UNIT-III

Energy Resources, Electricity Bill, Safety Measures

and Semiconductor Devices
Syllabus:
Energy Resources: Conventional and non-conventional energy resources; Layout and operation
of various Power Generation systems: Hydel, Nuclear, Solar & Wind power generation.
Electricity bill: Power rating of household appliances including air conditioners, PCs, Laptops,
Printers, etc. Definition of “unit” used for consumption of electrical energy, two-part electricity
tariff, calculation of electricity bill for domestic consumers. (Simple numerical problem)
Equipment Safety Measures: Working principle of Fuse and Miniature circuit breaker (MCB),
merits and demerits. Personal safety measures: Electric Shock, Earthing and its types, Safety
Precautions to avoid shock.
Semiconductor Devices: Introduction - Evolution of electronics – Vacuum tubes to nano
electronics - Characteristics of PN Junction Diode — Zener Effect — Zener Diode and its
Characteristics. Bipolar Junction Transistor — CB, CE, CC Configurations and Characteristics
— Elementary Treatment of Small Signal CE Amplifier. (Elementary Treatment only)
Energy Resources
Introduction to Conventional and Non-Conventional Resources

Thus, conventional energy sources are provided by nature but are present only in restricted
quantities. Although, the non-conventional sources are present in unlimited amounts and
provided by nature.

Conventional sources of energy

Convection energy sources are naturally present and have been in use for years. The use of
conventional sources is done for heating, lighting, cooking, running machinery, and provision of
electricity. The examples for which include firewood, fossil fuels, and others. In addition,
firewood has been extensively used for cooking purposes in remote regions of India.

Advantages for conventional energy sources are

Easily Available
Efficient and good electricity conversion
Low exploration costs
Disadvantages
Time-consuming collection process
Pollutes the atmosphere
Destroys natural ecosystems
Displaces local communities
 Initial set-up could be costly
Non- Conventional energy of sources
Non-conventional sources could be obtained from sun, wind, hot springs, and others that support heat
and power generation. They are non-polluting and present in abundance within the earth’s
atmosphere.
Solar Energy- The light from the sun is used to generate electricity by trapping the solar cells within the
panels.
Wind-Wind energy has been used for many years for grinding grains in mills. Although, in recent years, it
has been used to generate electricity by harnessing the energy of winds by turbines attached to
substantial capacity generators.
Nuclear Power Plants- Nuclear energy is acquired from nuclei atoms that occur naturally in radioactive
sources like uranium, thorium, and others. Nuclear fuels emit power when undergone in nuclear
reactors. Globally, the USA and Europe are the largest nuclear power producers, although in India,
uranium is found in Jharkhand, and thorium is found in Kerala.
Geothermal Energy- The heat acquired from the earth is geothermal energy. In many areas, hot springs
are witnessed as part of geothermal energy.
Tidal Energy- Tidal waves also generate energy harnessed by erecting dams.

Hydro Power Plant:

Hydro Power Plant is an electricity-producing plant in which the water is an essential fuel,
the potential energy is being converted into kinetic energy and kinetic energy is further
converted into mechanical and into electrical energy with the help of a turbine and motor.
Hydro Power Plant Layout or Construction:
The following Construction or Layout of Hydro Power Plant:
1. Headpond or Reservoir
2. Control gate
3. Penstock
4. Turbine
5. Draft Tube
6. Tail Race
7. Transmission Line
8. Generator
9. Transformer
10. Powerhouse
Head pond:
There is one reservoir which is having a large area in which A huge amount of water is being
stored here. So the energy here is in the form of Potential energy.

Control Gate:
There are having multiple control gates in a single hydro power plant. The work of control gate
is to regulate the flow of water. When the control gate is fully opened the speed of water flowing
is maximum.

Penstock:
The penstock is also called Pipe. The water stored at the dam or head pond is being released by
the control gate, the water starts moving to the turbine. The Head pond is having high heights
and the Turbine is situated below.
So the speed of water gets increased because of gravitational force. The material of the penstock
is hard steel being used.
Valve and Nozzle:
The valve work is similar to the control gate and Nozzle work is striking water in a specific
direction [Pressure is high] that is a turbine blade.
Surge tank:
Surge tank is an additional and essential component which is used to accumulate the water which
is in pipe when we want to close the turbine working. Or you can say it is used for avoiding the
pipe burst.

Turbine:
Turbine is a device which is used for generation of electricity. Turbine work is, the fluid having
kinetic energy is being converted into rotational energy.
The high kinetic energy water comes through the penstock to the nozzle and strikes the turbine
blades. The turbine blades start rotating. So the rotational energy can also be called mechanical
energy.

Draft Tube:
Drat tube is mechanical component which is used for enlarging the area of pipe for sending
maximum fluid to the other side.

Tail Race:
Tailrace carries water away from the plant. Hence the water is sent to the river.

Transmission Line:
The transmission line carries power from the power unit or transformer and transfers or supplies
from one source to another. It is made up of conductor.

Generator:
When the turbine buckets starts rotating, the turbine shafts also rotating. the motors are attached
to the turbine shafts which is also rotating and generator is attached to them which generates
electricity.

Transformer:
The transformer is attached to the generator. The electricity genearted is now controlled by the
transformr. The work of transformer is to set up or set down the voltage.

Power House:
The name power house means there is a house in which the power is being stored ]and released
to the transformer and so on.

Hydro Power Plant Working:

In a large amount of water is available or you can say a river. The water is being stored in the
reservoir which is in the form of potential energy. With the use of the control gate, the water is
being released and water starts flowing into the penstock. Here two components are attached 1.
Surge tank, Valve, and Nozzle.

[Potential Energy to Kinetic Energy to Mechanical Energy to Electrical Energy]

Initially, the valve is closed. But when the water reaches up to the max level that can create high
pressure then we on the valves. The water with high pressure starts flowing and strikes to the
turbine blades through the nozzle.

The turbine blades start rotating. So till now, we observed the water which is having PE is now
converting into KE.

In the turbine blade, an electric motor is attached to the turbine shafts. So rotation of turbine
blades also rotates the turbine shafts, which also rotates the electric motor. Hence Kinematic
energy into mechanical energy and then further it is converted into electric energy.
 The energy generated is sent to the powerhouse, Transformer, and Transmission line.
The water which is rotating the turbine blades is now sent to the river via a tailrace.

The hydropower plant is constructed to store the water in a large amount. When the water
reaches up to the max level then it is being released which also causes the flood in some area
(due to sudden release of water).

.Hydro Power Plant Advantages:

The following advantages of Hydro Power plant are:

 Hydro-generation has a unique and significant role to play particularly in the operation of
interconnected power systems.
 The operating cost of the hydroelectric plant including auxiliaries is considerably low when
compared with thermal plants. The annual operating and maintenance cost of a thermal plant is
approximately 5- 6 times that of a hydro plant of equal capacity.
 These are simple in design easy to maintain, pollution-free with zero fuelling cost.
 The cost of power generation is less.
 The life expectancy of a hydroelectric power plant is more. The useful life of a thermal plant is
20-25 years as against 100-125 years for the hydro plants.
 There is no problem with handling the fuel and ash and no nuisance of smoke exhaust gases and
spots and no health hazards due to air pollution.
 The fuel needed for the thermal plant has to be purchased, whereas in Hydro-plant the fuel cost is
totally absent.
 Hydroelectric plants are quick to respond to the change of load compared with thermal Power
Plant or nuclear plants.
 The rapidly fluctuating loads are served most economically by Hydro-plant.
 The machines used in hydel plants are more robust and generally run at low speeds at 300-400
RPM, whereas the machines used in thermal plants run at a speed of 3000- 4,000 RPM.
 The efficiency of the hydro plants does not change with age, but there is a considerable reduction
in the Efficiency of thermal as well as a nuclear power plant with age.
 In a hydroelectric plant, there are no standby losses, whereas these are unavoidable for thermal
plants and the number of operations required is considerably small compared with the thermal
power plant.
 It does not contribute to air and water pollution to the greenhouse effect
 Usually, the hydro station is situated away from the developed area therefore the cost of land is
not a major problem.
Hydro Power Plant Disadvantages:
The following disadvantages of Hydro Power plant are:
 The capital cost (cost per kilowatt capacity) installed ) of the hydro plant is considerably more
than the thermal plant.
 It takes a considerable long time for its erection compared with thermal plants.
 Power generation by the hydro plant is only dependent on the quantity of water available which
in turn depends on the natural phenomenon of rain. The dry year is more serious for the
hydroelectric project.
 The site of Hydroelectric station is selected on the criterion of water availability at economical
head such sites are usually away from the load center.
 The transmission of power from the power station to the load center requires along transmission
lines. Therefore investment required for long transmission lines and loss of power during
transmission is an unfavorable factor for the economical selection of hydro plants.

Nuclear Power Plant

How Does A Nuclear Power Plant Work?

Heavy elements such as Uranium (U 235) or Thorium (Th232) are subjected to nuclear fission
reaction in a nuclear reactor. Due to fission, a large amount of heat energy is produced which is
transferred to the reactor coolant. The coolant may be water, gas or a liquid metal. The heated
coolant is made to flow through a heat exchanger where water is converted into high-temperature
steam. The generated steam is then allowed to drive a steam turbine. The steam, after doing its
work, is converted back into the water and recycled to the heat exchanger. The steam turbine is
coupled to an alternator which generates electricity. The generated electrical voltage is then
stepped up using a transformer for the purpose of long distance transmission.

The image below shows basic components and layout of a nuclear power station.
Basic Components Of A Nuclear Power Plant

Nuclear Reactor

A nuclear reactor is a special apparatus used to perform nuclear fission. Since the nuclear fission
is radioactive, the reactor is covered by a protective shield. Splitting up of nuclei of heavy atoms
is called as nuclear fission, during which huge amount of energy is released. Nuclear fission is
done by bombarding slow moving neutrons on the nuclei of heavy element. As the nuclei break
up, it releases energy as well as more neutrons which further cause fission of neighboring atoms.
Hence, it is a chain reaction and it must be controlled, otherwise it may result in explosion. A
nuclear reactor consists of fuel rods, control rods and moderator. A fuel rod contains small round
fuel pallets (uranium pallets). Control rods are of cadmium which absorb neutrons. They are
inserted into reactor and can be moved in or out to control the reaction. The moderator can be
graphite rods or the coolant itself. Moderator slows down the neutrons before they bombard on
the fuel rods.
Two types of nuclear reactors that are widely used -
1. PressurisedWaterReactor(PWR) -
This type of reactor uses regular water as coolant. The coolant (water) is kept at very high
pressure so that it does not boil. The heated water is transferred through heat exchanger
where water from secondary coolant loop is converted into steam. Thus the secondary loop
is completely free from radioactive stuff. In a PWR, the coolant water itself acts as a
moderator. Due to these advantages, pressurised water reactors are most commonly used.
2. BoilingWaterReactor(BWR) -
In this type of reactor only one coolant loop is present. The water is allowed to boil in the
reactor. The steam is generated as it heads out of the reactor and then flows through the
steam turbine. One major disadvantage of a BWR is that, the coolant water comes in direct
contact with fuel rods as well as the turbine. So, there is a possibility that radioactive
material could be placed on the turbine.

Heat Exchanger

In the heat exchanger, the primary coolant transfers heat to the secondary coolant (water). Thus
water from the secondary loop is converted into steam. The primary system and secondary
system are closed loop, and they are never allowed to mix up with each other. Thus, heat
exchanger helps in keeping secondary system free from radioactive stuff. Heat exchanger is
absent in boiling water reactors.

Steam Turbine

Generated steam is passed through a steam turbine, which runs due to pressure of the steam. As
the steam is passed through the turbine blades, the pressure of steam gradually decreases and it
expands in volume. The steam turbine is coupled to an alternator through a rotating shaft.
Alternator
The steam turbine rotates the shaft of an alternator thus generating electrical energy. Electrical
output of the alternator is the delivered to a step up transformer to transfer it over distances.

Condenser

The steam coming out of the turbine, after it has done its work, is then converted back into water
in a condenser. The steam is cooled by passing it through a third cold water loop.
 Solar Power Plant
What is Solar Power Plant?
The solar power plant is also known as the Photovoltaic (PV) power plant. It is a large-scale PV
plant designed to produce bulk electrical power from solar radiation. The solar power plant uses
solar energy to produce electrical power. Therefore, it is a conventional power plant.
Solar energy can be used directly to produce electrical energy using solar PV panels. Or there is
another way to produce electrical energy that is concentrated solar energy. In this type of plant,
the radiation energy of solar first converted into heat (thermal energy) and this heat is used to
drive a conventional generator. This method is difficult and not efficient to produce electrical
power on a large scale.
Hence, to produce electrical power on a large scale, solar PV panels are used. In this article, we
will explain details about solar PV plants and PV panels. Below is the layout plan of
photovoltaic power plant.

Components of Solar Power Plant

The major components of the solar photovoltaic system are listed below.
 Photovoltaic (PV) panel
 Inverter
 Energy storage devices
 Charge controller
 System balancing component

Photovoltaic (PV) Panel

PV panels or Photovoltaic panel is a most important component of a solar power plant. It is made
up of small solar cells. This is a device that is used to convert solar photon energy into electrical
energy.
Generally, silicon is used as a semiconductor material in solar cells. The typical rating of silicon
solar cells is 0.5 V and 6 Amp. And it is equivalent to 3 W power. The number of cells is
connected in series or parallel and makes a module. The number of modules forms a solar panel.
According to the capacity of power plants, a number of plates are mounted and a group of panels
is also known as Photovoltaic (PV) array.
Inverter
The output of the solar panel is in the form of DC. The most of load connected to the power
system network is in the form of AC. Therefore, we need to convert DC output power into AC
power. For that, an inverter is used in solar power plants.
For a large-scaled grid-tied power plant, the inverter is connected with special protective devices.
And a transformer is also connected with the inverter to assures the output voltage and frequency
as per the standard supply.
Energy storage devices
The batteries are used to store electrical energy generated by the solar power plants. The storage
components are the most important component in a power plant to meet the demand and
variation of the load. This component is used especially when the sunshine is not available for
few days.
The capacity of a battery is that how much amount of electrical power it can store. The capacity
of batteries is measured in Ampere-hours (AH) rating.
For example, a battery having 100 AH battery can supply 1 Amp current for 100 hours or 100
Amp current for 1 hour.
For a long life of a battery, never fully discharge a battery. And in case, if a battery is fully
discharged, never keep fully discharged battery for a long time.
The capacity of a battery is affected by the temperature. There is a reduction of 0.6% of capacity
for every degree Celsius rise in temperature more than 25˚ C.
There are two types of batteries used in the solar power plant;
 Lead-Acid battery
 Nickel-Cadmium battery
Charge Controller
A charge controller is used to control the charging and discharging of the battery. The charge
controller is used to avoid the overcharging of the battery. The overcharging of a battery may
lead to corrosion and reduce plate growth. And in the worst condition, it may damage the
electrolyte of the battery.
Sometimes, the charge controller is termed a solar battery charger. There are many technologies
used to make a charge controller. For example, the most popular technique is the MPPT charge
controller that is known as “Maximum Power Point Tracking”. This algorithm is used to
optimize the production of PV cells.
System balancing component
It is a set of components used to control, protect and distribute power in the system. These
devices ensure that the system working in proper condition and utilize energy in the proper
direction. And it ensures maximum output and security of other components of a solar power
plant.
Blocking diode
The solar PV panels are connected with a battery. And these panels are used to charge the battery
during sunlight is available. During charging of the battery, the current flows from panel to
battery. But when the sunlight is not available, the current can be flow in a reverse direction and
it may harm the solar panel. So, the blocking diode is a diode that is connected between the
battery and panel to avoid reversal current from battery to panel.
Voltage regulator
The output of solar panels depends on sunlight. And the sunlight is not constantly available. It is
continuously varying. Similarly, the output of the solar panel is also varying with respect to
sunlight. This results in fluctuation in load current. The voltage regulators are used to maintain
fluctuation within an acceptable range.
Performance of Solar Cell
A solar cell is nothing but a PN junction. The plot of short-circuit current (ISC) and open-circuit
voltage (VOC) describes the performance of the solar cell. This plot is shown in the figure
below.
As shown in the above graph, Initially, the short-circuit current remains constant with an increase
in voltage. And a further increase in voltage results in a rapid decrease in current.
The power developed by the solar cell is calculated by multiplying current and voltage. And
from that, we can draw a graph of power developed. As shown in the graph of developed power,
at point P, the power is maximum. And we try to operate the panel at this point. This point is
known as the maximum PowerPoint. And the algorithm used to track this point is known as
maximum power point tracking (MPPT). The voltage at which the power is maximum is
considered as maximum voltage (Vm) and maximum current (Im).
The factor which is used to describe the performance of the solar cell is known as the fill factor.
The value of the fill factor remains between 0 to 1.
Fill Factor = Vm Im / VOC ISC
Vm Im = Fill Factor × VOC ISC
The equivalent circuit of solar cells is as shown in the figure below.
Where,
 Isc = Source current generated by the sunlight
 Ij = Junction current
 I = Current passes through the load
 RL = Load resistance
The relationship between current and voltage at the PN junction is given as the equation below.

Where,
 I0 = Saturation current
 V = Junction voltage
 e = electron charge = 1.602×10-19 J/V
 k = Boltzmann’s constant = 1.381×10-23 J/K
 T = Temperature (K)
Solar Cell Efficiency
The solar cells are a device that used to convert the photon energy into electrical energy. The
efficiency of solar cells equates as below;
Quantum Efficiency QE,

Theoretically, solar cells are used to operate at maximum efficiency. The main factors affecting
the efficiency of solar cells are listed below.
 Temperature
 Sun Intensity
 Solar Shading
 Reflection
Temperature
Due to the intrinsic characteristic of the semiconductor material, the efficiency of solar cells is
highly impacted by temperature. The solar cells cannot operate efficiently at a higher
temperature. And the efficiency of solar cells is high with lower temperatures.
Sun Intensity
The sun’s intensity varies throughout the day. In the afternoon, the sun intensity is maximum.
During this time, the efficiency of solar cells is maximum. During evening and morning time, the
sun intensity is not at peak level. Hence, during this time, the efficiency is lower compared to
around afternoon time.
Solar Shading
The efficiency of solar cells is highly dependent on solar sheading. During a cloudy atmosphere,
the solar cells are not capable to generate more energy. During the rainy season, the efficiency of
solar cells decreases due to shading.
Reflection
The solar cell collects photon energy. But the efficiency of cells will decrease if the cells reflect
light away from the surface. Untreated silicon surface reflects light up to 30% of incident light.
To avoid this situation, an anti-reflection coating is used on the surface of the solar cells. Due to
this coating, the solar cells appear dark blue or black.
.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Solar Power Plant

Advantages
The advantages of solar power plants are listed below.
 Solar energy is a clean and renewable source of energy which is an unexhausted source of
energy.
 After installation, the solar power plant produces electrical energy at almost zero cost.
 The life of a solar plant is very high. The solar panels can work up to 25 years.
 This plant is not causing pollution.
 There are no moving parts in solar cells. So, maintenance is not needed to keep a solar plant
running.
 It does not produce any noise.
 For a bulk generation, this plant can be installed in any land. So, there are no specific site
selection criteria like thermal and hydropower plants.
 The solar plant can be installed on the house or flat. So, it reduces the transmission cost as it
generates energy near the load center.
 In a grid-tied power plant, the electrical generate power can directly transfer to the grid and
this will reduce the burden of conventional power plants.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of solar power plants are listed below.
 The initial cost of a solar panel is very high.
 It requires large land to produce electrical power in bulk amounts.
 The solar plant is only installed in countries where sunline is available efficiently.
 During a cloudy atmosphere, the solar plant cannot operate efficiently.
 The efficiency of a solar panel is very less.
 This plant generates electrical energy when sunlight is available. During the night, this plant
cannot generate electrical power. Hence, if you need to use electrical power at night, you
have to install a battery and charge controller. That increases the cost and maintenance of the
plant as the life of a battery is very short.
 In a grid-tide power plant, the inverter is required, which is costly and needs skilled
manpower and new technology to make sync with grid power quality.

WIND TURBINE
The wind is the natural circulation of air across the land or sea. The wind is caused by
uneven heating and cooling of the earth’s surface and by the earth’s rotation. Land and areas
absorb and release a different amount of heat received from the sun

Definition of Wind Power Plant

Wind energy is a natural form of energy that is capable of producing electrical or mechanical
forces. Windmills or wind turbines are devices that are capable of converting the kinetic energy
of wind into mechanical energy. This mechanical energy is further converted into electrical
energy.

Working of Wind Turbine

An internal Block diagram of a wind turbine

When the wind strikes the rotor blades, blades start rotating. The turbine rotor is connected to a
high-speed gearbox. Gearbox transforms the rotor rotation from low speed to high speed. The
high-speed shaft from the gearbox is coupled with the rotor of the generator and hence the
electrical generator runs at a higher speed. An exciter is needed to give the required excitation to
the magnetic coil of the generator field system so that it can generate the required electricity. The
generated voltage at output terminals of the alternator is proportional to both the speed and field
flux of the alternator. The speed is governed by wind power which is out of control. Hence to
maintain uniformity of the output power from the alternator, excitation must be controlled
according to the availability of natural wind power. The exciter current is controlled by a turbine
controller which senses the wind speed. Then output voltage of electrical generator(alternator) is
given to a rectifier where the alternator output gets rectified to DC. Then this rectified DC output
is given to line converter unit to convert it into stabilized AC output which is ultimately fed to
either electrical transmission network or transmission grid with the help of step up transformer.
An extra units is used to give the power to internal auxiliaries of wind turbine (like motor,
battery etc.), this is called Internal Supply Unit.
There are other two control mechanisms attached to a modern big wind turbine.
Controlling the orientation of the turbine blade.

Controlling the orientation of the turbine face.

The orientation of turbine blades is governed from the base hub of the blades. The blades are
attached to the central hub with the help of a rotating arrangement through gears and small
electric motor or hydraulic rotary system. The system can be electrically or mechanically
controlled depending on its design. The blades are swiveled depending upon the speed of the
wind. The technique is called pitch control. It provides the best possible orientation of the turbine
blades along the direction of the wind to obtain optimized wind power.

The orientation of the nacelle or the entire body of the turbine can follow the direction of
changing wind direction to maximize mechanical energy harvesting from the wind. The direction
of the wind along with its speed is sensed by an anemometer (automatic speed measuring
devices) with wind vanes attached to the back top of the nacelle. The signal is fed back to an
electronic microprocessor-based controlling system which governs the yaw motor which rotates
the entire nacelle with gearing arrangement to face the air turbine along the direction of the wind.
Applications of Wind Power

1. The following are the applications of wind energy:

2. It is used for pumping water.
3. It is used for generating electricity.
4. Used for running the floor mill.
5. It is used to lift the water for irrigation purposes.
6. It is used for milling and grinding applications.

Advantages

1. Wind energy is a renewable energy source.

2. It does not require any fuel and avoids transportation.
3. Being free from pollution helps in maintaining ecological balance.
4. It is very economical and competitive.
5. High-altitude areas which are isolated from public use can be utilized for setting the
windmill.
6. A small plot of land is required.
7. It does not require water.
8. Free from risks associated with volatile fossil fuel.

Disadvantages of wind power plant:

1. Continuous power generation is not possible due to fluctuation

2. Noisy is in operation during the conversion of energy.
3. It requires a larger area.
4. It needs high storage capacity due to its irregularity.
5. Wind energy systems have a high overall weight
6. These systems require proper maintenance.