Power Plant Instrumentation Class Notes for

Dr. Sanjeev Kumar Raghuwanshi

Electronics Engineering Department
IIT(ISM) Dhanbad
UNIT -II

What are the thermal power plant (Steam) circuits?

Flow Diagram of a Steam Thermal Power Plant

March 19, 2018 by Electrical4U

A thermal power generating plant works based on Rankine Cycle. There are mainly three
primary inputs given to a thermal power generating plants for producing electricity. These
three most essential elements are coal, air, and water. Coal is fuel here because we are going
to draw the flow diagram of a coal thermal power generating plants. Coal creates required
heat energy by combustion in the furnace. Air is supplied to the furnace to accelerate
combustion rate of the coal and to continue the flow of flue gases inside the heating system.
Water is required in a thermal power plant inside a boiler to produce steam. This steam drives
the turbine. The turbine is coupled to the shaft of a generator which generates electrical
power as the output of the system.
Depending on these three primary inputs there are three basic flow circuits work on a thermal
power generating plant.

Coal Circuit
The coal is transported from coal supplying authorities to the coal storage yard of the
generating plant. From here the coal is delivered to the pulverized coal plants with the help of
conveyor. After removing unwanted substances from the coal, it is pulverized in coal dust.
Pulverisation makes the coal more efficient for burning. After combustion of the coal, the ash

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is collected to the ash handling plant. Then the ash is finally collected to the ash storage yard.

Air is supplied to the furnace with forced draught fans. But it is not directly charged to the
boiler furnace before it is charged to the boiler furnace it is passed through an air preheater.
In air preheater, the heat of the exhaust flue gases is transferred to the inlet air before it enters
in the furnace. In the furnace, this air supplies required oxygen for the combustion. Then this
air carries the generated heat and flue gases due to the combustion through the boiler tubes
surfaces. Here significant part of the heat is transferred to the boiler. The flue gases then pass
through the superheater where the steam coming from boiler gets further heated up to the
spearheading temperatures. Then the flue gases come to economizer where some of the
remaining portions of the heat of flue gases are utilized for increasing temperature of the
water before it enters in the boiler. The flue gases then pass through air preheater where a

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portion remaining heat is transferred to the inlet air before it enters in the boiler furnace.
After passing through the air preheater, the gases ultimately goes to the chimney by induced
draught fans. Normally in thermal power plants, forced draught is used at the entry of air
from the atmosphere and induced draught is used at the exit of flue gases from the system
through the chimney.

Water Steam Circuit

The water steam circuit of a thermal power generating plant is a semi-closed circuit. Here
comparatively not much water is required to supply to the boiler from external sources since
same water is reused again and again by condensing the steam after its mechanical work of
rotating turbine. Here, water is first taken from a river or any other suitable natural source of
water. This water then is taken to the water treatment plant for removing unwanted particles
and substances from the water. This water is then fed to the boiler through economiser. In the
boiler, the water is converted into steam. This steam then goes to the super-heater, where the
steam is heated up to the superheating temperature. The superheated steam then goes to the
turbine through a series of nozzles. At the outlet of these nozzles, the high pressure and high-
temperature steam suddenly expands and hence gets kinetic energy. Because of this kinetic
energy, the steam rotates the turbine. The turbine is coupled with generator and generator
produces alternating electricity to the grid. Suddenly expanded steam exhaust from the
turbine to the condenser. Where the steam is condensed back to the water with the help of
water circulating cooling system associated with cooling towers. This condensed water is
then fed back to the boiler through the economizer. The water supply from an external source
of water is limited here because of using condensed steam in the boiler system of the thermal
power generating plant.

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What is Hydro Power Plant?
Hydro Power
Definition

Hydropower or hydroelectricity refers to the conversion of energy from flowing water into
electricity. It is considered a renewable energy source because the water cycle is constantly
renewed by the sun[1].

Historically, one of the first uses of hydro power was for mechanical milling, such as
grinding grains[2]. Today, modern hydro plants produce electricity using turbines and
generators, where mechanical energy is created when moving water spins rotors on a turbine.
This turbine is connected to an electromagnetic generator, which produce electricity when the
turbine spins.

Hydro plant facilities can be categorized into three sizes: large (>30 MW), small (100 kW -
30 MW), or micro (<100 kW)[3].

There are three main types of hydro plants[2].

1. Impoundment facilities are the most common technology which uses a dam to create a large
reservoir of water. Electricity is made when water passes through turbines in the dam.
2. Pumped storage facilities are similar but have a second reservoir below the dam. Water can
be pumped from the lower reservoir to the upper reservoir, storing energy for use at a later
time.
3. Run-of-river facilities rely more on natural water flow rates, diverting just a portion of river
water through turbines, sometimes without the use of a dam or reservoirs. Since run-of-river
hydro is subject to natural water variability, it is more intermittent than dammed hydro.

Context

Hydropower is the largest contributor of all renewable energy sources and accounts for 6.7%
of worldwide electricity production [2][4]. Further growth of this mature technology may
be possible, though many countries have already developed cost-effective sites[1].

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Hydropower is an abundant, low cost source of power (where applicable), despite high
upfront buidling costs[2]. It is also a flexible and reliable source of electricity compared to
other renewable options, as it may be stored for use at a later time. Dammed reservoirs can
also help with flood control, be a reliable water supply, and may be used for recreational
purposes.

However, there are many concerns with hydropower, particularly large dam facilities.
Damming a river has a significant impact on the regional ecosystem, by flooding upstream
landscapes, distrupting habitats for wildlife, blocking fish passages, and often displacing local
communities. In addition, dam failures can be catastrophic, further disrupting landscapes and
claiming the lives of those living downstream[1].

Finally, hydroplants are not completely free of greenhouse gas emissions. As with most
forms of energy, carbon dioxide emissions occur during construction, particularly as a result
of the large quantities of cement used, and loss of vegetation in flooded areas creates
methane, another greenhouse gas, as it matter decays underwater.

Hydroelectricity

The Three Gorges Dam in Central China is the world's largest power–producing facility of any kind.

Part of a series about

Sustainable energy

Overview

by about 3.1% each year for the next 25 years.

Hydropower is produced in 150 countries, with the Asia-Pacific region generating 33 percent
of global hydropower in 2013. China is the largest hydroelectricity producer, with 920 TWh
of production in 2013, representing 16.9% of domestic electricity use.

The cost of hydroelectricity is relatively low, making it a competitive source of renewable

electricity. The hydro station consumes no water, unlike coal or gas plants. The typical cost
of electricity from a hydro station larger than 10 megawatts is 3 to 5 U.S. cents per kilowatt
hour.[2] With a dam and reservoir it is also a flexible source of electricity, since the amount
produced by the station can be varied up or down very rapidly (as little as a few seconds) to
adapt to changing energy demands. Once a hydroelectric complex is constructed, the project

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produces no direct waste, and in many cases it has a considerably lower output level of
greenhouse gases than fossil fuel powered energy plants.[3]

Types of Hydro power plants

There are three types of hydropower facilities: impoundment, diversion, and pumped storage.
Some hydropower plants use dams and some do not. The images below show both types of
hydropower plants.

Many dams were built for other purposes and hydropower was added later. In the United
States, there are about 80,000 dams of which only 2,400 produce power. The other dams are
for recreation, stock/farm ponds, flood control, water supply, and irrigation.

Hydropower plants range in size from small systems for a home or village to large projects
producing electricity for utilities. The sizes of hydropower plants are described below.

Impoundment

The most common type of hydroelectric power plant is an impoundment facility. An

impoundment facility, typically a large hydropower system, uses a dam to store river water in
a reservoir. Water released from the reservoir flows through a turbine, spinning it, which in
turn activates a generator to produce electricity. The water may be released either to meet
changing electricity needs or to maintain a constant reservoir level.

DIVERSION

A diversion, sometimes called run-of-river, facility channels a portion of a river through a

canal or penstock. It may not require the use of a dam.

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PUMPED STORAGE

Another type of hydropower called pumped storage works like a battery, storing the
electricity generated by other power sources like solar, wind, and nuclear for later use. It
stores energy by pumping water uphill to a reservoir at higher elevation from a second
reservoir at a lower elevation. When the demand for electricity is low, a pumped storage
facility stores energy by pumping water from a lower reservoir to an upper reservoir. During
periods of high electrical demand, the water is released back to the lower reservoir and turns
a turbine, generating electricity.

SIZES OF HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANTS

Facilities range in size from large power plants that supply many consumers with electricity
to small and micro plants that individuals operate for their own energy needs or to sell power
to utilities.

Large Hydropower

Although definitions vary, DOE defines large hydropower as facilities that have a capacity of
more than 30 megawatts (MW).

Small Hydropower

Although definitions vary, DOE defines small hydropower as projects that generate 10 MW
or less of power.

Micro Hydropower

A micro hydropower plant has a capacity of up to 100 kilowatts. A small or micro-

hydroelectric power system can produce enough electricity for a home, farm, ranch, or
village.

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 Hydroelectric Power
Hydroelectric Power

Hydro-electric power, using the potential energy of rivers, now supplies 17.5% of the world's
electricity (99% in Norway, 57% in Canada, 55% in Switzerland, 40% in Sweden, 7% in
USA). Apart from a few countries with an abundance of it, hydro capacity is normally
applied to peak-load demand, because it is so readily stopped and started. It is not a major
option for the future in the developed countries because most major sites in these countries
having potential for harnessing gravity in this way are either being exploited already or are
unavailable for other reasons such as environmental considerations. Growth to 2030 is
expected mostly in China and Latin America.

Hydro energy is available in many forms, potential energy from high heads of water retained
in dams, kinetic energy from current flow in rivers and tidal barrages, and kinetic energy also
from the movement of waves on relatively static water masses. Many ingenious ways have
been developed for harnessing this energy but most involve directing the water flow through
a turbine to generate electricity. Those that don't usually involve using the movement of the
water to drive some other form of hydraulic or pneumatic mechanism to perform the same
task.

Water Turbines

Like steam turbines, water turbines may depend on the impulse of the working fluid on the
turbine blades or the reaction between the working fluid and the blades to turn the turbine
shaft which in turn drives the generator. Several different families of turbines have been
developed to optimise performance for particular water supply conditions.

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Turbine Power Output

In general, the turbine converts the kinetic energy of the working fluid, in this case water,
into rotational motion of the turbine shaft.

Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler showed in 1754 that the torque on the shaft is equal to
the change in angular momentum of the water flow as it is deflected by the turbine blades and
the power generated is equal to the torque on the shaft multiplied by the rotational speed of
the shaft. See following diagram.

Note that this result does not depend on the turbine configuration or what happens inside the
turbine. All that matters is the change in angular momentum of the fluid between the turbine's
input and output.

Hydroelectric Power Generation Efficiency

Hydroelectric power generation is by far the most efficient method of large scale electric
power generation. See Comparison Chart. Energy flows are concentrated and can be
controlled. The conversion process captures kinetic energy and converts it directly into
electric energy. There are no inefficient intermediate thermodynamic or chemical processes
and no heat losses. The overall efficiency can never be 100% however since extracting 100%
of the flowing water's kinetic energy means the flow would have to stop.

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The conversion efficiency of a hydroelectric power plant depends mainly on the type of water
turbine employed and can be as high as 95% for large installations. Smaller plants with
output powers less than 5 MW may have efficiencies between 80 and 85 %.

It is however difficult to extract power from low flow rates.

Note: The theoretical Betz conversion efficiency limit of 59.3% which represents the
maximum efficiency which can be obtained from a wind turbine, does not apply to hydraulic
turbines since there are many variations in turbine designs and more possible controls of the
water flows. This means that there are equivalent variations in potential turbine efficiency,
many of which can exceed the Betz limit.

See more about historical hydraulic power developments and more examples.

Turbine Types

The most appropriate turbine to use depends on the rate of water flow and the head or
pressure of water.

 Impulse Turbines

Impulse turbines require tangential water flow on one side of the turbine runner
(rotor) and must therefore operate when only partly submerged. They are best suited
to applications with a high head but a low volume flow rate such as fast flowing
shallow water courses though it is used in a wide range of situations with heads from
as low as 15 metres up to almost 2000 metres.

o Pelton Turbine

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 The Pelton turbine is an example of an impulse
turbine.High pressure heads give rise to very fast
water jets impinging in the blades resulting in
very high rotational speeds of the turbine. The
split bucket pairs divide the water flow ensuring
balanced axial forces on the turbine runner.

Pelton wheels are ideal for low power

installations with outputs of 10kW or less but
they have also been used in installations with
power outputs of up to 200 MW.

Efficiencies up to 95% are possible.

 Reaction Turbines

Reaction turbines are designed to operate with the turbine runner fully submerged or
enclosed in a casing to contain the water pressure. They are suitable for lower heads
of water of 500 metres or less and they are the most commonly used high power
turbines.

o Francis Turbine

The Francis turbine is an example of a

reaction turbine. Water flow enters in a
radial direction towards the axis and exits
in the direction of the axis.

Large scale turbines used in dams are

capable of delivering over 500 MW of
power from a head of water of around
100 metres with efficiencies of up to 95%

o Propeller and Kaplan Turbines

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 The propeller turbine, is
another example of a
reaction turbine. Designed
to work fully submerged, it
is similar in form to a
ship's propeller and is the
most suitable design for
low head water sources
with a high flow rate such
as those in slow running
rivers. Designs are
optimised for a particular
flow rate and efficiencies
drop of rapidly if the flow
rate falls below the design
rating. The Kaplan version
has variable pitch vanes to
enable it to work
efficiently over a range of
flow rates.

See also Steam Turbines

Power from Dams (Potential Energy)

 Supply Characteristics

A hydroelectric dam installation uses the

potential energy of the water retained in the
dam to drive a water turbine which in turn
drives an electric generator. The available
energy therefore depends on the head of the
water above the turbine and the volume of
water flowing through it. Turbines are
usually reaction types whose blades are
fully submerged in the water flow.

The diagram opposite shows a typical

turbine and generator configuration as used
in a dam. Source U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers

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 The civil works involved
in providing hydro-power
from a dam will usually
be many times the cost of
the turbines and the
associated electricity
generating equipment.
Dams however provide a
large water reservoir
from which the flow of
water, and hence the
power output of the
generator, can be
controlled. The reservoir
also serves as a supply
buffer storing excess
water during rainy
periods and releasing it
during dry spells.
Source: TVA
The build up of silt
behind the dam can cause
maintenance problems.


 Available Power
 Potential energy per unit volume = ρgh
 Where ρ is he density of the water (103 Kg/m3 ), h is the head of water and g is the
gravitational constant (10 m/sec2)
 The power P from a dam is given by
 P = ηρghQ
 Where Q is the volume of water flowing per second (the flow rate in m3/second) and
η is the efficiency of the turbine.

 For water flowing at one cubic metre per second from a head of one metre, the power
generated is equivalent to 10 kW assuming an energy conversion efficiency of 100%
or just over 9 kW with a turbine efficiency of between 90% and 95%.

"Run of River" Power (Kinetic Energy)

 Supply Characteristics

"Run-of-river" installations do not depend on flooding large tracts of land to form

dams. Instead, the necessary constant water supply may be derived from natural
upstream lakes and reservoirs. They are typically used for smaller schemes generating
less than 10 MegaWatts output power.

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Water from a fast flowing river or stream is diverted through a turbine, often a Pelton
wheel which drives the electrical generator. The local head of water may be
essentially not much more than zero and the turbine is designed to convert the kinetic
energy of the flowing water into the rotational energy of the turbine and the generator.
The available energy therefore depends on the quantity of water flowing through the
turbine and the square of its velocity.

Impulse turbines which are only partially submerged are more commonly employed
in fast flowing run-of-river installations while In deeper, slower flowing rivers with a
greater head of water, fully submerged Kaplan reaction turbines may be used to
extract the energy from the water flow.

Run-of-river projects are much less costly than dams because of the simpler civil
works requirements. They are however susceptible to variations in the rainfall or
water flow which reduce or even cut off potential power output during periods of
drought. To avoid the problems of seasonal river flows, or even daily fluctuations,
run-of-river installations may incorporate an additional, limited amount of "man
made" water storage, referred to as "pondage", to keep the plant operating during dry
periods.

On the other hand, during flood conditions the installation may not be able to
accommodate the higher flow rates and water must be diverted around the turbine
losing the potential generating capacity of the increased water flow.

Because of these limitations, if the construction of a dam is not possible, run of river
installations may also need to incorporate some form of supply back-up such as
battery storage, emergency generators or even a grid connection. See Capturing
Renewable Energy for more details on back-up options.

Available Power

The maximum power output from a turbine used in a run of river application is equal
to the kinetic energy (½mv2) of the water impinging on the blades. Taking the
efficiency η of the turbine and its installation into account, the maximum output
power Pmax is given by

Pmax =½ηρQv2

where v is the velocity of the water flow and Q is the volume of water flowing
through the turbine per second.

Q is given by

Q=Av

where A is the swept area of the turbine blades.

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Thus

Pmax =½ηρAv3

This relationship also applies to shrouded turbines used to capture the energy of tidal
flows (see below) and is directly analogous to the equation for the theoretical power
generated by wind turbines. Note that the power output is proportional to the cube of
the velocity of the water.

Thus the power generated by one cubic metre of water flowing at one metre per
second through a turbine with 100% efficiency will be 0.5 kW or slightly less taking
into account the inefficacies in the system. This is only one twentieth of the power
generated by the same volume flow from the dam above. To generate the same power
with the same volume of water from a run of river installation the speed of the water
flow should be √20 metres per second (4.5 m/sec).

Q: What is a function of surge tank?

Surge tank is a reservoir fitted to the penstock at a point near to the turbine. When the load on
the turbine decreases the gates of the turbine are closed partly by the governor to adjust the
rate of flow of water in order to maintain constant speed of the runner. When the gates are
closed the water is moving to the turbine has to move backward. This backward moving water
is stored in the surge tank. Similarly when the load on the turbine increases the turbine gates
are opened by the governor and increased demand of water is partly met by the water stored
in the surge tank. Thus the surge tank controls the water when the load on the turbine
decreases and supplies water when the load on the turbine increases.

Q. What is a function of super heater?

The steam produced in the boiler is nearly saturated. This steam as such should not be
used in the turbine because the dryness fraction of the steam leaving boiler will be
low.
This results in presence of moisture, which causes corrosion of turbine blades. To
raise
the temperature of steam super heater is used.

Q. What is a function of Reheater?

The steam produced in the boiler is nearly saturated This steam as such should not be used in
the turbine because the dryness fraction of the steam leaving boiler will be low. This results in
presence of moisture, which causes corrosion of turbine blades. To raise the temperature of
steam
more the steam from the super heater is again heated the reheater. 17. What is a function of
Penstock?
Penstock is a closed pipe or tunnel which is used to carry water from the dam or
forebay to the turbine. It is desirable that the penstock should be sloping towards the
power house and it’s made up of steel, reinforced concrete and wood.

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Tidal Power

 Supply Characteristics

Harnessing the power of the tides can be achieved by placing bi-directional turbines
in the path of the tidal water flow in bays and river estuaries. To be viable, it needs a
large tidal range and involves creating a barrier across the bay or estuary to funnel the
water through the turbines as the tide comes in and goes out. Although tidal energy
captured in tidal ponds have been used since Roman times to power mills, there are
few modern installations. The first plant to utilise tidal energy on a large scale for
electricity generation was built at Rance in France in1966. Others followed in Canada
and Russia.

Tidal power comes closest of all the intermittent renewable sources to being able to
provide an unlimited, continuous and predictable power output but unfortunately there
are few suitable sites in the world and environmental constraints have so far prevented
their general acceptance.

Shrouded water turbines placed in deep water tidal currents show better potential for
exploitation, though the associated civil works are more complicated, and several
projects are under development.

Power is available for only six to twelve hours per day depending on the ebb and flow
of the tides.

Available Power

The maximum power output from a shrouded water turbine used in tidal energy
applications is equal to the kinetic energy of the water impinging on the blades,
similar to the "run of river" calculation above. Taking the efficiency η of the turbine
and its installation into account, the maximum output power Pmax is given by

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 Pmax =½ηρAv3

where v is the velocity of the water flow and A is the swept area of the blades.

A turbine one metre in diameter with a water current of one metre per second flowing
through it would generate 0.4 kW of electricity assuming 100% efficiency. Similarly a
3 meter diameter turbine with a water current of 3 metres per second would produce
32 Kw of power.

Wave Power

 Supply Characteristics

The energy available from the ocean's surface wave motion is almost in limited, but it
has proved frustratingly difficult to capture. Many ingenious systems have been
proposed but, except for very small installations, very few are generating electricity
commercially and most have been thwarted by practical problems.

Some of these proposals are outlined below. Most are still in an experimental phase
and many are not scalable into high capacity systems.

o Energy Conversion Systems

 Oscillating Float System

One of the simplest and most common solutions is the oscillating float
system in which a float is housed inside an cylinder shaped buoy which
is open at the bottom and moored to the seabed. Inside the cylinder the
float moves up and down on the surface of the waves as they pass
through the buoy.

Various methods have been employed to turn the motion of the float
into electrical energy. These include:-

 Hydraulic systems in which air is compressed in a pneumatic

reservoir above the float during its upward movement on the crests
of the waves. After the crests have passed, the air expands and
forces the float downwards into the following troughs of the waves.
A hydraulic system then uses the reciprocating movement of the
float to pump water through a water turbine which drives a rotary
electrical generator..
 Pneumatic systems in which the air displaced in the cylinder is used
to power an air turbine which drives the generator.
 Linear generators to turn the reciprocating motion of the float
directly into electrical power.

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  Instead of generating the electricity on board the buoy, some
systems pump the hydraulic fluid ashore to power shore based
generators.
 Oscillating Paddle System

This system uses large paddles moored to the ocean floor to mimic the
swaying motion of sea plants in the presence of ocean waves. The
paddles are fixed to special hinged joints at the base which use the
swaying motion of the paddles to pump water through a turbine
generator.

 Oscillating Snake System

The snake system uses a series of floating cylindrical sections linked

by hinged joints. The floating snake is tethered to the sea bed and
maintains a position head on into the waves. The wave-induced motion
at the hinges is used to pump high-pressure oil through hydraulic
motors via smoothing accumulators. The hydraulic motors in turn drive
electrical generators to produce the electrical power.

 Oscillating Water Column

Water columns are formed within large concrete structures built on the
shore line or on rafts. The structure is open at both the top and the
bottom. The lower end is submerged in the sea and an air turbine fills
the aperture at the top. The rising and falling of the water column
inside the structure moves the air column above it driving the air
through the turbine generator. The turbine has movable vanes which
rotate to maintain unidirectional rotation when the movement of the air
column reverses.

 Pressure Transducer System

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 The hydraulic pump system uses a submerged gas-filled tank with rigid
sides and base and a flexible, bellows-like, top. The gas in the tank
compresses and expands in response to pressure changes from the
waves passing overhead causing the top to rise and fall. A lever
attached to centre of the top drives pistons, which pump pressurized
water ashore for driving hydraulic generators.

 Wave Capture Systems

Wave capture systems use a narrowing

ramp to funnel waves into an elevated
reservoir. Waves entering the funnel over a
wide front are concentrated into a
narrowing channel which causes the
amplitude of the wave to increase. The
increased wave height coupled with the
momentum of the water is sufficient to raise
a quantity of water up a ramp and into a
reservoir situated above the sea level. Water
form the reservoir can then be released
through a hydroelectric turbine located
below the reservoir to generate electricity.

 Overtopping Wave Systems

These are floating systems similar to the land based system described
above. They focus waves onto a tapered ramp which causes their
amplitude to increase. The crests of the waves overtop the ramp and
spill into a low dam. Water from the low dam then flows through
hydroelectric turbines back into into the sea beneath the floating
structure.

 Lever Systems

Various lever based energy capture systems have been developed.

Long levers may be mounted on steel piles or on floating platforms.
Large floats or buoys are attached to the extremities of the levers
which move up and down with the waves.

Movement of the lever arms forces fluid into a central hydraulic

accumulator and through to a generator turbine. Alternatively high-
pressure water can be pumped ashore to power shore based generators.

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o Technical Challenges

Formidable technical challenges are involved in designing practical systems

for capturing wave energy.

 Variability of the sea conditions

Sea conditions are notoriously variable and the system must be able to
cope with a wide range of wave amplitudes and frequencies as well as
changes in the directions of currents.

 Matching the generating equipment the wave characteristics

Mechanisms are required to convert the power of the irregular

oscillating mechanical forces induced by the waves into electrical
power synchronised with the grid. This could involve some expensive
power electronics.

Typical rotating machines used for power generation operate at a

synchronous speed of 1200 r.p.m. (20 revolutions per second) whereas
the frequency of waves driving the generator is likely to be between 5
and 10 seconds per cycle. A mechanical gearing system is needed to
match this 200:1 ratio in operating speeds, possibly combined with
special purpose, slow speed generators, incorporating a large number
of pole pairs.

One way around all of these problems is to use hydraulic accumulators

either in situ or on shore to smooth out the energy delivery to the
generator.

 Equipment construction

For reasonable sized systems, very high mechanical forces will be

involved converting the wave energy into mechanical energy for
driving the electrical generator.

 Housing and mooring the equipment

Substantial housings must be provided to protect the generating

equipment from the harsh environment.

Holding the installation in place is also particularly difficult in deep

water.

 Energy transmission

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 Low loss armoured and insulated cables or high pressure pipes must be
developed for delivering the electrical or hydraulic energy back to the
shore.

 Resistance to storm damage

Storm damage is a major threat. The frequency of occurrence of waves

of any particular amplitude follows a Rayleigh distribution similar to
that which applies to wind speeds. Though the frequency of serious
storms may be rather small, a wave of ten times the average amplitude
may be expected once every 50 years. From the power calculation
below, the wave power is proportional to the square of the wave
amplitude. This means that the installation must be designed to
withstand forces one hundred times greater than the normal working
level. This adds considerably to the costs.

Available Power

The wave power per unit length of the wave front PL is given by (Twiddel & Weir.
Renewable Energy Resources) as

PL =ρga2λ/4T

Where ρ is he density of the water (103 Kg/m3 ), a is the wave amplitude (half of the
wave height), g is the gravitational constant (10 m/sec2), λ is the wave length of the
oscillation and T the period of the wave.

Thus for a wave with amplitude 1.5 metres, length 100 metres and period 5 seconds,
the power per metre of wavefront will be 75 kW.

Ocean Thermal Energy

The boundless thermal energy of the warmer oceans of the world can also be used to generate
electricity in much the same way as geothermal heat is used for electrical energy generation.
Unfortunately conversion efficiencies are very low and economic viability is difficult to
justify with current energy prices. The process and potential are described in more detail in
the section on Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) on the Geothermal Energy pages.

See also Generators

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Q: Discuss the Hydro plant and their advantage and
disadvantages
Advantages
i)water is the cheapest and reliable source of generation. ii)It can meet variable load demand.
ii)Running cost is low, maintenance cost low. iii)No ash handling system, No fuel transportation
Disadvantages.
(i) Initial cost is high (ii) It takes fairly long time for the erection of the plant.
(iii) Hydro electric plants are fairly situated away from the load centers. Therefore
cost of transmissions lines and losses in them will be more.
(iv) Power produced by the plants depends upon the quantity of water which in turn is
dependent upon the rain fall.

How Hydropower Works

Hydropower plants capture

the energy of falling water to generate electricity. A turbine converts the kinetic energy of
falling water into mechanical energy. Then a generator converts the mechanical energy from
the turbine into electrical energy.

Hydroplants range in size from "micro-hydros" that power only a few homes to giant dams
like Hoover Dam that provide electricity for millions of people.

The photo on the right shows the Alexander Hydroelectric Plant on the Wisconsin River, a
medium-sized plant that produces enough electricity to serve about 8,000 people.

Parts of a Hydroelectric Plant

Most conventional hydroelectric plants include four major components (see graphic below):

1. Dam. Raises the water level of the river to create falling water. Also controls the flow of
water. The reservoir that is formed is, in effect, stored energy.

22
 2. Turbine. The force of falling water pushing against the turbine's blades causes the turbine to
spin. A water turbine is much like a windmill, except the energy is provided by falling water
instead of wind. The turbine converts the kinetic energy of falling water into mechanical
energy.
3. Generator. Connected to the turbine by shafts and possibly gears so when the turbine spins
it causes the generator to spin also. Converts the mechanical energy from the turbine into
electric energy. Generators in hydropower plants work just like the generators in other types
of power plants.
4. Transmission lines. Conduct electricity from the hydropower plant to homes and business.

How Much Electricity Can a Hydroelectric Plant Make?

The amount of electricity a hydropower plant produces depends on two factors:

1. How Far the Water Falls. The farther the water falls, the more power it has. Generally, the
distance that the water falls depends on the size of the dam. The higher the dam, the farther
the water falls and the more power it has. Scientists would say that the power of falling
water is "directly proportional" to the distance it falls. In other words, water falling twice as
far has twice as much energy.
2. Amount of Water Falling. More water falling through the turbine will produce more power.
The amount of water available depends on the amount of water flowing down the river.
Bigger rivers have more flowing water and can produce more energy. Power is also "directly
proportional" to river flow. A river with twice the amount of flowing water as another river
can produce twice as much energy.

Can I Figure Out How Much Energy a Dam in My Area Can Make?

23
Sure. It's not that hard.

Let's say that there is a small dam in your area that is not used to produce electricity. Maybe
the dam is used to provide water to irrigate farmlands or maybe it was built to make a lake for
recreation. As we explained above, you need to know two things:

1. How far the water falls. From talking to the person who operates the dam, we learn that the
dam is 10 feet high, so the water falls 10 feet.
2. Amount of water flowing in the river. We contact the United States Geological Survey, the
agency in the U.S. that measures river flow, and learn that the average amount of water
flowing in our river is 500 cubic feet per second.

Now all we need to do is a little mathematics. Engineers have found that we can calculate the
power of a dam using the following formula:

Power = (Height of Dam) x (River Flow) x (Efficiency) / 11.8

Power The electric power in kilowatts (one kilowatt equals 1,000 watts).

Height of Dam The distance the water falls measured in feet.

River Flow The amount of water flowing in the river measured in cubic feet per second.

How well the turbine and generator convert the power of falling water into
Efficiency electric power. For older, poorly maintained hydroplants this might be 60% (0.60)
while for newer, well operated plants this might be as high as 90% (0.90).

11.8 Converts units of feet and seconds into kilowatts.

For the dam in our area, lets say we buy a turbine and generator with an efficiency of 80%.

Then the power for our dam will be:

Power = (10 feet) x (500 cubic feet per second) x (0.80) / 11.8 = 339 kilowatts

To get an idea what 339 kilowatts means, let's see how much electric energy we can make in
a year.

Since electric energy is normally measured in kilowatt-hours, we multiply the power from
our dam by the number of hours in a year.

Electric Energy = (339 kilowatts) x (24 hours per day) x (365 days per year) = 2,969,000
kilowatt hours.

The average annual residential energy use in the U.S. is about 3,000 kilowatt-hours for each
person. So we can figure out how many people our dam could serve by dividing the annual

24
energy production by 3,000.

People Served = 2,969,000 kilowatts-hours / 3,000 kilowatt-hours per person) = 990 people.

So our local irrigation or recreation dam could provide enough renewable energy to meet the
residential needs of 990 people if we added a turbine and generator.

Note: Before you decide to add hydropower to a dam, have a hydropower engineer review
your calculations and consult with the local resource agencies to be sure you can obtain any
permits that are required.

Q: What are the components of nuclear power plant

Nuclear Power Reactors

 Most nuclear electricity is generated using just two kinds of reactors which were
developed in the 1950s and improved since.
 New designs are coming forward and some are in operation as the first generation
reactors come to the end of their operating lifetimes.
 Over 11% of the world's electricity is produced from nuclear energy, more than from all
sources worldwide in 1960.

This paper is about the main conventional types of nuclear reactor. For more advanced types,
see Advanced Reactors and Small Reactors papers, and also Generation IV reactors.

A nuclear reactor produces and controls the release of energy from splitting the atoms of
certain elements. In a nuclear power reactor, the energy released is used as heat to make
steam to generate electricity. (In a research reactor the main purpose is to utilise the actual
neutrons produced in the core. In most naval reactors, steam drives a turbine directly for
propulsion.)

The principles for using nuclear power to produce electricity are the same for most types of
reactor. The energy released from continuous fission of the atoms of the fuel is harnessed as
heat in either a gas or water, and is used to produce steam. The steam is used to drive the
turbines which produce electricity (as in most fossil fuel plants).

The world's first nuclear reactors operated naturally in a uranium deposit about two billion
years ago. These were in rich uranium orebodies and moderated by percolating rainwater.
The 17 known at Oklo in west Africa, each less than 100 kW thermal, together consumed
about six tonnes of that uranium. It is assumed that these were not unique worldwide.

Today, reactors derived from designs originally developed for propelling submarines and
large naval ships generate about 85% of the world's nuclear electricity. The main design is
the pressurised water reactor (PWR) which has water at over 300°C under pressure in its
primary cooling/heat transfer circuit, and generates steam in a secondary circuit. The less

25
numerous boiling water reactor (BWR) makes steam in the primary circuit above the reactor
core, at similar temperatures and pressure. Both types use water as both coolant and
moderator, to slow neutrons. Since water normally boils at 100°C, they have robust steel
pressure vessels or tubes to enable the higher operating temperature. (Another type uses
heavy water, with deuterium atoms, as moderator. Hence the term ‘light water’ is used to
differentiate.)

Components of a nuclear reactor

There are several components common to most types of reactors:

Fuel. Uranium is the basic fuel. Usually pellets of uranium oxide (UO2) are arranged in tubes
to form fuel rods. The rods are arranged into fuel assemblies in the reactor core.* In a 1000
MWe class PWR there might be 51,000 fuel rods with over 18 million pellets.

* In a new reactor with new fuel a neutron source is needed to get the reaction going. Usually this is beryllium
mixed with polonium, radium or other alpha-emitter. Alpha particles from the decay cause a release of neutrons
from the beryllium as it turns to carbon-12. Restarting a reactor with some used fuel may not require this, as
there may be enough neutrons to achieve criticality when control rods are removed.

Moderator. Material in the core which slows down the neutrons released from fission so that
they cause more fission. It is usually water, but may be heavy water or graphite.

What is the function of moderator and give examples?

The moderator is to reduce the energy of neutrons evolved during fission in order to maintain

Control rods. These are made with neutron-absorbing material such as cadmium, hafnium or
boron, and are inserted or withdrawn from the core to control the rate of reaction, or to halt
it.* In some PWR reactors, special control rods are used to enable the core to sustain a low
level of power efficiently. (Secondary control systems involve other neutron absorbers,
usually boron in the coolant – its concentration can be adjusted over time as the fuel burns
up.) PWR control rods are inserted from the top, BWR cruciform blades from the bottom of
the core.

* In fission, most of the neutrons are released promptly, but some are delayed. These are crucial in enabling a
chain reacting system (or reactor) to be controllable and to be able to be held precisely critical.

Coolant. A fluid circulating through the core so as to transfer the heat from it. In light water
reactors the water moderator functions also as primary coolant. Except in BWRs, there is
secondary coolant circuit where the water becomes steam. (See also later section on primary
coolant characteristics.) A PWR has two to four primary coolant loops with pumps, driven
either by steam or electricity – China’s Hualong One design has three, each driven by a 6.6
MW electric motor, with each pump set weighing 110 tonnes.

Pressure vessel or pressure tubes. Usually a robust steel vessel containing the reactor core
and moderator/coolant, but it may be a series of tubes holding the fuel and conveying the
coolant through the surrounding moderator.

Steam generator. Part of the cooling system of pressurised water reactors (PWR & PHWR)
where the high-pressure primary coolant bringing heat from the reactor is used to make steam

26
for the turbine, in a secondary circuit. Essentially a heat exchanger like a motor car radiator.*
Reactors have up to six 'loops', each with a steam generator. Since 1980 over 110 PWR
reactors have had their steam generators replaced after 20-30 years service, 57 of these in
USA.

* These are large heat exchangers for transferring heat from one fluid to another – here from high-pressure
primary circuit in PWR to secondary circuit where water turns to steam. Each structure weighs up to 800 tonnes
and contains from 300 to 16,000 tubes about 2 cm diameter for the primary coolant, which is radioactive due to
nitrogen-16 (N-16, formed by neutron bombardment of oxygen, with half-life of 7 seconds). The secondary
water must flow through the support structures for the tubes. The whole thing needs to be designed so that the
tubes don't vibrate and fret, operated so that deposits do not build up to impede the flow, and maintained
chemically to avoid corrosion. Tubes which fail and leak are plugged, and surplus capacity is designed to allow
for this. Leaks can be detected by monitoring N-16 levels in the steam as it leaves the steam generator.

Containment. The structure around the reactor and associated steam generators which is
designed to protect it from outside intrusion and to protect those outside from the effects of
radiation in case of any serious malfunction inside. It is typically a metre-thick concrete and
steel structure.

Newer Russian and some other reactors install core melt localisation devices or 'core catchers'
under the pressure vessel to catch any melted core material in the event of a major accident.

There are several different types of reactors as indicated in the following table.

Nuclear power plants in commercial operation or operable

Reactor type Main countries Number GWe Fuel Coolant Moderator

Pressurised water reactor US, France, Japan, enriched

292 275 water water
(PWR) Russia, China UO2

Boiling water reactor enriched

US, Japan, Sweden 75 73 water water
(BWR) UO2

Pressurised heavy water heavy heavy

Canada, India 49 25 natural UO2
reactor (PHWR) water water

natural U
Gas-cooled reactor (AGR & (metal),
UK 14 8 CO2 graphite
Magnox) enriched
UO2

Light water graphite enriched

Russia 11 + 4 10 water graphite
reactor (RBMK & EGP) UO2

PuO2 and liquid

Fast neutron reactor (FBR) Russia 3 1.4 none
UO2 sodium

TOTAL 448 392

27
IAEA data, end of 2015. GWe = capacity in thousands of megawatts (gross)

For reactors under construction, see information paper on Plans for New Reactors Worldwide

Fuelling a nuclear power reactor

Most reactors need to be shut down for refuelling, so that the reactor vessel can be opened up.
In this case refuelling is at intervals of 12, 18 or 24 months, when a quarter to a third of the
fuel assemblies are replaced with fresh ones. The CANDU and RBMK types have pressure
tubes (rather than a pressure vessel enclosing the reactor core) and can be refuelled under
load by disconnecting individual pressure tubes.

If graphite or heavy water is used as moderator, it is possible to run a power reactor on

natural instead of enriched uranium. Natural uranium has the same elemental composition as
when it was mined (0.7% U-235, over 99.2% U-238), enriched uranium has had the
proportion of the fissile isotope (U-235) increased by a process called enrichment, commonly
to 3.5 - 5.0%. In this case the moderator can be ordinary water, and such reactors are
collectively called light water reactors. Because the light water absorbs neutrons as well as
slowing them, it is less efficient as a moderator than heavy water or graphite.

During operation, some of the U-238 is changed to plutonium, and Pu-239 ends up providing
about one third of the energy from the fuel.

In most reactors the fuel is ceramic uranium oxide (UO2 with a melting point of 2800°C) and
most is enriched. The fuel pellets (usually about 1 cm diameter and 1.5 cm long) are typically
arranged in a long zirconium alloy (zircaloy) tube to form a fuel rod, the zirconium being
hard, corrosion-resistant and transparent to neutrons.* Numerous rods form a fuel assembly,
which is an open lattice and can be lifted into and out of the reactor core. In the most
common reactors these are about 4 metres long. A BWR fuel assembly may be about 320 kg,
a PWR one 655 kg, in which case they hold 183 kg uranium and 460 kgU respectively. In
both, about 100 kg of zircaloy is involved.

* Zirconium is an important mineral for nuclear power, where it finds its main use. It is therefore subject to
controls on trading. It is normally contaminated with hafnium, a neutron absorber, so very pure 'nuclear grade'
Zr is used to make the zircaloy, which is about 98% Zr plus about 1.5% tin, also iron, chromium and sometimes
nickel to enhance its strength.

A significant industry initiative is to develop accident-tolerant fuels which are more resistant
to melting under conditions such as those in the Fukushima accident, and with the cladding
being more resistant to oxidation with hydrogen formation at very high temperatures under
such conditions.

Burnable poisons are often used in fuel or coolant to even out the performance of the reactor
over time from fresh fuel being loaded to refuelling. These are neutron absorbers which
decay under neutron exposure, compensating for the progressive build up of neutron
absorbers in the fuel as it is burned. The best known is gadolinium, which is a vital ingredient
of fuel in naval reactors where installing fresh fuel is very inconvenient, so reactors are
designed to run more than a decade between refuellings. Gadolinium is incorporated in the
ceramic fuel pellets. An alternative is zirconium diboride integral fuel burnable absorber
(IFBA) as a thin coating on normal pellets.

28
Gadolinium, mostly at up to 3g oxide per kilogram of fuel, requires slightly higher fuel
enrichment to compensate for it, and also after burn-up of about 17 GWd/t it retains about 4%
of its absorbtive effect and does not decrease further. The ZrB2 IFBA burns away more
steadily and completely, and has no impact on fuel pellet properties. It is now used in most
US reactors and a few in Asia. China has the technology for AP1000 reactors.

The power rating of a nuclear power reactor

Nuclear plant reactor power outputs are quoted in three ways:

 Thermal MWt, which depends on the design of the actual nuclear reactor itself, and relates
to the quantity and quality of the steam it produces.
 Gross electrical MWe indicates the power produced by the attached steam turbine and
generator, and also takes into account the ambient temperature for the condenser circuit
(cooler means more electric power, warmer means less). Rated gross power assumes certain
conditions with both.
 Net electrical MWe, which is the power available to be sent out from the plant to the grid,
after deducting the electrical power needed to run the reactor (cooling and feed-water
pumps, etc.) and the rest of the plant.*

* Net electrical MWe and gross MWe vary slightly from summer to winter, so normally the lower summer
figure, or an average figure, is used. If the summer figure is quoted plants may show a capacity factor greater
than 100% in cooler times. Watts Bar PWR in Tennessee is reported to run at about 1125 MWe in summer and
about 1165 MWe net in winter, due to different condenser cooling water temperatures. Some design options,
such as powering the main large feedwater pumps with electric motors (as in EPR or Hualong One) rather than
steam turbines (taking steam before it gets to the main turbine-generator), explains some gross to net differences
between different reactor types. The EPR has a relatively large drop from gross to net MWe for this reason, and
as noted above the Hualong One needs 20 MWe to run its primary pumps.

29
The relationship between these is expressed in two ways:

 Thermal efficiency %, the ratio of gross MWe to thermal MW. This relates to the difference
in temperature between the steam from the reactor and the cooling water. It is often 33-
37%.
 Net efficiency %, the ratio of net MWe achieved to thermal MW. This is a little lower, and
allows for plant usage.

In World Nuclear Association papers and figures and World Nuclear News items, generally
net MWe is used for operating plants, and gross MWe for those under construction or
planned/proposed.

Pressurised water reactor (PWR)

This is the most common type, with over 280 operable reactors for power generation and
several hundred more employed for naval propulsion. The design of PWRs originated as a
submarine power plant. PWRs use ordinary water as both coolant and moderator. The design
is distinguished by having a primary cooling circuit which flows through the core of the
reactor under very high pressure, and a secondary circuit in which steam is generated to drive
the turbine. In Russia these are known as VVER types – water-moderated and -cooled.

30
A PWR has fuel assemblies of 200-300 rods each, arranged vertically in the core, and a large
reactor would have about 150-250 fuel assemblies with 80-100 tonnes of uranium.

Water in the reactor core reaches about 325°C, hence it must be kept under about 150 times
atmospheric pressure to prevent it boiling. Pressure is maintained by steam in a pressuriser
(see diagram). In the primary cooling circuit the water is also the moderator, and if any of it
turned to steam the fission reaction would slow down. This negative feedback effect is one of
the safety features of the type. The secondary shutdown system involves adding boron to the
primary circuit.

The secondary circuit is under less pressure and the water here boils in the heat exchangers
which are thus steam generators. The steam drives the turbine to produce electricity, and is
then condensed and returned to the heat exchangers in contact with the primary circuit.

Boiling water reactor (BWR)

This design has many similarities to the PWR, except that there is only a single circuit in
which the water is at lower pressure (about 75 times atmospheric pressure) so that it boils in
the core at about 285°C. The reactor is designed to operate with 12-15% of the water in the
top part of the core as steam, and hence with less moderating effect and thus efficiency there.
BWR units can operate in load-following mode more readily then PWRs.

The steam passes through drier plates (steam separators) above the core and then directly to
the turbines, which are thus part of the reactor circuit. Since the water around the core of a

31
reactor is always contaminated with traces of radionuclides, it means that the turbine must be
shielded and radiological protection provided during maintenance. The cost of this tends to
balance the savings due to the simpler design. Most of the radioactivity in the water is very
short-lived*, so the turbine hall can be entered soon after the reactor is shut down.

* mostly N-16, with a 7 second half-life

A BWR fuel assembly comprises 90-100 fuel rods, and there are up to 750 assemblies in a
reactor core, holding up to 140 tonnes of uranium. The secondary control system involves
restricting water flow through the core so that more steam in the top part reduces moderation.

Pressurised heavy water reactor (PHWR)

The PHWR reactor design has been developed since the 1950s in Canada as the CANDU,
and from 1980s also in India. PHWRs generally use natural uranium (0.7% U-235) oxide as
fuel, hence needs a more efficient moderator, in this case heavy water (D2O).** The PHWR
produces more energy per kilogram of mined uranium than other designs, but also produces a
much larger amount of used fuel per unit output.

** with the CANDU system, the moderator is enriched (i.e. water) rather than the fuel – a cost trade-off.

The moderator is in a large tank called a calandria, penetrated by several hundred horizontal
pressure tubes which form channels for the fuel, cooled by a flow of heavy water under high
pressure (about 100 times atmospheric pressure) in the primary cooling circuit, typically

32
reaching 290°C. As in the PWR, the primary coolant generates steam in a secondary circuit to
drive the turbines. The pressure tube design means that the reactor can be refuelled
progressively without shutting down, by isolating individual pressure tubes from the cooling
circuit. It is also less costly to build than designs with a large pressure vessel, but the tubes
have not proved as durable.

A CANDU fuel assembly consists of a bundle of 37 half metre long fuel rods (ceramic fuel
pellets in zircaloy tubes) plus a support structure, with 12 bundles lying end to end in a fuel
channel. Control rods penetrate the calandria vertically, and a secondary shutdown system
involves adding gadolinium to the moderator. The heavy water moderator circulating through
the body of the calandria vessel also yields some heat (though this circuit is not shown on the
diagram above).

Newer PHWR designs such as the Advanced Candu Reactor (ACR) have light water cooling
and slightly-enriched fuel.

CANDU reactors can accept a variety of fuels. They may be run on recycled uranium from
reprocessing LWR used fuel, or a blend of this and depleted uranium left over from
enrichment plants. About 4000 MWe of PWR might then fuel 1000 MWe of CANDU
capacity, with addition of depleted uranium. Thorium may also be used in fuel.

33
Advanced gas-cooled reactor (AGR)
These are the second generation of British gas-cooled reactors, using graphite moderator and
carbon dioxide as primary coolant. The fuel is uranium oxide pellets, enriched to 2.5-3.5%, in
stainless steel tubes. The carbon dioxide circulates through the core, reaching 650°C and then
past steam generator tubes outside it, but still inside the concrete and steel pressure vessel
(hence 'integral' design). Control rods penetrate the moderator and a secondary shutdown
system involves injecting nitrogen to the coolant.

The AGR was developed from the Magnox reactor. Magnox reactors were also graphite
moderated and CO2 cooled, used natural uranium fuel in metal form, and water as secondary
coolant. The UK's last Magnox reactor closed at the end of 2015.

Explain the term nuclear fission.

he nuclei of some atoms decay by breaking into two smaller, more stable nuclei during a process
called nuclear fission. Learn more about the process of nuclear fission and test your knowledge with
a quiz.

What Is Nuclear Fission?

34
Nuclear fission is the process in which a large nucleus splits into two smaller nuclei with the
release of energy. In other words, fission the process in which a nucleus is divided into two or
more fragments, and neutrons and energy are released.

The mass changes and associated energy changes in nuclear reactions are significant. For
example, the energy released from the nuclear reaction of 1 kg of uranium is equivalent to the
energy released during the combustion of about four billion kilograms of coal.

The Process
This is Albert Einstein's famous equation relating mass and energy:

This means that any reaction produces or consumes energy due to a loss or gain in mass.
Energy and mass are equivalent. Note that because c to the second power is large, a small
change in mass results in a large change in energy. When nucleons, or particles that comprise
atomic nucleus, combine together to form an atom, the energy is released. Corresponding to
the mass defect, the mass of the nucleus is always less than the sum of the masses of the
individual protons and neutrons that comprise it.

Conversely, energy is needed to break apart a nucleus into its nucleons. Nuclear binding
energy can be defined as the amount of energy needed to break one mole of nuclei into
individual nucleons. The larger the binding energy per nucleon, the stronger the nucleons are
held together, and the more stable the nucleus is. Less stable atoms have lower binding
energies per nucleon. In other words, it is harder to break apart a nucleus with a high binding
energy than a nucleus with a low binding energy. The binding energy per nucleon is a
function of the mass number. Light nuclei gain stability by undergoing nuclear fusion. Heavy
nuclei gain stability by undergoing nuclear fission.

The following figure shows the binding energy as a function of the mass number.

35
Binding energies in this figure indicate that heavy nuclei tend to be unstable. To gain
stability, they can fragment into several smaller nuclei. Because atoms with mass numbers
around 60 are the most stable, heavy atoms (those with mass number greater than 60) tend to
fragment into smaller atoms in order to increase their stability. The splitting of a nucleus into
fragments is accompanied by a very large release of energy.

Nuclear Power Plants

Nuclear power plants use nuclear fission to generate power. The nuclei of uranium atoms,
as well as the nuclei of other large atoms, can undergo nuclear fission naturally. The first
nuclear fission reaction discovered involved uranium-235. Nuclear power plants use
uranium-235 nucleus to undergo fission by hitting them with neutrons, as shown by the
model in the following diagram.

The figure represents the process of nuclear fission when a neutron strikes a uranium-235
nucleus. Barium-141 and krypton-92 are just two of many possible products of this fission
reaction. In fact, scientists have identified more than 200 different product isotopes from
fission of a uranium-235 nucleus.

The elements barium and krypton are typical results of this fission. The energy released by
each fission can be found by calculating the masses of the atoms on each side of the equation.
In the reaction we just saw, the total mass on the right side of the equation is 0.186 amu

36
smaller than that on the left. The energy equivalent of this mass is 2.78x10^-11 J, or 173
MeV. This energy appears as the kinetic energy of the products of the fission.

Nuclear Chain Reaction

Each fission of uranium-235 releases additional neutrons, as shown in this figure.

If one fission reaction produces two neutrons, these two neutrons can cause two additional
fissions. If those two fissions release four neutrons, those four neutrons split other nuclei, and
could then produce four more fissions, and so on, resulting in a nuclear chain reaction as
shown in this figure.

This situation in the figure above is one type of nuclear chain reaction; a continuous series of
nuclear fission reactions, a self-sustaining process in which one reaction initiates the next.

37
The number of fissions and the amount of energy released can increase rapidly. In an
uncontrolled chain reaction, huge amounts of energy are released very quickly, as shown
here.

What is the function of moderator and give examples?

A Nuclear Reactor
The energy released from nuclear fission is much greater than the chemical energy released
when burning fuels. 1 kg of Uranium-235 gives the same amount of energy through nuclear
fission as is released by burning about 3 million tonnes of coal. The energy from nuclear
fission can be used to generate electricity in a nuclear power plant.

In order to safely harness the energy from nuclear fission the chain reaction needs to be
controlled. This is achieved in a nuclear reactor. The nuclear fuel used in the reactor contains
a small concentration of fissionable atoms, typically 3 to 4%. This low concentration reduces
the risk of a runway reaction. However, in order to establish a chain reaction with this low
concentration one neutron from each fission event must go on to cause fission in another
atom. This is achieved in the reactor with the use of a moderator. A moderator is a material
used in a nuclear reactor to slow down the neutrons produced from fission. By slowing the
neutrons down the probability of a neutron interacting with Uranium-235 nuclei is greatly
increased thereby maintaining the chain reaction. Moderators are made from materials with
light nuclei which do not absorb the neutrons but rather slow them down by a series of
collisions. Carbon in the form of graphite is a material used for moderators as is heavy water
which is Deuterium an isotope of Hydrogen with an atomic mass of 2 bonded to Oxyg

The moderator only slows neutrons down in order to increase the interaction with Uranium
nuclei. They do not give any protection if the reaction goes out of control. If a chain reaction
is heading out of control the reactors needs to be able to reduce the concentration of neutrons.
For this the reactor uses control rods. Control rods are made from material with the ability to

38
absorb neutrons; Cadmium and Boron are examples of suitable materials. By inserting
control rods between the fuel rods the chain reaction can be slowed down or shut down.
Withdrawing the control rods can restart or speed up the reaction.

The animation below shows how the nuclear fission process in a nuclear reactor is controlled.

In nuclear engineering, a neutron moderator is a medium that reduces the speed of fast
neutrons, thereby turning them into thermal neutrons capable of sustaining a nuclear chain
reaction involving uranium-235 or a similar fissile nuclide. Commonly used moderators
include regular (light) water (roughly 75% of the world's reactors), solid graphite (20% of
reactors) and heavy water (5% of reactors).[1] Beryllium has also been used in some
experimental types, and hydrocarbons have been suggested as another possibility.

Moderation

Neutrons are normally bound into an atomic nucleus, and do not exist free for long in nature.
The unbound neutron has a half-life of 10 minutes and 11 seconds. The release of neutrons
from the nucleus requires exceeding the binding energy of the neutron, which is typically 7-9
MeV for most isotopes. Neutron sources generate free neutrons by a variety of nuclear
reactions, including nuclear fission and nuclear fusion. Whatever the source of neutrons, they
are released with energies of several MeV.

Explain the term nuclear fission.

The U235 exists in the isotope form and it is unstable. When a neutron enters
the nuclear U235 , the nuclear splits into two equal fragments and release 2.5
fast moving neutrons with velocity of 1.5X107 m/sec and also large amount of
energy. This is called nuclear fission.

Diesel Power Plant: Applications, Advantages and Disadvantages

For generating electrical power, it is essential to rotate the rotor of an alternator by means of a
prime mover. The prime mover can be driven by different methods. Using diesel engine as
prime mover is one of the popular methods of generating power. When prime mover of the
alternators is diesel engine, the power station is called diesel power station.
The mechanical power required for driving alternator comes from combustion of diesel. As
the diesel costs high, this type of power station is not suitable for producing power in large
scale in our country. But for small scale production of electric power, and where, there is no
other easily available alternatives of producing electric power, diesel power station are used.
Steam power stations and hydro power plants are mainly used to produce maximum portion
of the electrical load demands. But for steam power station, sufficient supply of coal and
water are required. For hydro power station, plenty source of water and big dams are
required. But where all these facilities are not available, such as no easy way of coal
transportation and no scope of constructing dam, there diesel plant is established.
Diesel power plants are also popularly used as standby supply of different industries,
commercial complexes, hospitals, etc. During power cut, these diesel power generators are
run to fulfill required demand.

39
Applications:

Diesel Power Plant finds wide application in the following fields:

40
 1. Diesel power plant is used for electrical power generation in capacities ranging from 100 to
5000 H.P.
2. They are commonly used for mobile power generation and are widely used in transportation
systems consisting of railroads, ships, automobiles, and airplanes.
3. They can be used as standby power plants.
4. They can be utilized as peak load plants for some other types of power plants.
5. For Industries where power requirement is small in the order of 500 kW, diesel power plants
become more economical due to higher overall efficiency

Advantages:

The advantages of diesel power plants are listed below:

1. Diesel power plant design is simple for installation.

2. The layout of the diesel power plant is quite simple.
3. The limited quantity of cooling water required.
4. Standby losses are very less as compared to other Power plants.
5. Low fuel cost for operation.
6. Smaller storage is needed for the fuel.
7. There is no problem of ash handling.
8. Less time monitoring is sufficient required.
9. For small capacity power generation, diesel power plant is more efficient than the steam
power plant.
10. Quickly started and put on load.
11. They can respond to varying loads without having any difficulty.

Disadvantages:

The disadvantages of diesel power plants are listed below:

1. High Maintenance and operating cost.

2. The plant cost per kW power is comparatively more.
3. The working life of diesel power plant is small due to high maintenance.
4. The plant produces too much noise.
5. Diesel power plants are tough to construct for large scale.

Applications of diesel power plant

1. Diesel power plant’s is in the range of 2 to 50 MW capacity. They are used as central
station for small or medium power supplies.
2. They can be used as stand-by plants to hydro-electric power plants and steam power
plants for emergency services.
3. They can be used as peak load plants in combinations with thermal or hydro-plants.
4. They are quite suitable for mobile power generation and are widely used in
transportation systems such as automobiles, railways, air planes and ships.
5. Now-a-days power cut has become a regular feature for industries. The only solution
to tide over this difficulty is to install diesel generating sets.

41
Layout diesel engine power plant:

Diesel engine:
Diesel engines or compression ignition engines as they are called are generally classified as
two stroke engine and four stroke engines. In diesel engine, air admitted into the cylinder is
compressed, the compression ratio being 12 to 20. At the end of compression stroke, fuel is
injected. It burns and the burning gases expand and do work on the position. The engine is
directly coupled to the generator. The gases are then exhausted from the cylinder to
atmosphere.

Engine strating system:

This includes air compressor and starting air tank. The function of this system is to start the
engine from cold supplying compressed air.

42
Fuel system:
Pump draws diesel from storage tank and supplies it to the small day tank through the filter.
Day tank supplies the daily fuel need of engine. The day tan is usually placed high so that
diesel flows to engine under gravity.
Diesel is again filtered before being injected into the engine by the fuel injection pump. The
fuel is supplied to the engine according to the load on the plant.

Air intake system:

Air filters are used to remove dust from the incoming air. Air filters may be dry type, which
is made up of felt, wool or cloth. In oil bath type filters, the sir is swept over a bath of oil so
that dust particles get coated.

Exhaust system:
In the exhaust system, silencer (muffler) is provide to reduce the noise.

Engine cooling system:

The temperature of burning gases in the engine cylinder is the order of 1500 to 2000’C. to
keep the temperature at the reasonable level, water is circulated inside the engine in water
jackets which are passage around the cylinder, piston, combustion chamber etc. hot water
leaving the jacket is sent to heat exchanger. Raw water is made to flow through the heat
exchanger, where it takes up the heat of jacket water. It is then cooled in the cooling tower
and recirculates again.

Engine lubrication system:

It includes lubricating oil tank, oil pump and cooler. Lubrication is essential to reduce friction
and wear of engine parts such as cylinder walls and piston.
Lubricating oil which gets heated due to friction of moving parts is cooled before
recirculation. The cooling water used in the engine is used for cooling the lubricant also.

Advantages of diesel power plant:

1. Plant layout is simple. Hence it can be quickly installed and commissioned, while the
erection and starting of a steam power plant or hydro-plant takes a fairly long time.
2. Quick starting and easy pick-up of loads are possible in a very short time.
3. Location of the plant is near the load center.
4. The load operation is easy and requires minimum labors.
5. Efficiency at part loads does not fall so much as that of a steam plant.
6. Fuel handling is easier and no problem of ash disposal exists.
7. The plant is smaller in size than steam power plant for same capacity.
8. Diesel plants operate at high overall efficiency than steam.

43
Disadvantages of diesel power plant:

1. Plant capacity is limited to about 50 MW of power.

2. Diesel fuel is much more expensive than coal.
3. The maintenance and lubrication costs are high.
4. Diesel engines are not guaranteed for operation under continuous, while steam can
work under 25% of overload continuously.

Write a Principal of gas turbine power plant

Gas Turbine Power Plants

Gas Turbine Working Principle

Gas turbine engines derive their power from burning fuel in a combustion chamber and using
the fast flowing combustion gases to drive a turbine in much the same way as the high
pressure steam drives a steam turbine.

One major difference however is that the gas turbine has a second turbine acting as an air
compressor mounted on the same shaft. The air turbine (compressor) draws in air,

44
compresses it and feeds it at high pressure into the combustion chamber increasing the
intensity of the burning flame.

It is a positive feedback mechanism. As the gas turbine speeds up, it also causes the
compressor to speed up forcing more air through the combustion chamber which in turn
increases the burn rate of the fuel sending more high pressure hot gases into the gas turbine
increasing its speed even more. Uncontrolled runaway is prevented by controls on the fuel
supply line which limit the amount of fuel fed to the turbine thus limiting its speed.

The thermodynamic process used by the gas turbine is known as the Brayton cycle.
Analogous to the Carnot cycle in which the efficiency is maximised by increasing the
temperature difference of the working fluid between the input and output of the machine, the
Brayton cycle efficiency is maximised by increasing the pressure difference across the
machine. The gas turbine is comprised of three main components: a compressor, a combustor,
and a turbine. The working fluid, air, is compressed in the compressor (adiabatic compression
- no heat gain or loss), then mixed with fuel and burned by the combustor under constant
pressure conditions in the combustion chamber (constant pressure heat addition). The
resulting hot gas expands through the turbine to perform work (adiabatic expansion). Much of
the power produced in the turbine is used to run the compressor and the rest is available to
run auxiliary equipment and do useful work. The system is an open system because the air is
not reused so that the fourth step in the cycle, cooling the working fluid, is omitted.

Gas Turbine Aero Engine (Deutches Museum)

Gas turbines have a very high power to weight ratio and are lighter and smaller than internal
combustion engines of the same power. Though they are mechanically simpler than
reciprocating engines, their characteristics of high speed and high temperature operation
require high precision components and exotic materials making them more expensive to
manufacture.

45
History

Electrical Power Generation

In electricity generating applications the turbine is used to drive a synchronous generator

which provides the electrical power output but because the turbine normally operates at very
high rotational speeds of 12,000 r.p.m or more it must be connected to the generator through
a high ratio reduction gear since the generators run at speeds of 1,000 or 1,200 r.p.m.
depending on the AC frequency of the electricity grid.

Turbine Configurations

Gas turbine power generators are used in two basic configurations

 Simple Systems consisting of the gas turbine driving an electrical power generator.

 Combined Cycle Systems which are designed for maximum efficiency in which the hot
exhaust gases from the gas turbine are used to raise steam to power a steam turbine with
both turbines being connected to electricity generators.

46
Turbine Performance

 Turbine Power Output

To minimise the size and weight of the turbine for a given output power, the output
per pound of airflow should be maximised. This is obtained by maximising the air
flow through the turbine which in turn depends on maximising the pressure ratio
between the air inlet and exhaust outlet. The main factor governing this is the pressure
ratio across the compressor which can be as high as 40:1 in modern gas turbines. In
simple cycle applications, pressure ratio increases translate into efficiency gains at a
given firing temperature, but there is a limit since increasing the pressure ratio means
that more energy will be consumed by the compressor.

 System Efficiency

Thermal efficiency is important because it directly affects the fuel consumption and
operating costs.

o Simple Cycle Turbines

A gas turbine consumes considerable amounts of power just to drive its

compressor. As with all cyclic heat engines, a higher maximum working
temperature in the machine means greater efficiency (Carnot's Law), but in a
turbine it also means that more energy is lost as waste heat through the hot
exhaust gases whose temperatures are typically well over 1,000°C .
Consequently simple cycle turbine efficiencies are quite low. For heavy plant,
design efficiencies range between 30% and 40%. (The efficiencies of aero
engines are in the range 38% and 42% while low power microturbines
(<100kW) achieve only 18% to 22%). Although increasing the firing
temperature increases the output power at a given pressure ratio, there is also a
sacrifice of efficiency due to the increase in losses due to the cooling air
required to maintain the turbine components at reasonable working
temperatures.

o Combined Cycle Turbines

It is however possible to recover energy from the waste heat of simple cycle
systems by using the exhaust gases in a hybrid system to raise steam to drive a
steam turbine electricity generating set . In such cases the exhaust temperature
may be reduced to as low as 140°C enabling efficiencies of up to 60% to be
achieved in combined cycle systems.

In combined-cycle applications, pressure ratio increases have a less

pronounced effect on the efficiency since most of the improvement comes
from increases in the Carnot thermal efficiency resulting from increases in the
firing temperature.

47
 Thus simple cycle efficiency is achieved with high pressure ratios. Combined
cycle efficiency is obtained with more modest pressure ratios and greater
firing temperatures.

See also Heat Engines

Fuels

One further advantage of gas turbines is their fuel flexibility. They can be adapted to use
almost any flammable gas or light distillate petroleum products such as gasoline (petrol),
diesel and kerosene (paraffin) which happen to be available locally, though natural gas is the
most commonly used fuel. Crude and other heavy oils and can also be used to fuel gas
turbines if they are first heated to reduce their viscosity to a level suitable for burning in the
turbine combustion chambers.

Applications

Gas turbines can be used for large scale power generation. Examples are applications
delivering 600 MW or more from a 400 MW gas turbine coupled to a 200 MW steam turbine
in a co-generating installation. Such installations are not normally used for base load
electricity generation, but for bringing power to remote sites such as oil and gas fields. They
do however find use in the major electricity grids in peak shaving applications to provide
emergency peak power.

Low power gas turbine generating sets with capacities up to 5 MW can be accommodated in
transportation containers to provide mobile emergency electricity supplies which can
delivered by truck to the point of need.

Environmental Issues

Almost all gas turbine installations use fossil fuels.

State ay two application of gas turbine power plant?

i) Used in jet, aircraft and ships. (ii) Stand by plants for hydro electric power plants.

48
Q. What is Principle of Solar Cell?
Solar cells directly convert solar energy to D.C. power. These cells are made of
miconductors that generate electricity when they absorb light. The silicon cell consists of a
single crystal of silicon into which a doping material is diffused to form a semiconductor.

Solar Power System - How does it work?

by Kiran Daware Power System, Renewable Energy

Needless to say that the Sun is the biggest source of renewable energy for the Earth. The fact is that
even though the earth receives only a part of the energy generated by the Sun (i.e. Solar energy),
that part of solar energy is also tremendously huge. The Earth receives solar energy in the form of
light and heat. But in today's world, the words 'power' and 'energy' are leaned more towards
'electricity'. This article explains how electricity is harvested from the solar energy and how it is
utilized.

How solar power works?

Electrical energy can be harvested from solar power by means of either photovoltaics or
concentrated solar power systems.

Photovoltaics (PV)
Photovoltaics directly convert solar energy into electricity. They work on the principle of the
photovoltaic effect. When certain materials are exposed to light, they absorb photons and release
free electrons. This phenomenon is called as the photoelectric effect. Photovoltaic effect is a method
of producing direct current electricity based on the principle of the photoelectric effect.

Based on the principle of photovoltaic effect, solar cells or photovoltaic cells are made. They convert
sunlight into direct current (DC) electricity. But, a single photovoltaic cell does not produce enough
amount of electricity. Therefore, a number of photovoltaic cells are mounted on a supporting frame
and are electrically connected to each other to form a photovoltaic module or solar panel.
Commonly available solar panels range from several hundred watts (say 100 watts) up to few
kilowatts (ever heard of a 5kW solar panel?). They are available in different sizes and different price
ranges. Solar panels or modules are designed to supply electric power at a certain voltage (say 12v),
but the current they produce is directly dependent on the incident light. As of now it is clear that
photovoltaic modules produce DC electricity. But, for most of the times we require AC power and,
hence, solar power system consists of an inverter too.

Photovoltaic solar power system

According to the requirement of power, multiple photovoltaic modules are electrically connected
together to form a PV array and to achieve more power. There are different types of PV systems
according to their implementation.

49
  PV direct systems: These systems supply the load only when the Sun is shining. There is no
storage of power generated and, hence, batteries are absent. An inverter may or may not be
used depending on the type of load.
 Off-grid systems: This type of system is commonly used at locations where power from the
grid is not available or not reliable. An off-grid solar power system is not connected to any
electric grid. It consists solar panel arrays, storage batteries and inverter circuits.
 Grid connected systems: These solar power systems are tied with grids so that the excess
required power can be accessed from the grid. They may or may not be backed by batteries.

Concentrated solar power

As the name suggest, in this type of solar power system, sun rays are concentrated (focused) on a
small area by placing mirrors or lenses over a large area. Due to this, a huge amount of heat is
generated at the focused area. This heat can be used to heat up the working fluid which can further
drive the steam turbine. There are different types of technologies that are based on the
concentrated solar power to produce electricity. Some of them are - parabolic trough, Stirling dish,
solar power tower etc. The following schematic shows how a solar power tower works.

Q. Write importance of instrumentation in power plant.

(i) Safety (ii) Automatic control operation (iii) Efficiency

50
 Q. Write some nuclear fuels.
Fuel of nuclear reactor should be fissionable material which can be defined as an element of
isotope whose nuclei can be caused to undergo nuclear fission by nuclear bombardment and
produce a fission chain reaction. U233 U235 and Pu239.

Nuclear fuel is the fuel that is used in a nuclear reactor to sustain a nuclear chain reaction. These
fuels are fissile, and the most common nuclear fuels are the radioactive metals uranium-235 and
plutonium-239.[2] All processes involved in obtaining, refining, and using this fuel make up a cycle
known as the nuclear fuel cycle.

Uranium-235 is used as a fuel in different concentrations. Some reactors, such as the

CANDU reactor, can use natural uranium with uranium-235 concentrations of only 0.7%,
while other reactors require the uranium to be slightly enriched to levels of 3% to 5%.[3]
Plutonium-239 is produced and used in reactors (specifically fast breeder reactors) that
contain significant amounts of uranium-238. It can also be recycled and used as a fuel in
thermal reactors. Current research is being done to investigate how thorium-232 can be used
as a fuel.

Production
Fuel fabrication plants are facilities that convert enriched uranium into fuel for nuclear
reactors. For light water reactors, uranium is received from an enrichment plant in solid form.
It is then converted into a gas and chemically converted into a uranium dioxide powder.[4]
This powder is then pressed into pellets and packed into fuel assemblies. A mixed oxide fuel
can also be created when the uranium powder is packed along with plutonium oxide. The
hazards present at fuel fabrication facilities—mainly chemical and radiological—are similar
to the hazards at enrichment plants. These facilities generally pose a low risk to the public.[4]

Use
When used in a reactor, the fuels used can have a variety of different forms a metal, an alloy,
or some sort of oxide.[3] Most nuclear reactors are fueled with a compound known as uranium
dioxide. This uranium dioxide is put together in a fuel assembly and inserted into the nuclear
reactor—where it can stay for several months or up to a few years.[5] While in the reactor the
fuel undergoes nuclear fission and releases energy. This released energy is used to generate
electricity. Neutrons released during the fission process allow for a fission chain reaction to
occur, allowing energy to be generated continually. The fuel is removed from the reactor after
large amounts of the fuel—whether it is uranium-235 or plutonium-239—have undergone
fission. The "used" nuclear fuel is known as spent or irradiated fuel. After use, the fuel must
be cooled for a few years as it is extremely hot.[5]

The spent fuel is placed in large, deep pools of water that act as a coolant and a radiation
shield. The coolant property allows the water to remove the decay heat and the shielding
abilities protect workers from the radioactivity of the fuel.[5] After cooling, the fuel can be re-
purposed or sent to storage depending on regulations.

For more information on how spent fuel is dealt with, see nuclear waste. For a more in depth
explanation on how exactly fuel is obtained and used, see the nuclear fuel cycle.
51
Fuel Assembly
Nuclear reactors are powered by powdered uranium dioxide that has been compressed into
small pellets, shown in Figure 1. However, a power plant requires many of these pellets to
run. Thus large numbers of these pellets are bundled into a fuel rod.[6] A single uranium fuel
pellet, only as big as a fingertip, contains as much energy as 481 cubic meters of natural gas,
807 kilograms of coal or 564 liters of oil.[7] These rods are composed of numerous pellets of
fissionable uranium fuel and can be several meters in length and about a centimeter in
diameter.[5] Then several of these rods, generally a dozen or more, are held together by strong
metallic brackets in a fuel assembly. These rods are not bunched tightly together, rather there
are several millimeters between each rod to allow coolant to flow between them.[5] The tubes
containing the pellets of uranium are generally composed of zirconium.[6]

Advantages and Disadvantages of Nuclear Fuels

Worldwide, there are extensive reserves of uranium left to mine. While nuclear fuel is not
renewable, it is sustainable since there is so much of it. It will run out eventually, but not for
centuries. Unlike fossil fuels, using nuclear fuels to produce energy does not directly produce
carbon dioxide or sulfur dioxide. It should be mentioned that the processes of mining,
transporting, and refining the fuel have carbon emissions associated with them,[2] comparable
to those of wind and solar power. Although the carbon footprint of using nuclear fuels is
smaller, there are still disadvantages of using nuclear fuel. The waste, while a much lower
volume must be handled very carefully because of its radioactivity. Nuclear fuels require far
more complicated systems to extract their energy, which calls for greater regulation. These
complex systems and regulation make for very long build times. In addition, public opinions
on nuclear energy tend to be more negative than with other energy sources. The over-
estimation of the dangers associated with releases of radioactive material is a significant
issue, as large-scale nuclear incidents are rare.[2]

***********************Questions and Answere**********************

18. What is isotopes? Give example.

The same atomic number but with different mass numbers ie different number of neutrons
known as isotopes. The isotope may be stable or radioactive. Example: deuterium, tritium

19. What is a function of Economizer?

In order to utilizing the heat accompanying combustion gases leaving the furnace, the gases are
passed through the heat recovery equipment such as economizer and air pre heater. Economizer is
a device intended for heating the feed water by means of flue gases from the boiler.

20. What is a function of Control rods?

Control rods in the cylindrical or sheet form are made of boron or cadmium. These rods can
be moved in and out of the holes in the reactor core assembly. Their insertion absorbs more
neutrons and damps down the reaction and their withdrawal absorbs less neutrons. Thus shifting
control rods this may be done manually or automatically controls power of reaction.

21. What is cogeneration?

The steam which is fed to the turbine is taken out of it before the turbine exhaust. It is

52
called extracted or bleeds steam. Exhaust steam or bleed steam is used for space heating,
refrigeration and process heat i.e. can be used for other power generation plants.

22. What is fission? Give some fission materials.

Nuclear materials that will undergo a division of the atomic nucleus into two or more
fission fragments with an accompanying release of large amounts of energy and more
neutrons are called fissile materials. Fission is usually triggered by the capture of neutron,
but some atoms undergo spontaneous fission. Example Pu239, U233.
23. What are the types of solar energy collectors?
(i)Flatplate (ii)Concentrating (iii)Line focusing (iv)Point Focusing.

24.How wind energy is converted into electrical energy?

Wind energy is used to run windmill which in turn drives a generator to produce electricity. A
windmill converts the kinetic energy of moving air into mechanical motion that can be either used
directly to run the machine or to turn the generator to produce electricity.

UNIT-II
Q: Write the principle of ionization chamber or ionization smoke detector.

Answer:
Ionization chamber: it works on the principle that electrically charging the air
with an open detector chamber; the charged air being electronically measurable and can
be monitored. It consists of a small radioactive source, which irradiates the space
between the electrodes with alpha particles, thus creating ions of both signs whose
movement towards respective electrodes constitutes a minute electric current.

What are Ionization Smoke Alarms?

There are two main types of house smoke

alarms that have taken over the market; ionization smoke alarms and photoelectric smoke
alarms. Knowing the difference between these is essential to choosing the right house smoke
alarm for yourself and your family. According to the National Fire Protection Agency,
roughly 96 percent of households in the United States have at least one smoke alarm in their
home, yet it’s unlikely people truly understand the difference between the two major types of
alarms. Over 90 percent of house smoke alarms are ionization alarms. Here are some benefits
of installing an ionization alarm in your home.

53
What Type of Fires Do They Detect?

Generally, ionization alarms are more responsive to flaming fires. The term “flaming” fires
refers to fires resulting from flammable liquids, wood or paper starting on fire. This type of
fire produces a lot of flames with a limited amount of smoke. Most house fires are
categorized as fast-flaming fires, which is why ionization alarms are popular in homes. To be
safe, we recommend having both types of home fire alarms installed, or installing
combination alarms that detect multiple types of fires.

How do Ionization Alarms Work?

Ionization chambers are the essential difference between ionization alarms and photoelectric
alarms. Within the ionization chamber, there are two plates with voltage in between them. If
an electron in this space is knocked out of place due to smoke entering the chamber, it causes
ionization, and, in response, the alarm goes off.

First Alert Ionization Alarms

At First Alert, we offer different models of ionization home smoke alarms, so you can pick
the features that best suit your needs. If you don’t want to worry about keeping up with
changing batteries in your smoke alarm, we recommend getting the 10-Year Battery Dual
Sensor Alarm that detects smoke from both flaming and smoldering fires. It’s also engineered
to reduce the number of false alarms that go off in your home due to cooking.

Regardless of the ionization home smoke alarm you choose for you and your family, First
Alert will keep your family protected in times of potential danger. Shop ionization smoke
alarms.

Principal of Optical smoke detector

A photoelectric, or optical smoke detector contains a source of infrared, visible, or

ultraviolet light (typically an incandescent light bulb or light-emitting diode), a lens, and a
photoelectric receiver (typically a photodiode). In spot-type detectors all of these components
are arranged inside a chamber where air, which may contain smoke from a nearby fire, flows.
In large open areas such as atria and auditoriums, optical beam or projected-beam smoke
detectors are used instead of a chamber within the unit: a wall-mounted unit emits a beam of
infrared or ultraviolet light which is either received and processed by a separate device, or
reflected back to the receiver by a reflector. In some types, particularly optical beam types,
the light emitted by the light source passes through the air being tested and reaches the
photosensor. The received light intensity will be reduced due to scattering from particulates
of smoke, air-borne dust, or other substances; the circuitry detects the light intensity and
generates the alarm if it is below a specified threshold, potentially due to smoke.[26] In other
types, typically chamber types, the light is not directed at the sensor, which is not illuminated
in the absence of particles. If the air in the chamber contains particles (smoke or dust), the
light is scattered and some of it reaches the sensor, triggering the alarm.[26]

According to the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), "photoelectric smoke

detection is generally more responsive to fires that begin with a long period of smoldering".
Studies by Texas A&M and the NFPA cited by the City of Palo Alto, California state,

54
"Photoelectric alarms react slower to rapidly growing fires than ionization alarms, but
laboratory and field tests have shown that photoelectric smoke alarms provide adequate
warning for all types of fires and have been shown to be far less likely to be deactivated by
occupants."

Although photoelectric alarms are highly effective at detecting smoldering fires and do
provide adequate protection from flaming fires, fire safety experts and the National Fire
Protection Agency recommend installing what are called combination alarms, which are
alarms that either detect both heat and smoke, or use both the ionization and photoelectric
processes. Some combination alarms may include a carbon monoxide detection capability.

The type and sensitivity of light source and photoelectric sensor, and type of smoke chamber
differ between manufacturers.

55