using the Einstein energy equation

E  m  c 2
E 1.843  1013
 m    2.04  10 4 kg  0.204 g
c 2

3.0  10 8
2

1.13 Advantages of Nuclear Power

a) Perfectly air pollution free.

b) Relatively small amount of nuclear fuel needed and so poses not much transportation
problems.
c) It compares very favourably with fossil fuels from an economic point of view.

1.14 Disadvantages of Nuclear Power

a) Possible pilfering for atomic bomb manufacture (especially FBR).

18
b) Potential source of thermal and environmental pollution.
1.15 Salient Features of Thermal, Hydro and Nuclear Stations
No. Item
1 Time for completion
2 Commercially
available turbine
ratings
3 Space required
4 System complexity
Reliability
5 Highest (if water is
6 Overall efficiency,
(electrical output/
thermal input)
7 Standby losses
8 Starting
9 Field of application
10 Capital cost ($/kW)
11 System operation and
maintenance
Hydro
5 - 10 years
Less than 1 MW –
800MW
Very large area because
of reservoir
Lowest. System is very
simple
available). It is robust
Highest (about 85%)
Nil
Start up is in few
minutes. Time from
instruction to start to the
actual connection to
network can be as short
as 2 min.
Can be used to supply
peak and base load by
removing or adding one
or more generating units
High (because of dam
construction or civil
engineering works)
Lowest (it is simple and
robust)
Thermal Nuclear
3-4 years 10 years
Tandem-compound: Only tandem compound is
20 – 800MW available
Cross-compound: 500 – 1300MW
50 – 1300MW
Needs more space than Needs minimum space
nuclear but less than
hydro
High (oil or gas) to Highest complexity
very high (coal)
High (coal) to very High
high (gas or oil)
High (between 30% Less than thermal
and 40%)
High, boiler remains in Less than thermal
reduced operation when
the turbine is not
working
Start up takes 4 – 8 Start up may take several
hours days
Generally used to Used to supply base load –
supply base load reactors cannot be easily
controlled – gives best
efficiency when operating
at a constant load
Lowest Highest (because of huge
investment in building a
nuclear reactor)
Higher (as compared to Highest (as skilled or well-
hydro) trained staff is required to
handle equipment)
19
12 Fuel cost (including Practically nil because no Highest, especially Except hydro, it has the
transportation) fuel is required when the power minimum cost, because
stations are far from the small amount of fuel can
source of fuel (e.g. produce relatively large
1000MW requires 2.7 amount of power (e.g.
million tonnes of coal 1000MW requires 32.9
annually) tonnes of enriched uranium
annually)

13 Transmission cost Quite high, as these are Less than hydro, since Quite low, as these are
located quite far away they are generally located near load centres
from the load centres located nearer the load
centre

14 Environmental The cleanest, but dam
impacts or factors produces effect on
aquatic life in the river.
Lands (farm lands or
inhabited areas) above
dams are permanently
flooded
Air pollution Clean source of power, but
nuclear waste disposal is a
major problem. There is
the risk of radioactive and
heat pollution

15 Site Ample quantity of water
of sufficient head,
possibility of constructing
a dam economically to
store water and
availability of large
catchment area are
decisive factors.
Transportation facilities
should also be available
Where ample supply of Located nears the load
water and fuel is centre. Easy transportation
available, of nuclear fuel and
transportation facilities availability of cooling
adequate. 800,000 to 1 water required. Thickly
million gallons/min populated areas are avoided
required for a typical due to the risk of
1000 MW unit radioactive pollution.

1.16 Important Information on Generating Stations in Ghana

a) Akosombo Hydro-Plant

Generating voltage = 14.4kV

Installed capacity: = 6 generating units (each rated 170MW)
Total of 1020MW
Maximum height = 278 ft (85m)
Minimum height = 236 ft (72m)
Maximum head = 85 – 15.39 = 69.61m
Minimum head = 72 – 15.39 = 56.61m
Head (as at 9th September, 2005) = 247.20 ft (75.35m)
Turbine type = Francis
Synchronous speed = 115.4rpm

20
b) Kpong Hydro-Plant

Generating voltage = 13.8kV

Installed capacity: = 4 units (each rated 40MWeach)
Total of 160 MW
Head (as at 7th September, 2005) = 14.95m
Turbine type = Propeller
Synchronous speed = 62.5 rpm

c) Aboadze Thermal Plant

Installed capacity = 4 combustion turbines units each rated

110MW and 1 steam turbine unit rated
110MW totalling 550 MW
Fuel = light crude oil (presently), gas from West
Africa Gas Pipeline Project (in immediate
future)
d) Installed Diesel Plants

Tema = 110 MW
Kumasi = 25 MW

e) Bui Hydro Plant (Potential Source)

Anticipated power = 400 MW
Head = 109 m

2 ECONOMIC CONSIDERATION OF POWER STATION

2.1 Feasibility of Electrical Power Station

Before any project of building a power station is taken, the engineer should prepare the
following reports:

i) Estimate the probable load, and station capacity

ii) Future load conditions
iii) Total cost of the station
iv) Annual running charges
v) The rate at which the power will be sold to the customer

At the time of determining the probable load, the engineer should take into consideration the
future demand; he must survey and must be capable of predicting with quite accuracy the
load for the next five years. Then the probable load curve is drawn by carrying out an
electrical survey.

2.2 The Load Curves

These are the electrical characteristics which give the following information:

i) The variation of the load during different hours of the day.

ii) The maximum and minimum values of the daily load.
21
iii) Annual maximum and minimum values of the load.
v) Average annual load on the station.
vi) Information whether the installation is working efficiently or not.

Fig. 2.1 represents a typical rectangular load curve for a private load for winter and summer.
The maximum peak load for summer is 700 kW and for winter, the peak load is 640 kW.

Fig. 2.1 Summer and Winter load curves

2.3 Demand Factor

Consider a building having the following connected loads:

Number of lamps = 400 each of 60 W = 24 kW

Power points = 100 each of 500 W = 50 kW
Lift = 16 kW = 16 kW
Total = 90 kW

The total connected load of the building is 90 kW, or we say that the maximum demand of
the building is 90 kW. Hence the maximum demand is the total connected load. The building
may not be using all the light points, power points and the lift at a time. It will be very clear
that all the lamps and power points will not be working at the same time in practice. Assume
that, 300 lamps and 30 power points are worked at a time, so the average load of lamps and
power
The ratio of average load of power and light points to maximum demand
which is called the demand factor or maximum demand factor.

Similarly let the demand factor for the lift be 70%.

So average load of the building

Maximum demand factor of the building

22
 = = = .

Hence the maximum demand factor may be defined as the ratio of the average load to the
maximum demand.

2.4 Power Station Maximum Demand.

The maximum demand of the power station is equal to the maximum load on the station
considered in a given period. Consider a summation curve of the power station from 6 pm. to
12 pm. drawn on the basis of 15minutes variation of load as shown in figure 2.2 . The peak
load of the station is 8000 kW which is not the maximum demand. The maximum demand is
the greatest average load on the station during 15 minutes, ½ hour or an hour as decided
upon. If the continuous reading of the load on station is taken, it will give instantaneous
maximum demand. If the maximum demand of power station on a half-hour basis be
determined; the greatest value will be between P and Q. No doubt between R and S the load
is maximum, but it occurs only for 15 minutes, so this is not to be considered.

10000

8000

6000
Load in
kW
4000

2000

P Q R S
6 pm 7 pm 8 pm 9 pm 10 pm 11 pm 12 pm
Fig 2.2 load curve to illustrate maximum demand

Hence whenever the maximum demand is to be mentioned it must be stated for what period
of duration it has been considered, i.e., if it is stated that the maximum demand is 6000 kW, it
has no meaning until and unless it is specified that it is for 15 minutes, or ½ an hour etc.

2.4 Average Demand

23
The average demand on the station is always referred in a particular period, say a day, a
month or a year which will give daily, monthly or yearly average demand. It is defined as the
ratio of kWh delivered by the station in a particular period divided by the hours in that period.

Thus the daily average load (2.1)

2.5 Diversity Factor

The diversity factor of a station is defined as the ratio maximum demand of individual
category to the maximum demand of the station

Diversity factor = (2.2)

Consider that, a power station supplies to the following categories of load:

Category A = 5000kW
Category B = 900kW
Category C = 2000kW
Category D = 1000kW
Category E = 1100 kW

If the various categories were to take their supplies from the station as shown in figure 2.3
Then the maximum demand on the station will be between 6pm to 7pm and it is equal to
5000kW.
10000

8000

6000
Load in
kW
4000

A
2000

C
B D E

6 pm 7 pm 8 pm 9 pm 10 pm 11 pm 12 pm

Fig 2.3 To illustrate diversity factor

The sum of maximum demands of the individual category is A +B+C+D+E =

5000+900+2000+1000+1100=10000kW.

Therefore the diversity factor of the station =

Now if all the categories were to take their supplies at the same time as shown in fig 2.4
then the maxium demand on the station will be between 6pm to 7pm and it is equal to
10000kW = the sum of maximum demands of the individual category .

Hence the diversity factor of the station = . (This is a very poor diversity factor)

24
NOTE: The diversity factor must always be more than 1.0.

10000
B

E
8000
D

6000 C
Load in
kW
4000

A
2000

6 pm 7 pm 8 pm 9 pm 10 pm 11 pm 12 pm

Fig 2.4 To illustrate diversity factor

In order to improve upon the diversity factor of a power station, the loads on the station must
be staggered,(Fig 2.3) and for this special tariffs may be introduced.

The advantages of the diversity of the load are:

a) It decreases the capital cost of the scheme, which will decrease the cost per unit.
b) The generators can be put to maximum use.

2.6 Load Factor

The annual load factor is defined as the ratio of kWh supplied by the station in a year divided
by the product of peak load and 8760 (the number of hours in a year), i.e.

Annual load factor = (2.4)

= (2.5)

Thus the load factor is also to be specified with period, whether it is daily load factor, or
monthly load factor.
The monthly load factor = (2.6)

From Fig 2.3, the number of units supplied can be obtained as follows:

Total energy supplied = load of Category A in kW number of hours from 6pm to 7pm +
load of Category B in kW number of hours from 7pm to 8pm + load of Category C in
kW number of hours from 8pm to 9pm+ load of Category D in kW number of hours
from 9pm to 10pm + load of Category E in kW number of hours from 10pm to 11pm =
= 5000 1 + 900 1 + 2000 1 + 1000 1 + 1100 1 = 10000 kWh.

25
The maximum demand of the station is 5000kW (Fig 2.3). Suppose the total daily loads
supplied by the station are as shown in fig 2.3 then the number of hours to be considered is 24
hrs. (This is because we normally mention either daily, monthly or yearly load factor.

Hence the daily load factor for the power station according to Fig 2.3 is

the daily load factor = = = 0.08

2.7 Significance of Higher Values of Load Factor and Diversity Factor

In practice it is always desirable to have higher values of load factor and diversity factor,
since the maximum demand of a station is dependent upon the diversity of the load; the
greater the diversity the lesser will be the maximum demand and lesser will be the capital
cost of the generators.

Similarly a higher load factor means more numbers of units generated per year, and the
maximum load factor will be 1; it will be at the instant when the maximum demand remains
throughout the year at all times. The cost of labour per kilowatt of energy generated decreases
as the number of units generated increases because the labour cost remains the same whether
the alternator is worked at 20%, 50%,or 100% load factor.

Thus the supply organizations should always try to improve the load factor as well as
diversity factor by inducing the consumers to use the electricity during off peak time and they
may be charged lower rates for such schemes.

2.8 Plant Factor

The plant factor is similar to that of the load factor, but it differs from it in the following
respects: The load factor refers to the total load on the station and total capacity of the station,
but the plant factor relates only to one particular plant or plants whether it is a generating
system or a distribution system.

Plant factor = (2.7)

∑

when kW1, kW2, kW3 etc. are the kilowatt ratings of each generator and H1, H2, H3 etc. are the
number of hours for which they have worked. The plant factor indicates how best the plant
capacity has been utilized but it does not indicate the time for which the plant remained idle.

2.9 Capacity Factor

The capacity of all the power stations is obtained by keeping the future demand in view, to
allow for future extension. The capacity factor is the ratio of average demand on the station
divided by the maximum installed capacity, i.e.

26
 (2.8)

Thus the reserve capacity of the power reflects the reserve capacity of the power station.

2.10 Connected load Factor

Such a factor relates to the receiving equipment only and is equal to the ratio of average
power input to the connected load, i.e.

= (2.9)

It may also be stated as the product of load factor and the demand factor, i.e.

(2.10)

(2.11)

Worked Examples
Example 3
A generating station has a maximum demand of 35,500 kW and has a connected load 65,000
kW. The number of units generated annually are 25.6 107. Calculate a) the load factor and
b) the demand factor.

Solution 3
Load Factor =

Assume that the station has a maximum capacity of the same as the maximum demand.

a) Load Factor = = 0.822

b) Demand factor = = = 0.546 = 54.6 %

Example 4
A generating station supplies the following loads: 15,000 kW, 12,000 kW, 8,500 kW, 6,000
kW and 450 kW. The station has a maximum demand of 22,000 kW. The annual load factor
of the station is 48 percent. Calculate a) the number of units supplied annually b) the
diversity factor c) the demand factor .

Solution 4
Load factor =

27
 =

= 0.48

=>Number of units supplied annually = 0.48 22000 8760=9.24 10 7

b) Diversity factor =

= =1.903

c) Station demand factor = =

= = 0.525 or 53.5%

2.11 Cost of Generation

Whenever any project is sponsored by an individual or by a group of people or by the state a
certain amount of capital is required. The total capital required can be subdivided into the
following two heads:

 Fixed Capital
 Running Capital

2.11.1 Fixed Capital

The fixed capital comprises that part of the capital which is to be spent for the purchase of
assets such as land, plant and equipment etc., on which the further operation of the project
depends. For an electrical installation the fixed capital may be grouped under the following
head:

a) Capital cost of generating equipment.

b) Capital cost for transmission system.
c) Capital cost for distribution system both H.T. and L.T.

The cost incurred as freight, cartage, labour etc., to bring the equipment from the
manufacturer’s premises to the site of erection are to be taken in account into the capital cost
of the plant.

The cost of implements to be purchased for erection purposes and the cost of supervision,
book keeping, managerial work etc, for the purchase of equipment up to the instant it can be
commissioned must also be added to the capital cost of the equipment.

2.11.2 Running Capital

The capital required for the purchase of raw materials, payment of salary, wages etc, for
the continuous operation of the project, make up the running cost.

28
2.12 Annual Cost
The economy of the project is not judged from total investment made for it, but from the
actual cost. The annual cost can again be subdivided into the following two heads:

a) Running Cost or Operational Cost – which is dependent upon the manner and extent to
which the equipment is being used.
b) Fixed Charges – which comprise the annual charges on the assets covered under fixed
capital to be taken into account.

2.12.1 Running Charges

The annual running charges of an electric station comprise the following:
i) Fuel cost.
ii) Maintenance and repairing cost of the equipment in the generating, transmission and
distribution sections
iii) Wages of the operational staff.
iv) Wages of the supervising staff.
v) Cost of water, lubricating oil etc.

2.12.2 Fixed Charges

These depend upon the equipment acquired independent of the use it is being put in and the
capital cost incurred on the other assets such as buildings etc.

The annual fixed charges comprise the following:

i) Taxes – generally the following taxes are to be paid:

a) Property tax levied on the generating station building and substation building etc.
b) Tax to be paid to the municipal corporation for the use of streets, roads etc.
c) Tax to be paid to government as public utility tax for inspection purposes etc.
d) Income tax.

These may vary from 1 to 2 per cent of the capital cost of assets over which the taxes are
being paid.

ii) Insurance Charges – the following premiums are to be paid to the insurance company:
a) To cover the risk of fire to the buildings. b) To cover accidental breakdown.
c) Worker’s compensation.

iii) Depreciation or sinking fund – after a certain time the equipment is to be replaced due
to the following reasons:
a) Physical – this is due to reasons that the plant has worn out and has become unfit for
further use.
b) Functional – it can be further subdivided into the two parts:

(i) The capacity of the plant has become inadequate due to the growth of load
(ii) The plant has become obsolete due to the new technological improvements.

2.13 Tariff
By tariff one means the rules or rates framed for supply of electricity to the different
consumers. For fixing a tariff the following points should be considered.

29
 1. The annual cost of production.
2. Services rendered.
3. Ability of the consumer to pay.
4. The tariff should involve simple calculations.

Following are the different types of tariff:

2.14 Simple Type of Tariff. It is the simplest form of tariff and can be derived as

(2.12)

It does not discriminate between different types of consumers, hence everybody is sharing
equal burden of tariff and total charges.

The main defect in this type of tariff is that the cost per unit calculated will be higher.

2.15 Types of Tariff in practice

Generally the following types of tariff are used in practice:

1. Flat rate tariff

2. Block rate tariff
3. Two part tariff
4. Maximum demand tariff
5. Power factor tariff.

2.15.1 Flat rate tariff.

The flat tariff differs from the simple tariff in the sense that the different types of consumers
(such as domestic, industrial, public etc) are charged at different rates. The rates for each type
of consumer is arrived at by taking into account its load factor and diversity factor. Such
tariff has an advantage that it can be understood by the consumers easily. The main drawback
in this tariff is that it is very difficult to derive at the load factor and diversity factor to be
used in deciding the tariff.

2.15.2 Block Rate Tariff.

In this type of tariff the main consideration to be made is that as the number of units
generated are increased the cost of generation per unit decreases, hence the consumer having
large demand of number of units has to pay less as compared to the consumer having lower
demand. Say, for example, in a domestic load –

The first 25 units may be charged at the rate of 25 P. per unit.

The next 50 units may be charged at the rate of 20 P. per unit.
The next 50 units may be charged at 15 P. per unit which may gradually reduce to 10 P.

2.15.3 Two Part Tariff.

In this type of tariff the two types of charges (fixed and running) are made separately. Each
consumer has to pay:

30
 1. A fixed amount dependent upon his connected load irrespective of the fact that he
may use electricity or not, to cover the annual fixed charges and
2. Energy charges dependent upon the number of units consumed by him.

The drawbacks with this type of tariff is that if the consumer uses electricity sparingly and,
say, for most of the period he is out of station, unnecessarily he will have to pay the fixed
charges.

2.15.4 Maximum Demand Tariff.

This is similar to the two part tariff, but in this case the maximum demand of the consumer is
actually measured by a maximum demand meter installed on the premises of the consumer.
Thus in this case the drawback of two part tariff discussed earlier is safeguarded.

2.15.5 Power Factor Tariffs.

Plant and equipment efficiency is dependent upon the power factor. So, to increase the utility
of the plant to a maximum the plant must be worked at the most efficient power factor.

Following are the different types of power factor tariffs.

i) kVA maximum demand tariff. The maximum demand of the consumers is measured in
kVA and not in kW. This compels the consumers to work their plant at improved power
factors since low factors will increase their maximum demand.
ii) kWh and reactive kVArh tariff. For this type of tariff both kWh and kVArh of a consumer
are charged separately. If kVArh of a consumer is less he is to pay less and for low power
factors his bill will be higher, automatically the consumer will try to improve his power
factor.
iii) Sliding scale or average power factor tariffs. Under this kind of tariff an average p.f. say
0.8 lagging is assumed as reference. in order to penalize a consumer having low power
factor, he may be surcharged for each 0.01 by which the p.f. falls below the reference
figure and a discount is allowed if the p.f. is above this figure.

Worked examples
Example 5
Determine the thermal efficiency of a thermal power station and its coal bill per annum from
the following data :
Maximum demand = 20,000 kW; Coal consumption = 0.876 kg / unit
Boiler efficiency = 85%; Turbine efficiency = 90%; Price of 1 tonne of coal = ¢29.53 Load
Factor of 40%.

Solution 5
Thermal efficiency of a power station is given as:

Thermal efficiency = Boiler efficiency Turbine efficiency = 0.85 0.90 = 0.765 or 76.5%

Load factor =

=> = 20000 0.4 8760 = 7008 104 kWh

Cost of coal consumption per year = = GHC 1,812,849.40

31
Example 6
A power station is to supply four regions of load whose peak values are 10,000 kW, 5,000
kW, 8,000 kW and 7,000 kW. The diversity factor of the load at the station is 1.5 and the
annual load factor of the station is 60%. Calculate the maximum demand on the station and
the annual energy supplied from the station, suggest the installed capacity and the annual
energy supplied from the station, suggest the installed and the number of units taking all
aspects into consideration.

Solution 6
Maximum demand =

= = = 20,000 kWh

Load factor =

=> = 20,000 0.6 8760=105.12 106

Consider that there is an increase of maximum demand by 50 % in next 5 years .Thus

Maximum demand = 20,000 1.50 = 30,000 kW

Select three similar units each of 10,000 kW capacity, because it will necessitate the
minimum number of spare parts to be stored, at the same time two units can supply the
present maximum demand and the third unit can be taken out for maintenance or during
breakdown without any disruption in supply.

Example 7
A generating station has got a maximum demand of 50,000 kW. Calculate the cost per kWh
delivered from the following data:
i) Capital cost = GHC 95 10 5
ii) Annual cost of fuel and oil = GHC 9 10 5
iii) Taxes, wages and salaries = GHC 6 10 5
The rate of interest and depreciation is 10%. Annual load factor is 50%

Solution 7
Capital cost = GHC 95 10 5
Since the rate of interest and depreciation is 10%, then

Annual fixed charges = 95 10 5 = GHC 9.5 10 5

Total running charges = (9 10 5 + 6 10 5) = 15 10 5

Total annual cost = (9.5 10 5 + 1.5 10 5) = 24.5 10 5

Annual load factor =

32
=> = 0.5 50000 8760 = 21.9 107

Cost per unit = = = 1.12 pesewas

Example 8
A 20,000 kW generating station has the following generating cost

i) Capital cost = GH¢ 65 10 5

ii) Annual Taxation = GH¢ 1.5 10 5
iii) Annual salaries and wages = GH¢ 6 10 5

The caloric value of the coal burnt is 54.5 10 5 cal / kg . The cost of fuel is 55 GHC per
tonne. Assume plant heat rate 29.0 10 5cal/kWh at 100% capacity factor. Calculate the
generating cost/kWh at 100% capacity factor. Interest and depreciation is 10%.

Solution 8
Base the solution on per kW.

Annual Capital cost = 65 10 5 = 6.5 10 5

The annual kWh generated = = =
5
1752 10 kWh
Cost of fuel at 100 per cent capacity factor = = 5127412.84 GHC
Annual cost of generation = 6.5 10 5 + 1.5 10 5+6 10 5 +5127412.84 = 6527412.84
GH¢

Cost of generation per kWh = = GH¢ 0.0372

Example 9
A consumer is offered electricity at the following tariff:

GH¢ 70 per kVA of his maximum demand plus 5 pesewas per unit consumed. The consumer
has an aggregate motor load of 250 kW at power factor of 0.8 lagging. Calculate the
consumer annual bill for a load factor of 100%.

Solution 9
Annual load factor = = 1.0

33
 = 250 8760 1 = kWh

Annual cost of energy consumed = = 10.95

Maximum demand in kVA = = = 312.5 kVA

Annual cost of maximum demand = 312.5 70 = GHC 21,875

Total annual bill = (109,500 + 21,875) = GHC 131,375.

Example 10
An industrial consumer is offered electrical energy from a) private oil engine generating
station b) public supply undertaking, calculate which scheme will be economical for the
consumer having a maximum demand of 2,000 kW of 0.8 p.f lag and 40% load factor for
each case:

Private Plant:
Capital cost GHC 1209; cost of fuel oil GHC 70 per tonne, fuel consumption 0.3 kg /kWh;
cost of lubricating oil 0.15 pesewa / kWh generated, cost of repairs 0.2 pesewas / kWh
generated ; Wages GH¢ 30000 per annum . Rate of interest and depreciation is 12%

Public Supply Undertaking:

The tariff is GH¢ 50 per kVA of maximum demand plus 2.00 pesewas per kWh consumed.

Solution 10
Private Plant

Maximum demand = 2000kW; Load factor = 0.40

Number of units consumed annually = 0.40 8760 2000 = 70.08 105 kWh

Fuel consumption for 70.08 105 kWh = = 2102.4 tonnes

Annual cost of fuel consumption = 2102.4 70 = 147,168.

Other running charges = (0.15 + 0.25 + 0.2) pesewas / kWh = 0.6 pesewas / kWh

Annual running charges = = GHC 42.048 103

Total running charges = (147.168 103 +42.048 103) = GHC 189.216 103

Annual fixed charges = = GHC 144000

34
Total annual cost in private plant scheme = 189,216 +144000 + 30000 = GHC 363.216 103

Cost per unit = = 5.18 pesewas

Public supply undertaking

Maximum demand in kVA = = 2500 kVA

Cost of maximum demand = 2500 50 = GHC 125,000

1.785 pesewas
Cost of maximum demand per unit = . =

Energy charges per unit = 2.0 pesewas.

Hence total cost per unit = 1.785 + 2.0 = 3.785 pesewas

Note: On comparing the cost per unit it will be observed that the public supply undertaking
will be cheaper to the consumer.

Example 11
Calculate the minimum two-part tariff to be charged from the consumer of a supply
undertaking from the following data: Generating cost per kWh is 3.6 pesewas; Generating
per kW of maximum demand is 50 GH¢; Total energy generated per year is 4380 10 4
kWh; Annual charges for distribution are GH¢125,000; Diversity factor for the distribution
network 1.25; total loss between station and consumer is 10%

Solution 11
Annual number of units generated = 4380 10 4 kWh; load factor of the station = 50%

Annual load factor =

=> Station maximum demand = = 10000kW

Annual cost of generation per kW = GHC 50.

Total annual cost for generating 10000kW =10000 50 = .

Annual charges for distribution =

Total annual fixed charges = ( + )=

Diversity factor =

35
 = 1.25 10000=12,500 kW

Since 10% is the loss between the generating station and the consumers, so maximum
demand is met with 12,500 0.9 kW

In a two part tariff, one part covers the fixed cost and the other covers the generating cost.

Fixed charges per kW of maximum demand = = GHC 55.56.

Hence two part tariff is GHC 55.56 per kW of maximum demand plus 3,6 pesewas per unit.

Example 12
Two systems of tariff are available for a factory working 8 hours a day for 300 working days
in a year.
a) High voltage supply at GHC 4.50 per month per kVA of maximum demand.
b) Low voltage supply of 5.00 per month per kVA of maximum demand plus 5.05 pesewas
per unit.

The factory has an average load of 200 kW at 0.8p.f and a maximum demand of 250 kW at
the same p.f. The high voltage equipment cost GHC 50.00 per kVA and losses can be taken
as 4%. Interest and depreciation charges amount to 12%. Calculate the difference in the
annual cost between the two systems
Solution 12

High voltage supply

Maximum demand in kVA = = 312.50 kVA

Since the loss in HV equipment is 4%, the kVA input to this equipment =
325.5 kVA
=

Cost of H.V equipment = 325.5 50 = GHC 16,275

Annual cost of H.V equipment = = GHC 1,953

Annual charge for maximum demand = 325.5 4.5 12= GHC 17,550.

Total number of units consumed per year = = 500,000units

Total cost of energy consumed = = GHC 25,000

Hence total annual cost = 1,953 + 17,550 + 25,000 = GHC 44503

Low Voltage

36
Now there is no loss of energy as no equipment is used by the consumer

Maximum demand = = 312.5 kVA

Annual cost for maximum demand = 312.5 5 12 = GHC 18,750

Annual energy consumed =200 8 300 = 480,000 units.

Annual cost of energy consumed = = GHC 26,400.

Hence total annual cost = 18750 + 26400 = GHC 45,150.

NOTE: Thus it will be seen that the high voltage is cheaper.

The difference between the two charges is 45,150 – 44,503= GHC 647

Example 13
An industrial consumer has a choice between low voltage supply and high voltage supply at
the following tariff.
Low voltage supply GHC 47 per kW of maximum demand plus 4 pesewas per kWh.
High voltage supply GHC 45 per kW of maximum demand plus 3.5 pesewas per kWh.

In order to have the high voltage supply the consumer must have his own transformer and
switchgear which cost GHC 100 per kW. The losses in the transformation are 3% at full load.
Calculate the number of working hours per week above which the high voltage supply will be
cheaper for the consumers. Assume 50 working weeks per year. The normal rate of interest
and depreciation is 10%

Solution 13
Let the consumers load be 1,000 kW. Losses in the transformer = 3%

Transformation rating required = = 1030 kW

Cost of transformation equipment = 1030 100 = GHC 103,000

Annual cost of transformation equipment 10300 = GHC10300.00

Let H be number of hours per week for which the consumer takes the supply.

Total number of hours per year = 50 H

1000 50
Number of units metered on the high voltage side = = 51500 H
0 7

The annual cost of the consumer when he takes supply high voltage = Fixed charges +energy
51500 35
charges +cost of high voltage equipment = + 1030 4.5 +10300)
100
= 46,350 +1802.5H + 10300 = 56650 +1802.5H

The total annual cost of the consumer when he takes low voltage = Fixed charges + energy
37
 50 1000
charges = 1000 4.7 + = 47000 +2000H
100

In order that the two system may cost the consumer the same

56650 +1802.5H = 47000+2000H => 197.5H = 9650 or H = 48.86

Example 14

An electric supply system has a maximum load of 50 MW. The annual expenses of the
system are
i) Generation = GHC 750,000
ii) Fuel = GHC 2,800,000
iii) Transmission = GHC 245,000
iv) Distribution = GHC 2,150,000
v) Repairs = GHC 300,000
The number of units generated per year are 400 106 kWh .The consumers have an
aggregate maximum demand of 75MW. Evaluate a two part tariff to be charged from the
consumers. Assume that the fixed charges for generation, fuel, transmission, distribution and
repairs are 85%, 15%, 90%, 95% and 40% respectively. Losses in transmission and
distribution are 10%.

Solution 14

Items Total charges Fixed Charges Running Charges

GHC Percentage Value Percentage Value

Generation 75,0000 85 637,500 15 112,500

Fuel 2,800,000 15 420,000 85 2,380,000
Transmission 245,000 90 220,500 10 24,500
Distribution 2,150,000 95 2,042,500 5 107,500
Repairs 300,000 40 120,000 60 180,000

Total 3,440,500 2,804,500

Maximum demand = 75 103 kW

Total fixed charges = GHC 34.405 105

3 05 105
=> Fixed charges per unit = = GHC 46
75 103

Total number of units distributed = 400 106 0.9 = 36 107 kWh

015 10
Total running charges per unit = = 0.778 pesewas
3 107

Hence the two part tariff is GHC 46 per kW of maximum demand plus 0.778 pesewas per
kWh

38
Example 15
An electric supply undertaking has a maximum demand of 80MW with an annual load factor
of 50%. The capital cost of transmission is GHC 1,800,000 with a diversity factor of 1.4. T he
capital cost of transmission is GHC 2,000,000 with a diversity factor of 1.25. The efficiency
of the transmission system is 85% and that of distribution is 88%. The generating cost
inclusive of capital cost is GHC 75 per kW of maximum demand plus 2 pesewas per kWh.
Calculate the annual cost per kW of maximum demand and the cost per kWh supplied
a)at substation b) at the consumers premises.

Solution 16
Maximum demand of the station = 80 MW= 80 103 kW.

The capital cost of generating 1 kW of maximum demand = GHC 75

Total annual capital cost of generating 80 103 = 80 103 75= GHC 6,000 103

Total annual capital cost of transmission = GHC 2,000 103

a) Transmission diversity factor = 1.25

=> The sum of maximum demand of the substation = 1.25 80 103 = 100 103 kW

Total annual capital cost up to substation = Total capital cost of generating and transmission
= (6000 103 + 2000 103) =GHC 8,000 103

000 103
Capital cost per kW of maximum demand at substations = = GHC 80.
100 103

The efficiency of transmission = 85% =

Cost of the units generated = 2 pesewas. Since efficiency is 85% , the cost of units at the
substation = = 2.35
0 5

b) Capital cost of distribution = GHC 1,800 103

Total cost incurred up to the consumers = Capital cost of generation + capital cost of
transmission + capital cost of distribution = GHC 6,000 103 + 2000 103 +1,800 103
= GHC 9,800 103

Diversity factor of distribution = 1.4 =

=> The sum of maximum demand of the substation = 1.40 100 103 = 140 103 kW

00 103
Cost per kW of maximum demand on the consumers premises = GHC = GHC
1 0 103
39
70.0.

Distribution efficiency = 88%;

Cost per units supplied to customers = = 2.675 pesewas.
0

Example 17
A hydroelectric station operates under a mean head of 30 m. The reservoir employed has a
catchment area of 3.5 108 m2. The rainfall in this area is 125 cm per annum. Determine the
capacity of the station for which it should be designed. Assume that 30% of the rainfall is lost
due to evaporation etc, 5 per cent of the head is lost in penstock , turbine efficiencies as 85%
,alternator efficiency as 90% and load factor as 50%.

Solution 17
Total quantity of water available in the whole year = Area in m2 rainfall in m actual
percentage of rainfall available = 4 108 1.25 10-2 0.70 = 3.5 108 m3.

Rate of availability of water =

35 10
= 3 = 11.1 m3 / sec
5 10 3 00

Overall efficiency of the system = η= Penstock efficiency Turbine efficiency alternator

efficiency = 0.95 0.85 0.90 = 0.727.

Now the available Power, P = η

where Q = flow rate in m3/ sec; g =acceleration due to gravity = 10 m /sec2 ; η = efficiency
of the system ; H = available head of water in the dam ; = density of water = 1000kg / m3

1
=> Installed plant capacity = η
load factor
1
= 11.1 0.727 30 1000 10 = 4,841,820 W = 4841820 W
05
3
= 4.842 10 kW.

EXERCISES
1. A choice is to be made in the following two electric supplies:

a) Public supply having a tariff of GHC 30 per kVA of the maximum demand and 8 pesewas
per kWh consumed.
b) private electric supply having a capital cost of GHC 10,000, cost of fuel burnt 20 pesewas
per kWh, cost of repairs and maintenance 1.5 pesewas per kWh , cost of storage 1.3pesewas
per kWh , the annual wage GHC 117,000 per annual . The annual interest and depreciation
is 12%. If the maximum demand is 1,800 kVA for a load of 33%; find out the most economic
scheme.

2. A consumer has a maximum demand of 3,500 kW at 0.8 p.f lag and a load factor of 40%
one or other of the following tariff
40
Tariff A
For first 500 kW GHC 70.00 per kW
For next 500 kW GHC60.00 per kW
For next 1,000 kW GHC 50.00 per kW
For next 1,000 kW GHC45.00 per kW
For all in excess GHC 40.00 per kW
Plus energy charges of 8 pesewas per kWh

Tariff B
GHC 50 per kW of the maximum demand plus energy charges of 6 pesewas per kWh. At the
stated load factor, find out the most economical tariff and the saving thus made. Also draw a
graph showing at total cost of supply in each against the maximum demand. From the graph
find out the load factor at which both system are equally economical.

3. Calculate the two part tariff on the basis of GHC per kVA of maximum demand and
pesewas per unit of energy charges for 80000kVA power station at the rate of GHC 250 per
kVA under the following two conditions:

Case I Case II
Maximum demand 32,000 kVA 40,000 kVA
Load factor 25% 40%
Coal burnt per unit 0.5 kg 0.4 kg
Wages, salaries etc GHC 190,000 GHC 200,000
Running charges GHC 35,000 GHC 40,000
p.f 0.8 0.8

The cost of coal is GHC 30 per tonnes

4. A 100 h.p. motor is required for operation with a pump which is put in operation for 3,000
hours in a year. Two motors of same output are available namely:

Motor A cost GHC 3,500 efficiency 87%

Motor B cost GHC 4,200 efficiency 89%

The rate of interest and depreciation is 10 per cent and cost of energy 5 pesewas per kWh.
Compare the cost of two motors.

5. Compare the annual cost of having an electric supply of 2000 kW at a p.f of 0.9 lagging
with a load factor of 30 % from
a) Diesel generating plant having a plant cost of GHC 400,000, Cost of fuel oil GHC 100 per
ton , fuel consumption per kW generated is 0.75kg, and the other over head charges per kWh
generated is 5 pesewas , annual wages are GHC 14,400 and rate of interest and depreciation
is 10%.
b) From a public supplying company whose tariff is GHC 60 per kVA of maximum demand
plus 10 pesewas per kWh.

6. Calculate the generating cost per kWh delivered for a 60,000kW generating station for the
following detailed expenses:
Capital cost = GHC 200,000; Annual cost of fuel oil, wages and salaries GHC 150,000.
The annual load factor is 40% and the annual rate of interest and depreciation is 12%.

41
7. A supply is to be provided to a factory having a maximum demand 300 kW at 40% load
factor. Compare the cost of providing this load
a) a public supply having a tariff of GHC 70 per kW plus 5 pesewas per kWh consumed .
b) For a diesel plant costing GHC 240 per kW, annual cost of transformers switchgear etc is 1
pesewa per kWh, annual wages are GHC 6,500 cost of fuel and oil is 2 pesewas per kWh.
The annual rate of interest and depreciation is 12 %.

8 Calculate the two part tariff for one Electric Supply undertaking having the following data:
No of units generated = 500 105 kWh; Maximum demand: 150000kW
Cost of generation = GHC 30 105; Cost of transmission line =GHC 600 104
Cost of distribution = GHC250 104; Cost of fuel = 500 104. But of these 10% and 8% 5%
and 90% are running charges, the remainder is fixed charge. The loss of energy in
transmission and distribution is 10% if the load factor of the station is raised to 50% for the
same maximum demand, calculate the percentage saving in the overall cost per kWh.

9. The work cost of a power station per kWh with an annual output of 180 million units at a
load factor of 50% Are follows
Coal = 0.3 pesewas; Salaries and wages = 0.20 pesewas; Repairs and maintenance= 0.22
pesewas, oil stores and water 0.28 p
The station capital cost is GHC120 per kW of maximum demand. If the rate of interest and
depreciation is 10%, calculate the average cost per unit.

10. The owner of a new factory obtains power supply from a private oil engine generating
station and a public supply. Calculate the average price per unit his supply will cost him in
meach case using the following data: the maximum demand =800kW, load factor =30%,
supply tariff = 120 per kW of maximum demand plus 3 pesewas per unit. The capital cost of
plant required for supply is GHC 75000; Capital cost of plant required for private generating
station = GHC 1 million, Cost of fuel =GHC63 per tonne, fuel of consumption =0.02kg per
unit generated. The other costs of the private plant are:
Lubricating oil, stores and water = 0.075 pesewas per unit; Wages = 0.225 pesewas per unit;
Repairs and maintenance = 0.15 pesewas per unit
Assume interest and depreciation =10%.

2.16 Economic Load dispatch

The economic load dispatch problem involves two different problems. The first of these is the
unit commitment or pre-dispatch problem, wherein it is required to select optimally out of the
available generating sources to operate to meet the expected required load and provide a
specific margin of operation reserve over a specified period of time. The second aspect of
economic load dispatch is the online economic dispatch wherein it is required to distribute the
load among the generating units actually paralleled with the system in such a manner as to
minimise the total cost of supplying minute -to- minute requirement of the system.

Consider a simplified performance curve of boiler turbine –generator unit as shown in Fig 2.5

42
 Fuel input in
million BTU per
hour

Pmin Pmax
Output in MW

Fig 2.5: Incremental curve

From the graph, heat rate is defined as the ratio of fuel input to the corresponding power
output and hence the units are million Btu per MWh. From the heat rate curve, another
characteristic known as the incremental fuel curve can be obtained.

Incremental fuel rate is defined as

Incremental fuel rate = (2.1)

Which means it is a ratio equal to a small change in input to the corresponding small change
in output. Now as the incremental quantities tend to zero, incremental fuel tends to

Incremental fuel rate = = (2.2)

Where F is the fuel input in million Btu per hr and P is the power output in MW. The units
associated with fuel rate, are therefore, million Btu per MWh and the incremental fuel cost is
expressed in terms of GHC per MWh which is obtained by multiplying the incremental fuel
rate by the fuel cost in GHC per Btu.

Incremental production cost consists of the incremental fuel cost plus the incremental cost of
labour, supplies, maintenance and water. Since it is difficult to express them exactly as a
function of an output and also since they form generally a small fraction they will hitherto be
considered equal to the incremental cost of fuel.

The increment efficiency is defined as the reciprocal of the incremental fuel or incremental
cost and is given as

Incremental efficiency = = (2.3 )

43
2.17 Economic Dispatch Neglecting Losses

Economic dispatch problem is defined as

Min FT = ∑ (2.4)

Subject to

=∑ (2.5)

Where FT is the total fuel input to the nth unit, PD is the total load demand and Pn is the
generation of nth. By making use of the Lagrangian multiplier, the auxiliary function is
obtained as F = FT + λ (PD – ∑ n) (2.6)

where λ is the Lagrangrian multiplier.

Differentiating F with respect to the generation Pn and equating to zero gives the condition
for optimal operation of the system.

= +

Thus –λ=0
Since FT = F1+ F2+…+ Fn, = =λ

and therefore the condition for optimum operation is

= ... = =λ (2.7)

Here = incremental production cost of plant n in GHC per MWhr.

The incremental production cost of a given plant over a limited range is represented by

= Fnn Pn + fn (2.8)

Where Fnn = slope of incremental production cost curve

fn = intercept of a production incremental cost curve

The equation (2.7) means that the machines be so loaded that the incremental cost of
production of each machine is the same. It is to be noted here that the active power generation
constraints are taken into account while solving the equations which are derived above. If
these constraints are violated for any generator it is tied to the corresponding limit and the
rest of the load distributed to the remaining generator units according to the equal incremental
cost of production. The simultaneous solution of equations (2.5) and (2.7) gives the economic
operating schedule. Therefore any good technique for solving a set of linear equations can be
used but since the inequality constraints have been taken into account, the following iterative
method is used:
44
1. Assume a suitable value of λ(0). This value should be more than the largest intercept of the
incremental cost characteristics of the various generators.
2. Compute the individuals generations P1,P2,…,Pn corresponding to incremental cost of
production from equations (2.7). In case generations at any of the buses are violated
during that iteration and remaining load is distributed among the remaining generators.
3. Check if the equality,
∑ = PD is satisfied
4. If not, make a second guess λ1 and repeat the above steps. The selection of λ1 in this step
must of course be guided by the result in step (3). For a example if we find that the total
generation is less than PD then correct value of λ to be selected would be

If equality is satisfied, the generations as calculated in step (2) give the optimum operating
strategy.

To illustrate the above procedure, the following problem is considered.

Worked example

Example 18

There are two generators of 100W each with incremental characteristics:

= 2 + 0.012P1 ; = 1.5 + 0.015P2

Minimum load on each unit is 10MW; total load to be supplied is 150MW. Determine the
operating schedule.

Solution 18:

Assume λ = . (more than the largest of the intercepts ( , and 1.5) Determine generations P1
and P2.

P1 = = MW P2 = MW

P1 + P2 = 66.6 + 86.6 = 153.2

Since generation is greater than the demand, therefore next approximation of the λ should be
less than 2.8. Also since load demand is 150MW, the difference between PD and Pn is not
much. Therefore, value of λ should not be very much different from 2.8 Let it be 2.7.
With this, the generations are 58.4 + 80 = 138.4MW, which is less than the demand.
Therefore, next approximation of λ should be greater than 2.7; say it is 2.75.

Corresponding to this, generations are 62.5 + 83.4 =145.9 MW i.e. the generations are
smaller than the demand. Next approximation to λ = .7 gives generations as 65 + 85.4 =
150.4 MW. It is to be seen here that the generations are converging as better approximations
to λ are chosen and finally a value between 2.77 and 2.78 will give the optimal generation
schedule.

45
It can be seen that this method does not sense the location of changes in the loads. As long as
the total load is fixed, irrespective of the location of loads, the solution will always be the
same and in fact for this reason the solution may not be feasible in the sense that the load
voltages may not be within specified limits.

In case of an urban area where the load density is very high and the transmission distances
are very small, the transmission loss could be neglected and the optimum strategy of
generation could be based on the equal incremental production cost as outlined above.
Whereas if the energy to be transported is over relatively larger distances with low load
density, the transmission losses in some cases may amount to 20% to 30% of the total load
and it then becomes very essential to take these losses into account when developing an
economic dispatch strategy.

2.17 Optimum Load Dispatch Including Transmission Losses

Before an optimum strategy for load scheduling is derived, the need for inclusion of losses is
further stressed by the following example.

Consider Fig. 2.6 which consists of two identical generators i.e. generators with identical
incremental production cost. If generator 2 has a local load, according to equal incremental
production criterion, the total load must be shared equally by both generators, i.e. each
generator should supply half of the total load. The common sense tells us that it is more
economical to let generator 2 supply most of the local load because generator 1 has to supply
in addition to the load, the transmission losses also. Therefore, the criterion of sharing load by
Incremental production cost does not hold good under such situation and a strategy must be
evolved which takes into account the transmission losses also.

2
1

R+jX

Load

Fig. 2.6: Two identical generators connected through a transmission link

The optimal load dispatch problem including transmission losses is defined as

Min FT = ∑ (2.9)

Subject to PD + PL - ∑ =0 (2.10)

Where PL is the total system loss which is assumed to be a function of generation and the
other term have their usual significance.

Making use of the Lagrangian multiplier λ, the auxiliary function is given by

F = FT + λ (PD + PL ∑ )

46
The partial differential of this expression when equated to zero gives the condition for
optimal load dispatch, i.e.

= +( – 1) = 0 or

+ =λ (2.11)

Here the term is known as the incremental transmission loss at plant n and λ is known as
the incremental cost of received power in GHC per MWh.
The equation (2.11) is a set of n equations with (n+1) unknowns. Here n generations are
unknown and λ is unknown. These equations are known as coordination equations because
they coordinate the incremental transmission loss with the incremental cost of production.

To solve these equations the loss formula equation (2.12) is expressed in terms of generations
and is approximately expressed as

PL = ∑ ∑ (2.12)

Where Pm and Pn are the source loadings, Bmn the transmission loss coefficients. The formula
is derived under the following assumptions:

1. The equivalent load current at any bus remains a constant complex fraction of the total
equivalent load current.
2. The generator bus voltage magnitudes and angles are constant.
3. The power factor of each source is constant.

The solution of coordination equation (2.11) requires the calculation of ⁄ which is

obtained from equation (2.12) as

= 2∑ (2.13)

Also

= FnnPn + fn (2.14)

The coordination equations can be rewritten as

FnnPn + fn + ∑ λ (2.15)

Collecting all coefficients of Pn, we obtain

Pn(Fnn + λBnn) = - λ (∑ - fn + λ

Solving for Pn we obtain

47
 ∑
Pn = ( 2.16)

To arrive at an optimum load dispatching solution, the simultaneous solution of the

coordination equations along with the equality constraint (2.10) should suffice and any
standard matrix inversion subroutine could be used. But because of the fact that plants might
go beyond their loading conditions, it becomes necessary to solve a new set of equations and
thus by the process of elimination this could be done. This would be very time consuming in
a large interconnected system. Therefore, an iterative procedure would be used. The iterative
procedure involves a method of successive approximation which rapidly converges to the
correct solution.

The following steps are required for iterative procedure:

1. Assume a suitable value of λ0. This value should be more than the largest intercept of the
incremental production cost of the various generators.
2. Calculate the generations based on equal incremental production cost.
3. Calculate the generation at all the buses using the equation

∑
Pn =

It is to be noted that the powers to be substituted on the right hand side during zeroth iteration
correspond to the values as calculated in step 2. For subsequent iterations the values of
powers to be substituted correspond to the powers as calculated in the previous iteration. In
case any of the generations violates the limit the generation of that generator is fixed at the
limit violated.

4. Check if the difference in power at the all generator buses between two consecutive
iterations is less than a pre-specified value. If not, go back to step 3.
5. Calculate losses using the relation PL = ∑ ∑ and calculate
∑ - - ]
6. If P is less than €, stop the calculation and calculate the cost of generation with these
values of powers.
7. Update values of λ and go back to step 3 . .

Worked Example

Example 19
Consider a simple two plant system.
Assume that the loss formula coefficient in 1/MW units are given by
m n Bmn
1 1 0.0015
1 2 -0.0005
2 2 0.0025

Also assume

= 2.0 + 0.01P1 = 1.5 + 0.01P2

48
Solution 19

The objective is to determine the operation schedule corresponding to 𝛌=2.6

Now P1 = : P2 =

Substituting the values for f1 , f2 , F22 and loss coefficient

P1 = = =

P2 = = =

Now generation corresponding to equal incremental cost of production is calculated as

follows:

= 0.01P2 +2 or P1 = = 60 MW P2 = =110 MW

Substituting these values of generation in the expression for P1 and P2we get

P1 = = 49.77 MW

P2= =54,61MW

P1 = = 41.68 MW

P2= = 52.53MW

P1=41.38 P1 = 41.37

P2=52.50 P2 = 52.50

:. Loss =0.015 41.372– 2 0.0005 41.37 52.50 + 0.0025 52.502

=2.5672- 2.1719+6.8906=7.28MW

:. Load PD = 93.87-7.28 = 86.59MW.

49
In the above problem 𝛌 is given and we are asked to find out the operating schedule.
Normally in an actual problem, the load demand is given and we are asked to find out the
economic schedule. To understand the utility of the coordination equation let say that the load
to be met is 160MW. With loss coefficient and the incremental production cost given to the
problem above, we are asked to determine the economic operation schedule.

The generation corresponding to incremental cost of production ( ICP) will be

P1+P2= 160 and 0.01P1+2 = 0.00P2+1.5

:. P1= 55MW and P2 =105 MW

With 𝛌=0.01 +105 +1.5 = 2.55

Substituting this value of 𝛌 in coordination equation we have

P1 = = and

P2 = =

Starting with P2= 105 , The powers from this equations are

P1=46.33MW P1 = 38.56MW P1=38.45MW

P2=51.34 MW P2 = 50.47MW P2=50.46MW

At this juncture let us give a thought to our solution. Since P1+P2<160, this value of 𝛌 = 2.55
is not correct and since P1+P2 160 therefore 𝛌 should be far greater than 2.55. Let this
value be 5.0. With this value of 𝛌 P2 = 350 from the ICP equation, and coordination equation
becomes

P1 = =

P2 = =

Starting with P2= 350MW, the values of P1 and P2 in various iteration using the coordination
equation are

P1=190MW P1 = 145.42 MW P1=144.14 MW

P2=127.14MW P2 = 120.7 MW P2=120.59MW

50
Again we should give a thought to our solution . This time the sum of generation

P1+ P2 160MW. Therefore, lower value of 𝛌 is desired.

Let this value 𝛌 =3.75. With this value of 𝛌 the coordination equations are

P1 =

P2 =

And the generations during various iteration are

P1=122.05MW P1 = 98.973MW P1=98.44MW P1=98.42MW

P2=94.18MW P2 = 91.17 MW P2=91.10MW P2=91.09MW

Since the difference between the two consecutive generations is less than 0.1MW, we stop
here and since P1+P2 =189.51 MW which is not far off from the load of 160 MW. We
therefore evaluate the losses:

PL = 0.0015 98.422+ 0.0025 91.092 - 2 98.42 91.09 0.0005 =26.31MW

:. PD = P1+ P2-PL= 189.51 - 26.31= 163.2MW.

This is 3.2 MW more than the actual demand therefore, we cannot terminate here .We are
guided by the PD calculated for assuming a suitable value of . Since PD calculated is more
than the actual one, therefore we take a lower value of . It will be found out that

𝛌=3.69 ; P2=219MW , the coordination equation becomes

P1 = ; P2 =

And with P2 = 219 MW as initial value, the generations during various iterations are

P1 = 118.56MW P1 = 96.40 MW P1 =95.88 MW

P2= 92.35 MW P2= 89.48 MW P2= 89.41 MW

P1 = 95.86 MW
P1 = 89.41 MW

We terminate the process and evaluate the losses.

PL= 0.0015 95.862 + 0.0025 89.412 – 2 95.86 89.41 0.0005

= 25.19MW

PD = 95.86 + 89.41 – 25.19 = 160.8MW

51
 PD calculated - PD 0.1 MW

And the solution is obtained.

Cost of generation = 0.005P12 + 2P1 + 0.005P22 + 1.5P2 = GHC.411.74/hr

Another possibility is that we may take the transmission losses into account but they need not
be coordinated. If we don’t coordinate the losses with the incremental production cost, the
generation schedule so obtained will be costlier as compared to when they are coordinated.
An illustration with the help of previous example will make clear the advantage of the
coordination of losses.

The set of equations when losses are included but not coordinated will be

0.001P1+2 = 0.001P2+1.5

P1 + P2 – 0.0015P12 – 0.0025P22 + 0.001P1P2 = 160

P1 + 200 = P2 + 15 P2 = P1 + 50

Substituting this value of P2 in the quadratic equation, we obtain

P12 – 600P1 + 38750 = 0 or P1 = 73.6MW

Neglecting the higher value as the higher value is much more than the total load on the
system. P2 = 73.6 + 50 = 123.6 MW

Cost = 436.06 Rs/hr

Comparing the cost between the two, it is seen that cost with losses coordinated is less than
when they are not coordinated and the difference in cost is
436.06 – 411.74 = GHC 24.32 per hr.

2.18 Penalty factor method.

From the coordination equation

+λ =λ or = λ (1 - ) or (

or (2.17)
Where Ln is the penalty factor of the plant n and is given by

52
Ln = (2.18)

(1+ ) approximate penalty factor

= L’n

Since the penalty factor has been derived from the coordination equation, the solution of the
problem using penalty factor gives precisely the same results.

Worked Examples

Example 20

The fuel inputs per hour of plants 1 and 2 are given as

F1= 0.2P12 + 40P1 + 120 Rs per hr ; F2 = 0.25P22 + 30P2 + 150 Rs per hr

Determine the economic operating schedule and the corresponding cost of the generation if
the maximum and the minimum loading on each unit is 100 MW and 25 MW, the demand is
180 MW and the transmission losses are neglected. If the load is equally shared by both the
units , determine the saving obtained by loading the units as per equal incremental production
cost.

Solution 20:

The incremental production costs of both the units are

= 0.4P1 + 40 GHC per MWh

0.5P2 + 30 GHC per MWh

Now for economic operations of the units

i.e. 0.4P1 + 40 = 0.5P2 + 30 ; P1 + P2 = 180

Solution of these equations gives

P1 = 88.89 MW and P2 = 91.11 MW

Now cost of generation = F1 + F2

F1 = 0.2P12 + 40P1 + 120 = 5255.88 GHC/ hr ;

F2 = 0.25P22 + 30P2 + 150 = 4958.55 GHC /hr

Total cost = GHC 10214.43/ hr

(b) If the load on each unit is 90 MW, the cost of generation will be
53
F1 = GHC 5340/hr F1 = GHC 4875/hr

Total cost = GHC 10215/hr Saving will be GHC 0.57/hr

Example 21:
Determine the incremental cost of the received power and the penalty factor of the plant
shown in Fig. E.19.2 below if the incremental cost of production is 0.1P1 + 3Rs per
MWh

load

PL = 2MW PD=8MW
P1=10MW

Fig 2.7 For Example 21

Solution 21:
The penalty factor =

Cost of the received power = = (0.1 10 + 3). = GHC 5 per MWhr

Example 22
A two-bus system is shown in Fig. 2.8. If a load of 125MW is transmitted on plant 1 to the
load a loss of 15.625 MW in is incurred. Determine the generation schedule and the load
demand if the cost of the received power is Rs. 24/MWhr. Solve the problem using the
coordination equations and the penalty factor method approach. The incremental production
cost of the plants are

1 2

P2
P1

Load

Fig. 2.8.

54
 0.025P1 + 15 0.05P2 + 20

Solution 22:

Since the load is at bus 2 alone, therefore the losses in the line will not be affected by
generator of plant 2.

PL = B11P12 as B12 = B21 = 0 and B22 = 0

15.625 = B11 1252 or B11 = 0.001

Now coordination equation

λ =λ

where PL = 0.001P12 or 0.002P1

Substituting in the equation for plant 1 we get

0.025P1 + 15 + λ 0.00 P1 = λ

0.025P1 + 15 + 0.048P1 = 24

0.073P1 = 9 P1 = 123.28MW

And from the coordination equation for plant 2,

0.05P2 + 20 = 24 or P2 = 80 MW

The transmission loss PL = 0.001 123.282 = 15.19 MW

The load PD = 123.28 + 80 – 15.19 = 188.1 MW

The solution using penalty factor is as follows: The penalty factor for plant 1 is

= 24

= 24

P1= 123.28MW

Similarly, since is zero, L2 = unity, i.e. the incremental cost of received power equals
the incremental cost of production.
55
 0.05P2+ 20 = 24 or P2 = 80 MW

Example 23
Assume that the fuel input in Btu per hour for units 1 and 2 are given by

F1 = (8P1 + 0.024P12 + 80)106 ; F2 = (6P2 + 0.04P22 + 120)106

The maximum and minimum loads on the units are 100MW and 10MW respectively.
Determine the minimum cost of generation when the following load (Fig. 2.9) is supplied.
The cost of fuel is Rs. 2 per million Btu.

150MW

50MW

6AM 0PM 12PM

Fig 2.9

Solution 23:

From the fuel input characteristics

0.048P1 + 8 0.08P2 + 6

(i) When load is 50MW ; For economic loading the conditions are

= and P1+P2 = 50

0.048P1+ 8 = 0.08P2 + 6 and P1 + P2 = 50

From these equations, P1 = 15.625 MW and P2= 34.375 MW

F1=210.868 million Btu per hr.

and F2 = 375.5 million Btu per hr.

ii) When load is 150 MW ; The equations are

0.048P1 +8 = 0.08P2 +6 and P1+P2=150

56
 = P1=78.126MW and P2=71.874MW

F1= 851.496 million Btu / hr

F2= 757.87 million Btu / hr

Total cost =GHC(210.868+373.5+851.496+757.87) 12 2 = GHC 52649.61

EXERCISES
1. Incremental cost fuel cost is GHC per megawatt hour for two units in a plant are given by
0.1P1 + 20
0.12P2 + 16
The minimum and maximum load on each unit is to be 20 MW and 125MW respectively.
Determine the incremental fuel cost and the allocation loads between units for this minimum
cost when loads are i) 100MW ii) 150MW . Assume both units are operating.

2. Determine the saving in fuel cost in GHC per hour for the economic distribution of a total
load of 200MW between the two units of plants described in problem 1 compared with
equal distribution of the same load.
3. A system consists of two plants connected by a tie and a load is located at plant two. When
100MW are transmitted from plant one a loss of 10MW takes place on the T-line . Determine
the generating schedule at both the plant and the power received by the load when λ for the
system is GHC 25 per megawatt hour and the incremental fuel cost are given by the equation
0.031P1 + 17 GHC/ MWh ; 0.06P2 + 19 GHC/MWh

4. If the power received by the load in the previous example is 200 MW, determine the
savings in GHC per hour obtained by coordinating rather than simply including the
transmission loss and not coordinating the loading of the plant.

5. The incremental fuel cost for two plants are given by

0.1P1 + 22 ; 0.12P2 + 16

where F is in GHC per hour and P is in MW. If both units operate at the same at all time and
maximum and minimum load on each unit are 100 MW and 20 MW respectively. Determine
the economic operating scheduling of the plant for loads 40 MW, 60 MW, 120 MW, 160
MW and 180 MW neglecting the transmission losses.

6 .The fuel input to two plants are given by

F1= 0.015P12 +160P1+50 ; F2= 0.015P22 +160P2+30

The loss coefficient of the system are given by B11= 0.005 , B12=-0.0012 and B22 = 0.002.
The load to be met is 200MW, determine the economic operating schedule and the
corresponding cost of generation, if i) the transmission line losses are coordinated ii) the
losses are located but not coordinated.

3.0 REPRESENTATION OF POWER SYSTEM

57
3.1 Single line diagram

A very practical way of representing a power system is by means of simple symbols. The
following points are worth noting:

1. Since a balanced 3-phase system is always solved as a single-phase circuit composed of

one of the three lines and a neutral return, it is not very necessary to show more than one
phase and a neutral return, when drawing a diagram of the circuit.
2. Often the diagram is simplified by further omitting the completed circuit through the
neutral and by indicating the component parts by standard symbols rather than by their
equivalent circuits.
3. Circuit parameters are not shown, and a transmission line is represented by a single line
between its two ends. Such a simplified diagram of an electric system is called a one-line
or single-line diagram. It indicates by a single line and standard symbols the transmission
lines and associated apparatus of an electric power system.

Some standard symbols for various apparatus are shown in the table below.

Table 3.1: Major Components in an Electrical Power System and their Symbols

No. Component Symbol

1 Generator

1 Transformer

2 Lightning Arrester

3 Current Transformer

4 Circuit Breaker

Capacitor Voltage
5
Transformer

6 Disconnect Switch

58
7 Voltage Transformer

8 Switching
Arrangement/Substation

9 Distribution Transformer

Figure 3.2: Standard Symbols for Apparatus

3.2 Purpose of One-Line Diagram

The purpose of the one-line diagram is to supply in concise form, significant information
about the system. The amount of information included on the diagram depends on the
purpose for which the diagram is intended.
Figure 3.2 is a one-line diagram of a very simple power system.

59
 Figure 3.2: Single line diagram of a simple power system

Two generators, one grounded through a reactor and one through a resistor, are connected to
a bus and through a step-up transformer to a transmission line. Another generator, grounded
through a reactor, is connected to a bus and through a transformer to the opposite end of the
transmission line. A load is connected to each bus. On a one-line diagram, information
about the loads, the rating of the generators and transformers, and reactances of the different
components of the circuit, is often given.

3.3 Nominal Power system voltage (Generation)

Modern supply systems are invariably 3- phase. Magnitudes of voltage levels of various
supply systems vary from country to country . However, their general from follows the same
pattern of system layout. It is shows a single line diagram of a power system comprising a
generating, transmission and distribution systems as shown in fig 3.3

G1 G2
Generating
Generating Stations
medium voltage
11 kV - 25kV
Transmission

stations
Extra High voltage Britain
Transmission 275 kV - 400kV
345 kV - 765kV
USA
Transmission
345 kV - 400kV Interconnecting

substations
Britain G3 Generating
High voltage 132 kV medium voltage
sub -transmission 11 kV - 25kV
115 kV (USA) Tie line

Transmission

substations
Medium voltage
Primary
distribution
33 kV , 11kV, Heavy Industry
6.6kV medium voltage

Distribution

substations
Distribution

Low voltage
Secondary
distribution small Industry
415 V/ 240V, ,Residence,Commercial

.
Fig 3.3 A single line diagram of a generating, transmission and distribution system

60
 G1 G2
Generating
Generating Stations
medium voltage
11 kV - 15kV
Transmission

stations
High voltage
Transmission
161 kV

Interconnecting

substations

High voltage
sub -transmission
33 kV

Transmission

substations
Medium voltage
Primary
distribution
33 kV , 11kV, Heavy Industry
6.6kV medium voltage

Distribution

substations

Low voltage
Secondary
distribution small Industry
415 V/ 240V, ,Residence,Commercial

Fig 3.4 A single line diagram of a generating, transmission and distribution system in Ghana

3.4 Transmission networks

Transmission networks span several kilometres making electric energy available at
substations. It is important to have a reliable transmission system to deliver electric energy to
load centres at the proper voltage level and frequency. The transmission system usually has a
loop structure which gives more path combinations and higher reliability .Transmission
voltages can be as high as 765kV. In Ghana, the transmission Voltage level is 161kV and is
operated by the VRA. Transmission systems are usually interconnected for the following
reasons:
1. It improves the overall stability - greater reserve power.
2. It provides better continuity of service (stations can be shut down for scheduled
61
 maintenance, inspection or repairs without causing power interruption).
3. It is more economical; when loads are shared between generating stations, the overall
production or operating cost can be minimised .
VRA’s transmission substation arrangements vary from breaker-and-a-half, to ring to single
bus.

3.5 Sub-transmission/Distribution
The sub-transmission networks usually have a loop structure but the distribution networks are
normally radial. Most of ECGs major substations have double bus with bus tie (coupler)
breaker arrangement. Most of the distribution networks have single bus arrangements

Table 3.2 Voltage designations

Voltage 2- wire 3-wire 4-wire

Low Voltage (LV) 120V 120 / 240 V 120/208 V
480 277/ 480 V
600 377/ 600V
Medium Voltage 2400
(MV) 4160
4800
6900
3.8kV 7200 / 12470
23kV 7220/ 13.2 kV
34.5 kV 7970 / 13.8kV
46.0kV 14.4/24.940kV
69.0kV 19920/ 34.5kV

High Voltage( H.V) 115kV

138kV
161kV
230kV
Extra High Voltage 345 kV
(EHV) 500Kv
735kV-765kV

3.6 Comparison of single phase D.C and 3 phase A.C

The necessity of long transmission long transmission lines arose from the fact that the
electrical energy obtained from harnessing the water can be available in bulk quantities at
very low running cost and these hydro electric plant are always situated at very far long from
plants where this energy is required for industrial purposes. Fundamentally, there are systems
by which electrical energy can be transmitted :they are
a) High voltage D.C system
b) High Voltage A.C system
The advantages of D.C transmission system are :
1. Only two conductors are used for transmission as compared to three conductors in AC
system, further it is also possible to use only one conductor for transmission using earth as
a return causing much saving in copper.
2. The potential stress produced on a the insulation by DC system is approximately 70 % of
the AC effective voltage of the same value.
3. The economic use of underground cables is possible ,since the stress on cable insulation is
much less.
62
 Advantages of AC transmission are :
1. It is possible to generate voltages as high as 33kV as compared to 11kV in DC system
2. The alternating voltages can effectively be stepped up by transformers which is not
possible in DC systems.
3. The lower of the voltage at the substation is easier and cheaper as compared to DC system
using motor generator sets used in DC system.
4. The transforming substations are much efficient than the motor generator sets used in DC
system.
5. The maintenance of AC substation is easier and cheaper.

Disadvantages of A.C transmission

1. The volume of copper used is much more than the DC system
2. The inductance and capacitance of the line affects the regulation of the line which is
increased.
3.Due to skin effect the line resistance is increased which further increases the skin effect.
4. The AC transmission lines are more effective to corona than DC lines.
5. In AC system the speed of the alternators is not economical, variation of this speed must be
controlled within very low limits.
6. In cables the alternating current causes sheath loss.
7. The construction of the transmission lines is not so easy as in case of DC lines.
8.The alternators must be synchronised before they are made to run in parallel

3.7 Per Unit (pu) Notation

In a large interconnected power system with various voltage levels and various capacity
equipment ,it has been found quite convenient to work with Per unit (p.u) system of
quantities for analysis purpose rather than in absolute values of quantities . Sometimes
percent values are used instead of per unit ,but
It is always convenient to use p.u values. Per unit values of any quantity is defined as

(3.4)

In electrical engineering the three basic quantities are voltage ,current and impedance . If any
two of them are selected as the base or reference values the third one will have a base or
reference value depending upon the other two eg. If V and I are the base voltage and current
in a system , the base impedance of the system is fixed and is given by Z=
The rating ot the equipment in a power system are given in terms of operating voltage and the
capacity in kVA . Therefore it is found convenient and useful to use voltage and kVA as the
the base quantities.
Let Vbase be the base Voltage and kVAbase be the base kilovolt amperes, then

V p.u = (3.5)

I base = (3.6)

63
 I p.u = = (3.7)

Base impedance = = ( 3.8)

p.u Impedance = = ( 3.9)

= (3.10)
This means that per unit impedance is directly proportional to the base kVA and inversely
proportional to square of base voltage . Normally per unit impedance of various equipment
corresponding to its own rating voltage and kVA are given and since we choose one common
base kVA and Voltage for the whole system ,therefore it is desired to find out the base
voltage and kVA . If the individual quantities are Zp.u old . kVA old and Vold and the
common base quantities Zp.u new, kVA new, Vnew, then
Zp.u new = Z p.u old ( (3.11)
The per unit value of an equipment corresponding to its own rating is given by
Z = (3.12)
where Z -absolute value of the impedance of the equipment
With per system there is less chance of making mistake in phase and line voltages, single
phase or three phase quantities.. Also per unit impedance of a transformer is the same
whether refered on to the primary or secondary side of the transformer which is not the case
when considering absolute value of impedance. This is illustrated below
Let the impedance of the transformer be Zs, then
Zp = Zs ( (3.13)
Where Vp and Vs are the primary and secondary voltages of the transformer
Now Zp p.u = = Zs ( = =

= Zs = Zs = = Zs p.u (3.14)

Hence per unit impedance of a transformer referred to primary side Zp pu is equal to the per
unit impedance referred to the secondary side Zs pu.
The base values in a system are selected in such a way that the per unit voltages and current
in system are approximately unity. Sometimes the base kVA is equal to the sum of ratings of
the various equipment on the system or equal to the capacity of the largest unit.
The different voltage levels in a power system are due to the presence of transformers.
Therefore the procedure for selecting the base voltage is as follows.
A voltage corresponding to any part of the system could be taken as the base and the voltages
in the other parts of the circuit separated from the original part by transformers are related
through the term ratio of the transformer. If the primary side is Vpb then on the secondary side
of the transformer Vsb=Vpb

Where Ns and Np are the turns of the transformer on the secondary and primary respectively.

64
3.7.1 Advantages of P.U. Method
1. It represents results in more meaningful data when the relative magnitudes of similar
circuit quantities can be compared directly.
2. It facilitates solution of circuits at different voltage level and power ratings.
3. It is independent of voltage changes and phase shift through ‘impedance’.
4. Manufacturers quote pu impedance values on the base of ratings on equipment nameplates.
5. Per unit impedance of any transformer is the same when referred to either the primary or
the secondary side.
6. Per unit values of similar power equipment lie within narrow ranges and it is relatively
easy to select.
7. The use of 3 is eliminated in 3-phase calculations, simplifying the calculations.
8. The product of two quantities expressed in per unit is expressed in per unit itself.
9. The driving or source voltage usually can be assumed to be 1.0pu for fault and voltage
calculations.
10 There is less chance of confusion between single-phase and three-phase power or between
line-to-line and line-to-neutral voltage.
11. Per unit impedance of a transformer in a three-phase system is the same regardless of the
type of winding connections.

Worked Examples

Example 24
Convert 2 into per unit on an 11 kV, 1000 kVA base.

Solution 24
kVbase 2 112
Base impedance Z base    121 
MVAbase 1
Z actual 2
Per unit of 2  = Z pu    0.0165 
Z base 121

Example 25
An 11kV 15MVA generator has reactance of 0.015 referred to its ratings. The new bases
chosen for calculations are 110 kV and 30 MVA. Calculate the new pu reactance.

Solution 25
2
MVAnew base  kVold base 
X pu new  X pu old   
MVAold base  kVnew base 
2
30  11 
 0.15   
15  110 
 0.003 pu

Example 26
A single-phase 400/200V 10kVA transformer has a reactance of 2 referred to its high side.
Calculate the per unit reactance of the transformer.
65
Solution 26
HV side kVbase ( hv )  0.4 kV
kVbase(hv) 2 0.4 2
Z base ( hv )    16 
MVAbase 0.01
Z actual ( hv ) 2
Z pu ( hv )    0.125 pu
Z base ( hv ) 16
LV side kVbase (lv )  0.2 kV
2
kVbase (lv ) 0.2 2
Z base (lv )    4
MVAbase (lv ) 0.01
2
N 
2
 200 
Z actual (lv )  Z actual ( hv )   lv   Z actual ( hv )   
 N hv   400 
 0.5 
Z actual (lv ) 0.5
Z pu (lv )    0.125 pu
Z base (lv ) 4
Therefore Z pu(lv)  Z pu( hv) , that is, for transformers, per unit reactance is the same on both
sides.

Example 27

A 100MVA 33kV 3-phase generator has a sub transient reactance of 15% . The generator is
connected to the motors through a transmission line and transformers as shown in fig 3.
The motors have rated inputs of 30MVA, 20MVA and 50MVA at 30kVwith 20% sub
transient reactance,. The three phase transformers are rated as 110MVA, 32 kV/ 110kV .
with leakage reactance 8%. The line has reactance of 50 ohms .Using the generator rating as
the base quantity in the generator circuit, determine the base quantities in other parts of the
system and evaluate the corresponding p.u values..
30 MVA, 30kV/
kV, 20%

100 MVA,
33kV, 15%

j 50Ω
Y Y
20 MVA, 30kV/
kV, 20%

50 MVA, 30kV/
kV, 20%
Fig 3.5

Solution 27

66
Assuming base values as 100MVA and 33kV in the generator circuit, the per unit reactance
of the generator will be 15 %. The base value of the voltage in the line will be
33 = 113.43 kV
In the motor circuit the base voltage is 113.43 =33kV
The reactance of the transformer is given as 8% corresponding to 110MVA 32kV . Therefore,
corresponding to 100MVA and 33kV, the per unit reactance will be (using equation 3.11)
ZT p.u = 0.08 ( = 0.06838 p.u
the per unit impedance of the line ZL= = 0.3886 p.u

The reactance of motor 1 ZM1= 0.2 ( =0.5509 p.u

The reactance of motor 1 ZM2 = 0.2 ( =0.826 p.u
The reactance of motor 1 ZM2 = 0.2 ( =0.3305 p.u
The reactance diagram for the system is shown in fig 3.6

J0.3886 J0.06838
J0.06838 p.u p.u
p.u

J0.3305
p.u
J0.5509
p.u
J0.826
J0.15 p.u
p.u

1 3
2

Fig 3.6

Example 28
Obtain the p.u impedance (reactance ) diagram of the power system in fig 3.7 for a short
circuit study choose a common MVA base of 30 and a voltage base of 33kV line –line on
the transmission line .The reactance data of the system components are as follows
Generator 1 : 30MVA, 10.5 kV, X= 1. Ω ; Generator 2 : 15MVA, . kV, X= 1. Ω
Generator 3 : 5MVA, . kV, X= 0.5 Ω ; Transformer1 : 15MVA, 33/ 11 kV,
X= 15. Ω/ ph ; Transformer2 : 15MVA, 33/ . kV, X= 1 Ω/ ph
Transmission line : 20.5/ ph ; Load A : 15MVA, 11 kV, 0.9 lagging p.f
Load B : 15MVA, 6.6 kV, 0.85 lagging p.f

67
 15 MVA, 33 /
30 MVA, 15 MVA, 33 /
11kV, 15.2Ω
10.5kV, 1.6Ω 6.2kV, 16Ω

j 20.5Ω
Y

G1
T2 25 MVA,
T1 6.6kV, 0.56Ω

Load A
15 MVA, 11 kV
0.9 lagging p.f

Load B
15 MVA, 6.6
kV 0.9 lagging
p.f
Fig 3.7

Solution 28
If the voltage base for the transmission line is 33kV then the base voltages on generator 1 and
2 side of the circuit are 11kV and 6.2kV respectively. The p.u reactances of the various
components are as follows
Transmission line Z L p.u = 20 = 0.564 p.u
Transformer ZT1 p.u = 15.2 = 0.418 p.u ; Transformer ZT2 p.u = 16 = 0.44 p.u
Generator ZG 1 p.u = 1.6 = 0.396 p.u ; Generator ZG 2 p.u = 1.2 = 0.936 p.u
Generator ZG 3 p.u = 0.56 = 0.437 p.u
J0.564
J0.418 J0.44 p.u
p.u
p.u

J0.956 J0.437
p.u p.u

J0.316
p.u

2 3
G2 G3
1 G1

Fig 3.8

4 Transmission Line Conductors

4.1 General
In the early days of the transmission of electric power, conductors were usually copper, but
aluminium conductors have completely replaced copper because of
i) the much lower cost and

68
ii) lighter weight of an aluminium conductor compared to a copper
of the same resistance and the fact that an aluminium conductor has a larger diameter than a
copper conductor of the same resistance is also an advantage. With a larger diameter, the
lines of flux originating on the conductor will be farther apart at the conductor surface for
the same voltage. This means a lower voltage gradient at the conductor surface and less
tendency to ionize the air around the conductor. Ionization produces the undesirable effect
called corona.
Symbols identifying different types of aluminium conductors are as follows:
AAC all-aluminium conductors
AAAC all-aluminium-alloy conductors
ACSR aluminium conductor, steel-reinforced
ACAR aluminium conductor, alloy-reinforced
Aluminium-alloy conductors have higher tensile strength than the ordinary electrical-
conductor grade of aluminium.
ACAR has central core of higher-strength aluminium surrounded by layers of electrical-
conductor-grade aluminium. The ACSR consists of a central core of steel strands surrounded
by layers of aluminium strands. A typical steel-reinforced aluminium cable (ACSR) has 7
steel strands forming a central core, around which are two layers of aluminium strands. There
are 24 aluminium strands in the two outer layers. Such an ACSR conductor is specified as 24
Al/7 St, or simply 24/7. See Fig 4.1

Fig:4.1 Cross-section of a 24 Al/7 St ACSR Conductor

Various tensile strengths, current capacities and conductor sizes are obtained by using
different combinations of steel and aluminium.
Cables for underground transmission are usually made with stranded copper conductors
rather than aluminium. The conductors are insulated with oil-impregnated paper. Up to 46
kV, the cables are of the solid type, which means that the only insulating oil in the cable is
that which is impregnated during manufacture. The voltage rating of this type of cable is
limited by the tendency of voids to develop between the insulation layers. Voids cause early
breakdown of the insulation. A lead sheath surrounds the cable which may consist of a single
conductor or three conductors.
At voltages from 46 kV to 345 kV, low-pressure oil-filled cables are available. Oil reservoirs
at intervals along the length of the cable supply the oil ducts in the centre of single-conductor
cables or to the spaces between the insulated conductors of the three-phase type. These
conductors are also enclosed in a lead sheath.
High-pressure pipe-type cables are the most widely used cables for underground transmission
at voltages from 69 kV to 550 kV. The paper-insulated cables lie in a steel pipe of diameter
somewhat larger than necessary to contain the insulated conductors which lie together along
the bottom of the pipe. Gas-insulated cables are available at voltages up to 138 kV.
NB: Attention would be devoted primarily to overhead lines, since underground transmission
is usually restricted to large cities or transmission under wide rivers, and bays. Underground

69
lines cost at least 8 times as much as overhead lines, and 20 times as much at the highest
voltage.

4.2. Transmission Line Parameters

An electric transmission line may be either an overhead line or underground cable, and can be
characterised by either of the following constants:
a) primary (RLCG) constants and
b) generalised (ABCD) constants

4.3 Primary Line Parameters – RLCG Constants

A transmission line can be characterised by four distributed parameters. These are:
a) series resistance R b) series inductance L c) shunt capacitance C
d) shunt conductance G .
These parameters are functions of the line design, conductor size, type, spacing, height above
ground, frequency and temperature.
The resistance and inductance uniformly distributed along the line form the series impedance
Z . The conductance and capacitance existing between conductors of a single-phase line or
from a conductor to neutral of a three-phase line form the shunt admittance. Although the
resistance, inductance and capacitance are distributed, the equivalent circuit of a transmission
line is made up of lumped parameters, as will be treated later.

4.4 Series Resistance R

The resistance of transmission-line conductors is the most important cause of power loss in a
transmission line. The effective resistance of a conductor is
power loss in conductor
R 2
() (4.1)
I
where the power in is watts, and I the rms current in the conductor in amperes. The effective
resistance is equal to the DC resistance of the conductor only if the distribution of current
throughout the conductor is uniform.
The DC resistance is given by the formula
l
Rdc   (4.2)
A
where  = resistivity of conductor l = length of conductor A = cross-sectional area
The DC resistance of stranded conductors is greater than the value computed by Eqn (4.2),
because spiralling of the strands makes them longer than the conductor itself. The increased
resistance due to spiralling is estimated as 1% for three-stranded conductors and 2% for
concentrically stranded conductors.
The variation of resistance of metallic conductors with temperature is practically linear over
the normal range of operation. Electrical resistivity of conductor materials at 200C are as
follows:
Copper = 1.7  10 8 ; Aluminium = 2.38  10 8 ; Aluminium alloy = 3.22  10 8
For a temperature change   t  20 0 C , the resistance is given as
 
R  R20 1     R20 1  (t  20 0 C ) (4.3)

70
Uniform distribution of current throughout the cross-section of a conductor exists only for
direct current. As the frequency of alternating current increases, the non-uniformity of
distribution becomes more pronounced. An increase in frequency causes non-uniform current
density, and the alternating current tends to be confined to the surface of the conductor. This
effect is called skin effect. The equivalent resistance is called the AC resistance, Rac .
The skin effect depends on the following factors:
a) Nature of material b) diameter (increases with diameter) c) frequency (increases with
frequency) d) shape of wire (less for stranded conductor than for solid conductor)

Worked Example
Example 29
Calculate the resistance of 304.8 m of solid round aluminium alloy conductor of diameter
7.35 mm at 200C and 500C. The temperature coefficient of the conductor at 200C is 0.00403.
Solution
l 304.8
At 200C, the resistance is R20    3.22  10 8  2
 0.204 
A  7.35  10 
 3
  

 2 
At  C, the resistance is R  R20 1     20. Therefore the resistance at 500C is
0

R50  R20 1   50  20  0.2041  0.0040350  20

 0.229 

4.5 Series Inductance L

When current flows in an electric circuit, we explain some of the properties of the circuit by
the magnetic and electric fields present. The lines of magnetic flux form closed loops linking
the circuit, and the lines of electric flux originate on the positive charges on one conductor
and terminate on the negative charges on the other conductor.
Variation of the current in the conductors causes a change in the number of lines of magnetic
flux linking the circuit. According to Lenz’s law of electromagnetic induction, any change in
the flux linking a circuit induces a voltage in the circuit which is proportional to the rate of
change of the flux. Inductance is the property of the circuit that relates the voltage induced
by changing flux to the rate of change of current.
The inductance L of a conductor is given as
L=2 ( ⁄ + In ( ) (4.4
The inductance L of a single-phase two-wire ( two conductors) line is given as

L=2 ( ⁄ + In ( ) = 4 ( ⁄ + In ( ) (4.5)
where d = distance between the conductors r = radius of conductor
For a three phase conductors arranged as shown in fig 4.2
The inductance L per phase is half that of a single-phase two-wire ( two conductors) line L =

2 ( ⁄ + In ( ) (4.6)

71
 2r

d
d

d
Fig 4.2 A typical arrangement of three phase conductors

4.6 Concept of self GMD and mutual GMD

It is used to simplify inductance calculations particularly inductances of multi conductors
arrangements.
Self GMD = Self geometric mean distance. It is sometimes referred to as GMR ( Geometric
mean distance)
Mutual GMD = Mutual geometric mean distance.
In terms of geometric mean distances, the inductance per conductor (single) or (3) phase
L=2 ( ⁄ + In ( ) =L=2 (In ( ) =2 (In ( )
=> Dm = d and Ds = 0.7788 r

Daa
a C
D
aA

b B

c A DAA

Fig 4.3 A typical arrangement of three phase conductors.

For the arrangement shown in fig 4.3 ,the inductance per conductor can be calculated as
follows:
⁄
The self GMD of a phase ( a ) Dsa =
The self GMD of a phase ( b ) Dsb = (Dbb DbB DBb DBB ⁄
⁄
The self GMD of a phase ( c ) Dsc =

72
 ⁄
Therefore the self GMD (abc) =Ds (abc) =
⁄
The Mutual GMD (between phases) ( ab ) DMab =
⁄
The Mutual GMD (between phases) ( ac ) DMac =
⁄
The Mutual GMD (between phases) ( ac ) DMbc =
⁄
Therefore the Mutual GMD (abc) =Ds =
L=2 (In ( )

4.7 Shunt Capacitance C

Capacitance exists between the conductors and is the charge on the conductor per unit of
potential difference between them. Capacitance of a transmission line is the result of the
potential difference between the conductors. It causes them to be charged in the same manner
as the plates of a capacitor when there is a potential difference between them.
Capacitance between parallel conductors is a constant depending on the size and spacing of
the conductors. For power lines less than about 80 km long, the effect of capacitance is slight
and is usually neglected. For longer lines of higher voltage, capacitance becomes important.
An alternating voltage impressed on a transmission line causes a charge on the conductors at
any point to increase and decrease with the increased and decrease of the instantaneous value
of the voltage between conductors at the point. The flow of charge is current, and the current
caused by the alternate charging and discharging of a line due to an alternating voltage is
called the charging current of the line.
Charging current flows in a transmission line even when it is open-circuited. It affects the
voltage drop along the line as well as the efficiency and power factor of the line and the
stability of the power system of which the line is a part.
The capacitance between the two conductors of a two-wire line is

C (4.8)
ln D / r 
whilst the capacitance between line and ground or neutral is given as
2
C (4.9)
ln D / r 
It is observed that the capacitance of a conductor to neutral for the two-wire line is twice the
line-to-line capacitance (capacitance between conductors).

The concept of Self and mutual geometric distances (self GMD and mutual GMD ) can also
be used to calculate capacitance. The capacitance of a conductor with respect to the neutral is
C= = (4.10)

Note here Daa = r but not 0.7788r ( because the original formula capacitance per conductor
to neutral does not contain ⁄ )

4.8 Shunt Conductance G

Conductance G between conductors or between conductors and the ground accounts for the
leakage current at the insulators of overhead lines and through the insulation cables.
However, conductance is usually neglected for the following reasons:
a) Since leakage at insulators of overhead lines is negligible, the conductance between
Conductors of an overhead line are assumed to be zero. Hence conductance is neglected
73
 because its contribution to shunt admittance is very small.
b) Another reason for neglecting conductance is that there is no good way of taking it into
Account because it is quite variable. Leakage at insulators, the principal source of
conductance, changes appreciably with atmospheric conditions and with the conducting
properties of dirt that collects on the insulators.
c) Corona, which results in leakage between lines, is also quite variable with atmospheric
conditions.

4.9. Characterisation and Representation of Transmission Lines and Their

Equations
A single-phase AC transmission line consists of two conductors, conventionally called the
“go” and the “return” conductors. As mentioned previously, the conductors have distributed
a). series resistance R due to the finite resistivity of the conductors.
b). leakage resistance or conductance G between the conductors, which depends on the
conductivity of the insulation
c). inductance L , since they form a current-carrying loop which sets up and links a magnetic
field, and
d). shunt capacitance C , since the conductors form the electrodes of an electric field.
The general equations relating voltage and current on a transmission line recognise the fact
all four of the primary parameters of a transmission line are uniformly distributed. Insofar as
the handling of the shunt capacitance is concerned, a transmission line can be characterised
into 3 categories as follows:
a) Short line b) Medium line c) Long line

4.10 Short Transmission Line

An overhead line not exceeding 100 km, or a cable not exceeding 20 km, is referred to as a
short line. For short lines, the shunt capacitance and leakages (conductance) are so small that
they may normally be neglected with little loss of accuracy, and we need to consider only the
series resistance and the series inductance for the total length of line. The equivalent circuit of
the line will then consist of a resistance in series with an inductive reactance. The Fig 4.4
below shows the equivalent circuit of a short transmission line where I s and I r are the
sending- and receiving-end currents and V s and Vr are the sending- and receiving-end line-
to-neutral voltages.
R L
IS IR

load
VS VR

Fig 4.4 Equivalent circuit of a short transmission line

Here R and L are shown as concentrated or lumped parameters. For a short line, it makes
no difference, as far as measurements at the ends of the line are concerned, whether the

74
parameters are lumped or uniformly distributed if the shunt admittance is neglected, since the
current is the same throughout the line in that case.
The circuit is solved as a simple series AC circuit. Since there are no shunt arms, the current
is the same at the sending and receiving ends of the short line and thus
IS=IR (short line) (4.11)
The sending-end voltage V s is the phasor sum of the receiving-end voltage VR and the line
drop IRZ where Z  R  jX is the total series impedance of the short line. Thus
VS= VR +IRZ = VR + IR (R+ jX) = VR+ IRR+ j IR X (4.12)
With VR as the reference phasor and IR = IR∟-ƟR
Where ƟR is the phase angle between VR and IR; IR is supposed to be lagging behind VR)
We obtain VS = VR∟0 + (R+jX) IR∟-ƟR = VR∟0 + ZL∟-ƟL IR∟-Ɵ (4.13
Also Vs = VR(1+j0) + (R+jX) (Icos ƟR- jIR sin ƟR) = VR(1+j0) + IRRcos ƟR+ j( IR Xcos ƟR-
IRRsin ƟR) = VR + IR Rcos ƟR + IR X sin ƟR + IRX cos ƟR - IR R sin ƟR
=> Vs2 = (VR + IRRcos ƟR+ IR Xsin ƟR ) 2 + (IRXcos ƟR-IRRsin ƟR)2 (4.14)

=>√ (4.15)
The second term of equation 4.14 is negligible except at low leading p.f .
Neglecting the second term of equation (4.14) gives
Vs = (VR + IRRcos ƟR+ IR Xsin ƟR ) (4.16)
Given PR, QR,VS and VR not known then from equation 4.16
Vs = VR + IRRcos ƟR+ IR Xsin ƟR , we obtain
Vs = VR + R+ X => VSVR=VR 2+RPR + XLQR
=> 0 = VR2-VSVR+RPR+XLQR

√
=> VR = (4.17)

Voltage regulation = (4.18)

=> V.R = (4.19)

V.R % = ( R cos ƟR + X sin (4.20

V. R per unit = ( Rcos ƟR + X sin )

Transmission efficiency = = (4.20)

Transmission losses = 3 I2 R

Worked Example
Example 30
A 3 –phase 50 HZ transmission line have conductors of sections 90 mm2 and effective
diameter of 1 and are placed at the vertices of an equilateral triangle of side 1metre. The line
is 20 km long and delivers a load of 10MW at 33kV and p.f 0.8. Neglect capacitance and
assume temperature of of 20 oC. Determine the efficiency and the regulation of the line

Solution 30
75
The inductance of the line = L = 2 ( In ( )=2 In ( )
=10.59 H / metre.
Inductance of 20 km length of line = 2.119
Inductive reactance = 2 𝞹 50 2.119 = . 5Ω
Now resistance of copper conductor at 20oC is per metre when the section is 1 mm2
Resistance = = 3.83 Ω

The current = = 218.68 A

√
Since the capacitance is to be neglected, the receiving end current is the same as the sending
end, therefore
The loss on the line =3 212.68 2 3.83 = 0.549 MW

Efficiency = = 0.9479
To determine the voltage regulation we determine the sending end voltage
VS = (VR cos ƟR + IRR ) + j(VR sin ƟR + IRX)
= (19052 0.8 +218.68 3.83) +j(19052 0.6 + 218.65 6.65) = 16079 + j12885
= 16079 +j12885
VR = 20605 volts
Since it is a short line ,three phase transmission the voltage regulation will be
% Voltage regulation = 100 = 8.15%

Example 31
An overhead transmission line delivers 5000kW at 22kV at 0.8 p.f lagging . The resistance
and reactance of each conductor is Ω and Ω respectively . Determine a)the voltage
b) the percentage voltage regulation c ) the transmission efficiency.

Solution 31
CosƟR = 0. SinƟR = 0.6 ; VR = = 12,700 kV ( per phase)
√

IR = = 164 A , Z= R +Jx = 4 +j6

√

Using the exact method

VS = 12700 + (4+j6) ( 0.8-j0.6) (164) = (13815.2 +j393.6)
VS =13820.8 V
ii) Line Voltage = √ 13820.8 =23.938kV

iii) Voltage Regulation = 100% = 8.825 %

Using the approximate method
i) Vs – VR = 164 4 0.8 + 164 6 0.6 = 524.8 + 590.4 = 1115.2 V

Vs = 12,700+ 1115.2 = 13815.2

76
sending end line voltage = √ 13815.2 =23.929kV

ii) Line losses on the three phase = 3 I2R = 3 1642 4 = 322.752kW

iv) Transmission efficiency = = = 93.94%

Example 32
A three phase line delivers 3600kW at a p.f of 0.8 lagging to a load . If the sending end
voltage is 33kV ,determine a) the receiving end voltage , VR b) line current c)
transmission efficiency . The resistance and reactance of each conductor is 5.31 and 5.54

Solution 32
√
VR = ; VS= ;
√
PR=3.6MW ; QR = 3.6 = 2.7 MW
PR per phase = = 1.2 MW ; QR = = 0.9 MW

√
√ √
VR = = 18.4365Kv

Receiving end line voltage = √ 18.4365 =31.932kV

Line current IR = = 81.36 A

ii) Line losses on the three phase = 3 I2R = 3 81.362 5.31 = 105.45kW

iii) Transmission efficiency = = 100 = 97.15%

4.11 Medium Transmission Line

For lines spanning than 100 km in length for overhead line and 20 km for underground cables
but not exceeding 240 km, they are referred to as medium-length lines. For medium lines, the
shunt capacitance can no longer be neglected. For the purpose of calculation, the medium line
may be approximately represented by either a nominal-T or nominal- network. A medium
line can be represented sufficiently well by R and L as lumped parameters, as shown in the
Fig 4.4 below, with half the capacitance-to-ground of the line lumped at each end of the
equivalent -circuit. However, in the nominal-T circuit, the resistance and inductance are
divided into two, and the capacitance is considered to be concentrated at the centre of the
line.
B. Medium Line ( Up to 240 km)
For medium lines, charging currents due to shunt admittance cannot be neglected. The model
is either of these two:-

77
 R/2 L/2 R/2 L/2
Is
Vc IR

I C

VS Y =jωC
VR

Fig4.5. T-network [ nominal T circuit of a medium transmission line]

R L
IS IL IR

I A
VR
Y/ 2 =jωC / 2 I B
load
VS
Y / 2 =jωC / 2

Fig4.6 – network [nominal- circuit of a medium transmission line]

The – network is in more general use but there is little difference in accuracy between the
two. From the - network, we obtain (all quantities are complexors).
From the – network,
IB = YVR, IA = YVS (4.20)
IL =IB + IR = IR + YVR (4.21)
IS = IA + IL
= IA + IB + IR
= IR + YVR + YVS (4.22)
Also

VS = VR + Z (IR + YVR) (4.23)

rearrangement
= VR (1+ YZ) +ZIR Putting VS into IS
IS =IR + YVR + Y ( VR (1+ YZ) +ZIR )
= VRY (1+ YZ) + IR (1 + YZ) (4.24)
In matrix form, we have

[ ]=[ ][ ] (4.25)

On no load, IR = 0 and

78
VS = VR (1+ YZ) (4.26)
Hence, the magnitude of the VR on no load
| |= | | (4.27)

IB = IL = IR + VRY (4.28)

Worked Examples

Example 33
Using the nominal- method find the sending end voltageVS, the receiving end voltage ,VR
and transmission efficiency of a 250 km 3- , 50Hz transmission line delivering 25MVA at
0.8 pf lagging to a balanced load at 132KV. The parameters of the line are as follows:
Resistance = 0.11 km-1 ; Inductance = 1.24mH km-1 ; Capacitance = 0.0094 F km-1

Solution33
R = 0.11 250 = 27.5 ; XL = 100 (1.24 10-3) 250 = 97.4
Z = R + jX = 27.5 + j97.4 = 101.2 74.2o ; Y = j314 0.0094 250 = 7.38 10-4 90o

IR = -36.9o = 109.3 -36.9o = 109.35 (0.8 – j 0.6)

√
VR per phase = 0 = 76.2 kV
√
(i) VS = VR (1+ YZ) +ZIR
= [1 + (7.38 10-4 90 101.2 74.2)]76.2 + 101.2 74.2 109.3 10-3 - 36.9o
= 76.2 + 2.85 164.20 + 11.06 37.3o
= 82.26 + j7.48 = 82.6 5.2o
VS = 3 82.6 = 143 kV

(ii) VRline no load = VR0= = here IR = 0

| |

Where =1 + 0.0374 164.2o

= 0.964 + j0.01
VRline no load = = 148.73 kV

V. R = % = 12.3%

(iii)IL = IR + VRY

= 109.3(0.8 – j0.6) + j

= 87.44 – j65.58 + j28.10 = 95.13 -23o

iv) Total line losses = 3(95.13)2 (27.5) = 0.746 MW

Transmission Efficiency = 100%

79
 = 96.4%

C. Long Line:
Here the distributed parameters are used. i.e. the parameters are considered to be uniformly
distributed throughout its length.

R L R L R L R L
IS

IR

VS C C C
VR

Fig 4.7 Long transmission line

Treatment based on distributed parameters yields the following equations for conditions at
the load.

[ ] [ ][ ]

Where =√ = propagation constant

ZC = √ = characteristic impedance
Y = j C, C = capacitance/unit length
Z = r + jX which are all per unit.
is in general a complex no. and can be expressed as
The hyperbolic functions in terms of are defined as follows

We can also handle the hyperbolic functions using series expansion

+ +…
√ [ ]
For lines up to 500 m, it is sufficiently accurate to use only the first two terms.
In this case,
( )
[ ] [ ][ ]
( )

Example 34

80
 A 275kV 3- transmission line of length of 482km is rated at 840 A. The value of resistance,
inductance and susceptance per phase per km are 0.077 , 1.05mH, 3.6 respectively.
The receiving end voltage is 275kV when full load is transmitted at 0.85 p.f lagging.
Calculate the sending end voltage using
(a) nominal -network
(b) approximately long line equation and
(c) the exact long line

Solution34

(a) Nominal -network

Total resistance = 482 0.077 = 87.5
Total reactance = 482 (2 )50 = 160

Total susceptance = = 1776 10-6

=
With VR as the reference phasor
IR= 840A, 0.85 pf lagging
= (714 – j442.5) A

IL = IR + charging current

= (714 – j442.5) + ( )
√
= 720 – j436 + j141 = (714 – j295) A

ILZ = (714 – j295) (37.5 + j160)

(line drop)

= 74200 + j104137.5

VS = 15900 + ILZ

| | = 255395.5 V
= 255kV
VS line = √ (255) 442kV

(b) Using approximately long line equations, consider only the first two terms of the series
expansion of the hyperbolic function.
YZ = j [37.5 + j160] = -0.284 + j0.0666

1+ = (1- )+j

= 0.858 + j0.033

Z (1 + ) = 375 + j160 [(1- 0.047) + j0.011]

= 33.95 + j152.8
VS = (0.858 + j0.033) 159 + (33.95 + j152)(0.72- j0.44)
81
 = 136.42 + j5.3 + (91.086 + j95.2) kV

249kV

VS = √ (249) = 431kV

(c) Using the exact method

= +j

=√ =√
=
= 0.062 + j0.54

ZC = √ =√

= 304.19 -6.6o
Cosh (0.062 + j0.54) = 0.86 + j0.031
Sinh (0.062 + j0.031) = 0.053 + j 0.5 = 0.5145 84.05o
VS = VR cosh + ZC sinh (IR)
= 159 (0.86 + j0.03) + (304.19 -6.6o) (0.51 o
) 0.84 - 31.79o kV
= 159 (0.86 + j0.03) + 131.46 45.66o kV
= 228.85 + j94.18 = 247kV Vsline = 247√ 428 kV

In a four-terminal passive network, the voltage and current on the receiving and sending end
are related by the following pairs of equations
(4.29)
(4.30)
Where A, B, C, D are constants of the network. The transmission line is also a four-terminal
network and it is now desired to find these constants for short transmission line.

Before these constants are determined it is desirable to understand what these constants are.
From equation (4.29),
|
This means A is the voltage impressed at the sending end per volt at the receiving end when
receiving end is open. It is dimensionless.
|
B is the voltage impressed at the sending end to have one ampere at the short circuited
receiving end. This is known as transfer impedance in network theory.
From equation (4.30)
|
C is the current in amperes into the sending end per volt on the open-circuited receiving end.
It has the dimension of admittance.
|

82
D is the current at the sending end for one ampere of current at the short circuited receiving
end. The constants A, B, C, and D are related for a passive network as follows:

AD – BC = 1

This relation provides a good check on the values of those constants. The sending end voltage
and current can be written from the equivalent network as

(4.31)
(4.32)
Comparing the coefficients of the equation (4.31) and (4.32) with equations (4.29) and (4.30)
respectively, the constants for short transmission line are

A=1
B=Z
C=0
D=1
Checking the values of A, B, C, and D with the relation

AD – BC = 1
1 · 1 - Z· 0 = 1

So the values calculated are correct for a short transmission line.

The ABCD constants can be used for calculation of regulation of the line as follows:
Normally the quantities P, and at the receiving end are given and of course the
ABCD constants. Then determine sending end voltages using relation

To determine the no load voltage at the receiving end, equation (4.29) is made use of

⁄
% regulation =
Is thus evaluated.
To determine % of transmission, the following relation is made use of:
100

Where R is the resistance per phase of the line.

Example 4.1: Determine the voltage at the generating station and the efficiency of the
transmission for the following 1-phase system:

Transformer ratio 2 kV/11kV. The resistance on l.v. side = 0.04 and h.v. side 1.3.
Reactance on l.v. and h.v. side 0.125 and 4.5

Solution: The transmission line equivalent impedance when referred to l.v. side will be
( ) ( )

83
 Transformer impedance = 0.04 + 1.3 ( ) ( )
= (0.083 + j0.273)

The equivalent circuit for the total system

Load 250kVA, 2kV, 0.8p.f.

The line current =
The line loss = I2R = 1252 0.496 = 7.7 kW
The output = 250 0.8 = 200kW
% = 100 = 96.3%

Taking Ir as the reference, the sending end voltage

= (2000
= 2168 volts

84