Thermal-neutron reactor

A thermal-neutron reactor is a nuclear reactor that uses slow or thermal neutrons. ("Thermal" does
not mean hot in an absolute sense, but means in thermal equilibrium with the medium it is
interacting with, the reactor's fuel, moderator and structure, which is much lower energy than the
fast neutrons initially produced by fission.)

Most nuclear power plant reactors are thermal reactors and use a neutron moderator to slow
neutrons until they approach the average kinetic energy of the surrounding particles, that is, to
reduce the speed of the neutrons to low-velocity, thermal neutrons. Neutrons are uncharged, this
allows them to penetrate deep in the target and close to the nuclei, thus scattering neutrons by
nuclear forces, some nuclides are scattered large.

The nuclear cross section of uranium-235 for slow thermal neutrons is about 1000 barns, while for
fast neutrons it is in the order of 1 barn. Therefore thermal neutrons are more likely to cause
uranium-235 to nuclear fission than to be captured by uranium-238. If at least one neutron from the
U-235 fission strikes another nucleus and causes it to fission, then the chain reaction will continue. If
the reaction will sustain itself, it is said to be critical, and the mass of U-235 required to produce the
critical condition is said to be a critical mass.

1 barn = 10-28 m2
Thermal Power Plant – Components, Working
and Site Selection

What is a Thermal Power Plant?

According to energy conservation law, energy is neither created nor destroyed. But we can
convert one form of energy into other forms of energy.
 Electrical energy can be derived from many other sources of energy.
And the plant that is used to generate a bulk amount of electrical energy is known as a
power plant or power station.

In the thermal power plant, the electrical energy is transformed from heat energy.
Heat energy can be derived from different heat sources like; coal, diesel, biofuel,
solar energy, nuclear energy, etc.
The power plant that uses coal to generate heat is known as the thermal power plant.
The thermal power plant is a conventional power plant. Sometimes, the thermal
power plant is also known as or coal power plant.

Major components of steam plant:

Feedwater pump
A feedwater pump is used to supply water into the boiler. The water may be from the
condenser or freshwater. This pump is used to pressure the water. Generally, the
feedwater pump is a centrifugal type or positive displacement type of pump.

Boiler
The pulverized coal (finely crushed coal by coal mill) is fed to the boiler with
preheated air. The boiler is used to produce high-pressure steam.
The boiler in the thermal power plant is used to convert the chemical energy of coal
into thermal energy or heat energy. During the combustion of coal, a high
temperature is produced inside the boiler. This temperature is high enough to
convert water into steam.   
The size of the boiler depends on the amount of heat required for the thermal power
plant. And there are several types of boiler used in a thermal power plant like;
firetube boiler, Cylindrical fire-tube boiler, water-tube boiler, etc.
Super-heater
In a steam turbine, super-heated steam is used to rotate the turbine. The wet and
saturated steam is supplied to the super-heater. And it is a device that converts it
into dry and superheated steam.
The super-heater’s temperature is the highest among all components of the thermal
power plant.
The superheater is used to increase the temperature of the steam generated from
the boiler. This will increase the thermal energy of the steam

Turbine
The high pressure and high-temperature steam are fed to the boiler. This
superheated steam is a strike on the turbine blade. And the turbine starts rotating.
The turbine is a mechanical device that is used to convert the heat energy of steam
into rotational energy or kinetic energy.
The turbine is mechanically coupled with an alternator via a shaft. When the steam
release from the turbine, the temperature and pressure is reduced. And this steam is
passed to the condenser.

Alternator
The alternator and turbine are connected on the same shaft. The turbine rotates with
the flow of steam and the turbine rotates. The rotor of the alternator rotates and
generates electrical energy. Therefore, the alternator is a device that converts kinetic
energy or rotational energy into electrical energy.

Economizer
The economizer is a heat exchanger device that is used to reduce energy
consumption. In the boiler, flue gases are exhausted into the atmosphere. These
gases have a high temperature. So, the economizer uses the heat of flue gases to
heat the water.  
The water release from the condenser is again used in the cycle. With the help of a
feedwater pump, this water is transferred to the economizer. An economizer uses
the heat of flue gases to increase the temperature of the water.
The economizer uses the waste heat of flue gases. Hence, it is used to increase the
efficiency of the entire cycle.
Condenser
When the steam release from the turbine, the temperature and pressure is decreased.
The exhaust steam of the turbine reuse in the cycle.  To increase the turbine
efficiency, we need to condense this steam to maintain a proper vacuum.
The condenser decreases the operating pressure. So, the vacuum is increased. And
this will increase the volume of steam that results in more amount of work available
at the turbine. And due to this, the plant efficiency will increase with the increase in
turbine output.
Chimney

In most of the thermal power plants, coal is used as fuel. During the combustion of
coal, the flue gases are generated in the boiler. The chimney provides a path to the
flue gas and exhaust to the atmosphere.

Site Selection of Thermal Power Plant

 Availability of fuel
 Transportation facility
 Availability of water
 Availability of land
 Far from populated area
 Ash disposal facility ( the ash generated 30-40% of total coal consumption.)
The ash is collected from the bottom of the boiler furnace and most of the ash
particles are flue with gases. So, there is two ash handling systems; one is the
bottom ash handling system and the second is the fly ash handling system.

Efficiency of Thermal Power Plant

In a thermal power plant, the electrical energy is generated from two energy
conversion. The chemical energy of coal is converted into thermal energy of heat
energy. After the thermal energy is converted into kinetic energy or mechanical
energy. And finally, the mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy. So, due
to the number of energy conversions, the efficiency of thermal power plants is very
low around 20-29%.
The efficiency of a thermal power plant is also depending on the size of the plant and
the quality of coal. In a thermal power plant, the heat energy is lost in the condenser.
There are two types of efficiency in thermal power plants.
 Thermal efficiency
 Overall efficiency
Thermal efficiency:
Thermal efficiency is defined as the ratio of heat equivalent mechanical energy
available at the turbine to the heat energy available at the combustion of coal in the
boiler.

The thermal efficiency of the thermal power plants is 30% approx. Most of the heat
energy (approx. 50%) is wasted in the condenser. The rest of the heat energy is
wasted in the flue gases, ash etc.
Overall efficiency:
The overall efficiency is defined as the ratio of heat equivalent of electrical output to
the heat of combustion of coal.

The overall efficiency includes the losses that occur at all stages of a cycle. It also
includes the efficiency of an alternator.

Diagram
 Thermal Power Plant Merits and Demerits
Merits
1.Reliable and consistent power output: Thermal power plants are known for their
consistent and reliable power output, which is especially useful in meeting the
demands of industrial and commercial consumers.

2.Low operational cost: Thermal power plants have low operational costs when
compared to other forms of electricity generation, such as solar or wind power.

3.Large-scale power generation: Thermal power plants can generate large amounts
of electricity, which is necessary to meet the growing energy demands of a growing
population.

4.Affordable energy source: In many parts of the world, thermal power plants are
the most affordable source of energy, which makes them accessible to a wide range
of consumers.

5.Easy to maintain: Thermal power plants are relatively easy to maintain and repair,
and they require less technical expertise than some other forms of energy generation.

6.High energy density: Thermal power plants have a high energy density, which
means they can produce more electricity per unit of fuel than other forms of energy
generation.

7.Can be used in a variety of locations: Thermal power plants can be located almost
anywhere, as long as there is a supply of fuel to burn.

8.Provides energy security: By producing energy locally, thermal power plants can
provide energy security, reducing dependence on imported energy sources.

Demerits

1.Greenhouse gas emissions: Thermal power plants are major emitters of

greenhouse gases, which contribute to climate change.

2.Non-renewable source of energy: Most thermal power plants rely on non-

renewable sources of energy, such as coal or oil, which are finite resources.

3.Environmental pollution: Thermal power plants can generate a range of pollutants,

including particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides, which can have
negative impacts on the environment and public health.

4.Water consumption: Thermal power plants require a large amount of water to

generate electricity, which can put a strain on local water resources.

5.Land use: Thermal power plants require a large amount of land, which can lead to
habitat destruction and displacement of local communities.
6.Vulnerable to fuel price fluctuations: Thermal power plants are vulnerable to
fluctuations in the price of fuel, which can affect the affordability of electricity.

7.High upfront capital costs: Building a thermal power plant requires significant
capital investment, which can be a barrier to entry for some countries and
communities.

8.Safety risks: Thermal power plants can pose safety risks to workers and nearby
communities, particularly in the event of an accident or explosion.
INTRODUCTION

The Hydro-Electric Reactor is an energy-producing technology which uses only

compressed air, at four different stages, to generate electricity in commercial quantities.
The power plant produced by this technology does not use any water, coal, natural gas,
uranium or any other fossil fuels to generate electricity. Only ambient air, indoors or
outdoors, is used to provide the fuel necessary to get the Hydro-Electric Reactor up and
running. The word Hydro does not denote the use of water; it is simply part of the title
used for the invention

The Hydro-Electric Reactor is made up of five different sections namely: The Vertical
Air-Intake Safety Vent, The Multiple-Compression Chamber, The Jet-Propulsion
Corridor, The Pressurized Air-Conduit and The Air-Decompression Vents.
The technology operates on a principle known as
Multiple-Compression-Propulsion-System.
WORKING

FIG. 1.1 Shows ambient air that is vertically sucked into the Hydro-Electric Reactor
power plant through a protective grill FIG. 1.2 which prevents any objects standing in
front or around the Reactor from being sucked into the power plant from a horizontal
position. FIG. 1.3 is the funnel-shaped Vertical Air-Intake Safety Vent which allows
ambient air from the atmosphere to flow through the vertical funnel. FIG. 1.4 is a
powerful electric motor which drives the entire shaft FIG. 1.11 and its attached
components, that spin at very high revolution. The air-intake fan FIG. 1.5 relays the
ambient air into a set of compressors FIG. 1.6 which compress the air at a very high
speed into the Multiple-Compression Chamber FIG. 1.8.
A high-powered battery or external power source FIG. 1.7 is used to jump-start the
electric motor FIG. 1.4 which rotates the air-intake fan and the compressors at high speed
before some of the electricity eventually produced by the Hydro-Electric Reactor is
re-routed to take over and provide a steady flow of energy to the compressors and make
the power plant self-sustaining without using any external power source.

FIG. 1.9 shows the Blow-Back Barriers which are installed within the
Multiple-Compression Chamber FIG. 1.8 and act to redirect on-rushing pressurized air
coming into the chamber from the compressors, directly in front of a horizontal,
high-velocity, high-pressure fan FIG. 1.10, attached to the end of the shaft FIG. 1.11
driving the compressors which pushes the pressurized air with great force through a
nozzle FIG. 1.12, into the Jet-Propulsion Corridor FIG. 1.13.

The Jet-Propulsion Corridor is a cylindrical or rectangular metal housing made of steel or

other tough metal which allows the highly pressurized air FIG. 1.14, coming through the
nozzle of the Multiple-Compression Chamber, to drive a network of specially designed
Micro-Turbines FIG. 1.15 to rotate at high speed and drive the shaft and generator FIG.
1.16 attached to the ends of each turbine, to produce electricity in commercial quantities.
The number of Hydro-Electric Reactor Micro-Turbines and generators will determine the
output of each power plant. The more turbines and generators installed on the
Jet-Propulsion Corridor, the more electricity the Hydro-Electric Reactor power plant unit
will produce.
FIG. 1.17 shows the exhausted pressurized air leaving the end nozzle of the
Jet-Propulsion Corridor into a recycling pipeline FIGS. 1.18 and 1.19 known as the
Pressurized Air-Conduit which takes the exhaust air at high speed and pressure back into
the Multiple-Compression Chamber through an opening FIG. 1.20 at the top of the
Chamber, to be recycled back into the Hydro-Electric Reactor power plant unit.

FIG. 1.21 shows the Air-Decompression Vents which are located on the upper section of
the Jet-Propulsion Corridor FIG. 1.13 which take away excessive pressure from within
the Corridor back into the atmosphere to prevent the entire Hydro-Electric Reactor power
plant unit from blowing apart. The air released from the Air-Decompression Vents is
sucked back into the Reactor through the front of Vertical Air-Intake Safety Vent and the
whole air-recycling process is continued again, indefinitely generating electricity. The
Hydro-Electric Reactor is not a perpetual motion machine because it uses air as fuel to
drive its engine. However, since air is inexhaustible in the atmosphere, the Reactor's
source of fuel is limitless.

USES
Smaller units of the Reactor can generate several kilowatts of electricity for residential,
commercial and industrial buildings and larger units can generate megawatts of electricity
for entire cities using about 10% power input.

The system is designed to work together in a group for the supply of electricity to large
cities, towns and other communities or as individual units to supply electricity to
residential, commercial or industrial buildings.
Advantages of Hydroelectric Energy
1. Electricity can be produced at a constant rate once the dam is constructed
2. The gates of the dam can be shut down if electricity is not needed, which stops electricity
generation. Hence by doing this, we can save water for further use in future when the demand for
electricity is high.
3. One of the biggest advantages of hydroelectric power plants is that they are designed to last
many decades, and so they can contribute to the generation of electricity for years.
4. Large dams often become tourist attractions because the lake that forms in the reservoir area
behind the dam can be used for leisure or water sports.
5. The water from the lake of the dam can be used for irrigation purposes in farming.
6. Since the water is released to produce electricity, the build-up of water in the dam is stored to
produce extra energy until needed.
7. Hydroelectric energy generation does not pollute the atmosphere because the hydroelectric
power plant does not produce greenhouse gases.
8. Hydropower plants can be considered a reliable energy generation source. Since hydropower
totally depends on water present on this planet, this energy source will remain inexhaustible
because of the water cycle as it continuously keeps on maintaining balance on the Earth.

Disadvantages of Hydroelectric Energy

1. It is not an easy task to assemble a hydropower plant because the dams are extremely
expensive to build, and they require extremely high standards and calculations for their
construction.
2. It becomes important that the hydropower plant must serve for many decades because of its
high cost of construction, and this totally depends on the availability of water resources.
3. If flooding happens due to natural calamities or the failure of dams, it would impact a large
area of land, which means that the natural environment can be destroyed.
4. People are forcibly removed from the particular area where a hydropower plant is going to be
assembled. This affects the day-to-day life of people living in that area.
5. A serious geological damage can be caused due to the construction of large dams.
6. To construct a hydro plant, it is important to block the running water source due to which the
fishes can’t arrive at their favourable place, and as the water stops streaming, the areas along
the riverside start to vanish out which eventually influences the life of creatures that depend on
fish for food.
Advantages of Hydropower Plants

Here are a few advantages of hydropower plants :

 Water is available throughout the year

 Operational and maintenance cost is lower than other power plants
 The cost of fuel is nil
 Hydro Plants are made for multiple purposes
 The requirement of working staff is less. The cost of expenses is lower as compared
to other plants.
Water is available throughout the year: Water is a natural resource that is available all year
round. The quality and quantity of it may get reduced due to seasonal change or other man-
made reasons but it can get replenished with time. Anyone setting hydropower plants will
make sure that water must be easily accessible in the areas where plants have been set up.

Operational and maintenance cost is lower than other power plants: The Hydropower
plants which are set up require huge infrastructure to build embankments and thus capital or
finance required is also huge only at initial stages but less as compared to other plants. For
example, a thermal power plant requires not only infrastructure but also operational and
maintenance expense is high as there are daily requirements of raw material I.e. Coal to run
the plants and machines has to be repaired regularly. Thus we can conclude here that
hydropower plants have a lower cost expense as compared to other electricity-producing
plants.

The cost of fuel is nil: Fuel is not required in Hydropower plants as everything depends on
the flow of water to generate electricity. Plants do not consume water to generate electricity
like other plants consume fuel to produce electricity.

Hydro Plants are made for multiple purposes: Hydropower plants serve not only the
purpose of production of electricity but are also used for other purposes like irrigation,
controlling flood, recreational, etc. We can therefore say that hydropower plants also help in
developing the economy of a nation indirectly also.

The requirement of working staff is less: Staff required to monitor the working of the plant
is less. This also leads to reducing the cost of operation of hydropower plants and making it
economical for a country.

The cost of expenses is lower as compared to other plants: Expenses like transportation of

raw material, wages, etc. requirement is least in the case of the hydropower plant. Other
plants have to pay daily wages to workers and also spend a lot on transportation of raw
material.

Disadvantages of Hydropower Plants

Listed are a few Disadvantages of Hydropower Plants.

 Embankment construction cost is high

 Land space requirement for set up is large
 Water must be abundant to continue the process
 Aquatic life is effected
 Embankment areas need to be evacuated for flood plains.

Embankment construction cost is high: The cost of construction of infrastructure I.e. The
embankment is high at the initial stages. Hydropower requires huge capital as an investment
at the starting point while other electricity-producing plants require to make plants and set
up machines that are lower as compared to it.

Land space requirement for set up is large: Since an embankment or dam is made upon the
river, therefore, the land required for setting up the huge infrastructure is large.
Water must be abundant to continue the process: Requirements of water in hydropower
plants is must but some time due to certain drought conditions or some natural causes,
quantity gets decreased and with less amount of water, generation of electricity gets
interrupted.

Aquatic life is affected: Embankment reduces the possibility for fish to reach their breeding
ground which in turn affects other animals as they rely upon fish for food. As the flow of
water ceases, the nearby habitat of rivers gets reduced also they are not able to access
water.

Embankment area needs to be evacuated for flood plains: A hydropower plant wherever
made the nearby locality and area are affected at large as people residing there have to
evacuate to fulfil the needs of plants. Sometimes due to heavy rainfall or typhoons, the
embankment although strong would affect a large number of people residing in an area
nearby, same happened in the case of Banqiao Dam where people have to suffer flood as
the dam collapsed due to strong wind and heavy rainfall and approximately 171000
Localities have to lose their life.

Advantages of hydropower plant Disadvantages of Hydropower Plant 

Water is available throughout the year Embankment construction cost is high.

Operational and maintenance cost is lower than

Land space requirement for set up is large
other power plants

The cost of fuel is nil Water must be abundant to continue the process

Hydro Plants are made for multiple purposes Aquatic life is effected

The requirement of working staff is less. The cost Embankment areas need to be evacuated for flood

of expenses is lower as compared to other plants. plains

Nuclear reactors

What is a nuclear reactor?

A nuclear reactor is a system that contains and controls sustained nuclear chain
reactions.
Principles of operation:
Nuclear reactors operate on the principle of nuclear fission, the process in which a
heavy atomic nucleus splits into two smaller fragments. The nuclear fragments are
in very excited states and emit neutrons, other subatomic particles, and photons.
The emitted neutrons may then cause new fissions, which in turn yield more
neutrons, and so forth. Such a continuous self-sustaining series of fissions
constitutes a fission chain reaction. A large amount of energy is released in this
process, and this energy is the basis of nuclear power systems.
Uses or applications:
Reactors are used for generating electricity, moving aircraft carriers and submarines,
producing medical isotopes for imaging and cancer treatment, and for conducting
research.
Note:
About 10 % of the world’s electricity is produced from nuclear energy
Nuclear power is the fifth-largest source of electricity in India after coal, gas,
hydroelectricity and wind power.
As of November 2020, India has 22 nuclear reactors in operation in 8 nuclear power
plants, with a total installed capacity of 7,380 MWe (Megawatt electric). Among
these eighteen reactors are Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs) and four
are Light Water Reactors (LWRs).
Apsara , the first research reactor in Asia became operational in Trombay campus of
Bhabha Atomic Research Centre in August 1956.
Nuclear fuel source: Uranium 235 and Plutonium 239
India's domestic uranium reserves are small and the country is dependent on
uranium imports to fuel its nuclear power industry mainly from Russia.
In March 2011 large deposits of uranium were discovered in the Tummalapalle belt
in Andhra Pradesh.
The Tummalapalle belt uranium reserves promises to be one of the world's top 20
uranium reserves discoveries. 44,000 tonnes of natural uranium have been
discovered in the belt so far.
Types of nuclear reactors:
Pressurized water reactor (PWR)
 This is the most common type
 Nuclear fission produces heat inside the reactor. That heat is transferred to
water circulating around the uranium fuel in the first of three separate water
systems.
 The water is heated to extremely high temperatures, but doesn’t boil because
the water is under pressure.
 The water within the primary system passes over the reactor core to act as a
moderator and coolant but does not flow to the turbine.
 It is contained in a pressurized piping loop. The hot, pressurized water
passes through a series of tubes inside the steam generator.
 These tubes are surrounded by another water system called the secondary or
steam generating system. The heat, but not the water, from the primary
coolant is transferred to the secondary, system which then, turns into steam.
 The primary and secondary systems are closed systems. This means the
water flowing through the reactor remains separate and does not mix with
water from the other systems.
 The steam is pumped from the containment building into the turbine building
to push the giant blades of the turbine. The turbine is connected to an
electrical generator.
 After turning the turbines, the steam is cooled by passing it over tubes
carrying a third water system called the condenser coolant. As the steam is
cooled, it condenses back into water and is returned to the steam generator to
be used again and again.
Advantages:
Since the primary and secondary loops are separate, water can never be
contaminated by radioactive material in the main system loop.
The core of the reactor contains less fissile material, decreasing the chances of
additional fission events to occur, making the reactor safer and more controllable
Disadvantages:
The reactor requires very strong piping and a heavy pressure vessel in order to
ensure that the highly pressurized water remains at a liquid state when sustaining
high temperatures, making the construction of the PWR costly.
Boiling water reactor (BWR)
 Unlike the PWR, inside the boiling water reactor, the primary water system
absorbs enough heat from the fission process to boil its water.
 In contrast to the PWR, the BWR uses only two separate water systems as it

has no separate steam generator system.

 This steam and water mixture rises to the top of the reactor and passes
through two stages of moisture separation.
 Water droplets are then removed and steam is allowed to enter the steam line.
The steam is directed to the turbine. The turbine begins to turn within the
generator and electricity is produced.
 Once the turbines have turned, the remaining steam is cooled in the
condenser coolant system. This is a closed water system.
 Heat from the steam is absorbed by the cool water through heat transference.
The water within the two systems does not mix.
 Once through the condenser system, the water is recycled back into the
reactor to begin the process again.
 Advantages:
The associated components work at a lower pressure of about 70–75 bars than
about 155 bars in a pressurized water reactor. The pressure vessel does not
become brittle with age.

There is a lower risk of a rupture causing loss of coolant than in a pressurized

water reactor
Disadvantages:
Contamination of the turbine created by short-lived activation products is another
drawback of the boiling water reactor.
A boiling water reactor continues to generate heat even after the fission reactions
have ended, which could lead to possible core damage.

Pressurized heavy water reactor (PHWR)

 PHWR is a nuclear power reactor, commonly using unenriched natural
uranium as its fuel. It uses heavy water (Deuterium oxide D2O) as its coolant
and moderator.
 The heavy water coolant is kept under pressure, allowing it to be heated to
higher temperatures without boiling, much as in a typical pressurized water
reactor.
 While heavy water is significantly more expensive than ordinary light water, it
yields greatly enhanced neutron economy, allowing the reactor to operate
without fuel enrichment facilities.
Advantages:
The use of heavy water as the moderator is the key to the PHWR (pressurized
heavy water reactor) system, enabling the use of natural uranium as the fuel (in the
form of ceramic UO2), which means that it can be operated without expensive
uranium enrichment facilities.

Disadvantages:

Heavy water generally costs hundreds of dollars per kilogram, though this is a
trade-off against reduced fuel costs.
The increased rate of fuel movement through the reactor also results in higher
volumes of spent fuel than in LWRs employing enriched uranium

Fast neutron reactors(FNR)

 The fast reactor has no moderator and relies on fast neutrons alone to
cause fission, which for uranium is less efficient than using slow neutrons.
 Hence a fast reactor usually uses plutonium as its basic fuel, since it
 fissions sufficiently with fast neutrons to keep going.
 At the same time the number of neutrons produced per plutonium-239
fission is 25% more than from uranium, and this means that there are
enough (after losses) not only to maintain the chain reaction but also
continually to convert U-238 into more Pu-239.
 Furthermore, the fast neutrons are more efficient than slow ones in doing
this breeding, due to more neutrons being released per fission.
 These are the main reasons for avoiding the use of a moderator. The coolant
is a liquid metal (normally sodium) to avoid any neutron moderation and
provide a very efficient heat transfer medium. So, the fast reactor 'burns' and
'breeds' fissile plutonium.
 While the conversion ratio (the ratio of new fissile nuclei to fissioned nuclei)
in a normal reactor is around 0.6, that in a fast reactor may exceed 1.0.

 About 20 fast neutron reactors (FNR) have already been operating.

Advantages :
A breeder reactor creates 30% more fuel than it consumes. After an initial
introduction of enriched uranium, the reactor only needs infrequent addition of
stable uranium, which is then converted into the fuel.
Uranium-235 used by light-water reactors is rare on Earth, and its reserves are
likely to run out within 100 years. On the other side, uranium-238 used by
breeder reactors is plentiful; in fact as common as tin.
Disadvantages:
Breeder reactors use highly enriched fuels, which pose the danger of critical
accidents. They also work at a very high temperature and a fast pace.
It requires liquefied sodium or potassium metal as a coolant, as water would slow
down the neutrons. These metals can cause a mishap, as they react violently when
exposed to water or air.
Plutonium persists for a long time in the environment, with a half-life of 24,000
years, and is highly toxic, causing lung cancer even if a small amount is inhaled.
Breeder reactors have had several accidents. For example, in the US, the
Experimental Breeder Reactor I suffered a meltdown in 1955. Similarly, Reactor
Fermi I suffered a partial meltdown in 1966, and was closed down after a series of
sodium explosions. Currently, only Russia, China, India, and Japan have operational
breeder reactors.
Why India uses PHWR?
The main reasons for selecting PHWRs in the 1960s for the First Stage of the
Indian nuclear power programme have been the use of natural uranium oxide as
the fuel, the best utilisation of mined uranium in energy production and the
prospect of establishing a completely self-reliant technology.
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COMBUSTION PRINCIPLE

• Combustion is a chemical reaction between a Fuel and Oxygen Which

is accompanied by the production of considerable amount of Heat

• Usually Its an Endothermic Reaction The reaction has to be initiated

By some Source Of High Temperature Energy (ignition)

• Combustion refers to the rapid oxidation results in large amount of

heat is released
• Solid and liquid fuels must be changed to a gas before they will
burn.
• Combustion plants are fired by wide variety of fuels from natural
gas but common to all is the combustion of fuels containing the
elements are CARBON and HYDROGEN generally known as
Hvdrocarbon Fuels.
• The heat of combustion (energy content) of natural gas is the
amount of energy that is obtained from the burning of a volume of
natural gas, measured in British thermal units (Btu). The value of
natural gas is calculated by its Btu content. One Btu is the quantity
of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water by
1 degree Fahrenheit at atmospheric pressure. A cubic foot of
natural gas has an energy content of approximately 1,031 Btu, but
the range of values is between 500 and 1,500 Btu, depending upon
the composition of the gas.
• The heat of combustion (energy content) of natural gas is the
amount of energy that is obtained from the burning of a volume of
natural gas, measured in British thermal units (Btu). The value of
natural gas is calculated by its Btu content. One Btu is the quantity
of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water by
1 degree Fahrenheit at atmospheric pressure. A cubic foot of
natural gas has an energy content of approximately 1,031 Btu, but
the range of values is between 500 and 1,500 Btu, depending upon
the composition of the gas.
• Thus, the energy content of natural gas is variable because natural
gas has variations in the amount and types of energy gases
(methane, ethane, propane, butane) it contains: the more non-
combustible gases in the natural gas, the lower the energy (Btu). In
addition, the volume mass of energy gases which are present in a
natural gas accumulation also influences the Btu value of natural
gas. The more carbon atoms in a hydrocarbon gas, the higher its
Btu value. It is necessary to conduct the Btu analysis of natural gas
at each stage of the supply chain. Gas chromatographic process
analyzers are used in order to conduct fractional analysis of the
natural gas streams, separating natural gas into identifiable
components. The components and their concentrations are
converted into a gross heating value in Btu-cubic foot.
 •
• COMBUSTION REACTIONS:
CH4 + 2 O2 CO2 + 2 H2O

Methane + oxygen carbon dioxide + water

COMBUSTION PROCESS:

There are several processes of combustion Of

Fuel

1. Bringing together the fuel and air

2. Ignition the reaction

3. Ensuring that the flame burns in a stable manner

4. Extracting useful heat from the process

5. Arranging for the Safe disposal of the products of combustion.

BASIC ELEMENT OF COMBUSTION:

The fire triangles or combustion triangles or "fire diamond" are simple

models for understanding the necessary ingredients for most fires.

The triangle illustrates the three elements a fire needs to ignite: heat,
fuel, and an oxidizing agent (usually oxygen)

PHASES OF COMBUSTION:

1. Pre-Ignition:
Heat is required to raise a fuel to ignition temperature.(600 degree
F)
 2. Ignition:
Process where a rapid exothermic reaction is initiated which causes
the material to undergo changes producing temperature greatly in
excess of ambiet.
3. Combustion:
Flaming = Volatiles that are produced in the pre heating phase
ignite to form a visible flame.
-smoldering = the remaining carbon may burn as a solid surface
oxidation.
4. Extinction:
Opposite of ignition (termination of combustion)
-moisture content of fuel can play a large role.
FACTORS THAT INCREASE THE COMBUSTION PROCESS:
-flames are brought closer to the fuel slope.
- the wind pushes the flames over wind
- the amount of time the fire has burnt
- the ventilation characteristics of the confining structure.
- the amount and type of combustible present.

Types of Combustion
1] Complete Combustion

One of the types of combustion is Complete Combustion. Complete

combustion occurs in an unlimited supply of air, oxygen in particular.
Also, complete combustion is also known as clean combustion. Here the
hydrocarbon will burn out completely with the oxygen and leave only
two byproducts, water, and carbon dioxide.

An example of this is when a candle burns. The heat from the wick will
vaporize the wax which reacts with the oxygen in the air. The two
products of the reaction are water and carbon dioxide. In an ideal
situation all the wax burns up and complete combustion takes place

Incomplete Combustion

Incomplete combustion takes place when the air is in limited supply.

And as opposed to complete combustion it is otherwise known as dirty
combustion. Due to lack of oxygen, the fuel will not react completely.
This, in turn, produces carbon monoxide and soot instead of carbon
dioxide.

An example is burning of paper. It leaves behind ash (a form of soot) as

a byproduct. In a complete combustion, the only products are water and
carbon dioxide. Also, incomplete combustion produces less energy than
complete combustion.

3] Rapid Combustion

Another type of combustion is Rapid Combustion. Rapid energy needs

external heat energy for the reaction to occur. The combustion produces
a large amount of heat and light energy and does so rapidly. The
combustion will carry on as long as the fuel is available.

An example is when you light a candle. The heat energy is provided

when we light the candle with a matchstick. And it will carry on till the
wax burns out. Hence it is a rapid combustion.

4] Spontaneous Combustion

As the name suggests the combustion occurs spontaneously. This means

that it requires no external energy for the combustion to start. It happens
due to self-heating. A substance with low-ignition temperatures gets
heated and this heat is unable to escape.

The temperature rises above ignition point and in the presence of

sufficient oxygen combustion will happen. The reaction of alkali metals
with water is an example.

5] Explosive Combustion

Explosive Combustion happens when the reaction occurs very rapidly.

The reaction occurs when something ignites to produce heat, light and
sound energy, The simple way to describe is it to call it an explosion.
Some classic examples are firecrackers or blowing up of dynamite.
Internal combustion engines provide outstanding drivability and
durability, with more than 250 million highway transportation vehicles
in the United States relying on them. Along with gasoline or diesel, they
can also utilize renewable or alternative fuels (e.g., natural gas, propane,
biodiesel, or ethanol). They can also be combined with hybrid electric
powertrains to increase fuel economy or plug-in hybrid electric systems
to extend the range of hybrid electric vehicles.

How Does an Internal Combustion Engine Work?

Combustion, also known as burning, is the basic chemical process of

releasing energy from a fuel and air mixture. In an internal combustion
engine (ICE), the ignition and combustion of the fuel occurs within the
engine itself. The engine then partially converts the energy from the
combustion to work. The engine consists of a fixed cylinder and a
moving piston. The expanding combustion gases push the piston, which
in turn rotates the crankshaft. Ultimately, through a system of gears in
the powertrain, this motion drives the vehicle’s wheels.

There are two kinds of internal combustion engines currently in

production: the spark ignition gasoline engine and the compression
ignition diesel engine. Most of these are four-stroke cycle engines,
meaning four piston strokes are needed to complete a cycle. The cycle
includes four distinct processes: intake, compression, combustion and
power stroke, and exhaust.
Spark ignition gasoline and compression ignition diesel engines differ in
how they supply and ignite the fuel. In a spark ignition engine, the fuel
is mixed with air and then inducted into the cylinder during the intake
process. After the piston compresses the fuel-air mixture, the spark
ignites it, causing combustion. The expansion of the combustion gases
pushes the piston during the power stroke. In a diesel engine, only air is
inducted into the engine and then compressed. Diesel engines then spray
the fuel into the hot compressed air at a suitable, measured rate, causing
it to ignite.