Week 8

Non-renewable Energy
            Non-renewable energy comes from sources that will not be replenished in our
lifetimes- or in many lifetimes. Most non-renewable energy sources are fossil fuels: coal,
petroleum, and natural gas. (National Geographic, n.d.)

Fossil Fuel
            Fossil fuels are carbon-rich deposits from decomposing plants and other organisms
buried beneath layers of sediments and rock. These non-renewable fuels supply about 80%
of the world's energy, providing electricity, heat, and transportation while also powering
processes to produce products ranging from steel to plastics. (Nunez, 2019)

There are three significant types of fossil fuels:

 Coal is black or brown chunks of sedimentary rock formed during the

Carboniferous period when algae and debris from vegetation in swamp forests
settled more profound under layers of mud. Coal is mined via surface or
underground methods. (Nunez, 2019)

 Crude oil is a liquid composed mainly of carbon and hydrogen. Much of it formed
during the Mesozoic period,  like plankton, algae, and other matter sank to the
bottom of the ancient seas and was eventually buried. Oil is extracted from
onshore and offshore wells and refined into various petroleum products,
including gasoline, diesel, and heating oil. (Nunez, 2019)

 Natural Gas is an odorless gas composed mainly of methane. It often lies in

deposits formed million years ago from decaying plant matter and organisms.
(Nunez, 2019)

Electrochemical Energy in Batteries

            Electrochemical energy is defined as "the energy which converts electrical energy to
chemical energy and vice versa." The electrochemical energy is related to fuel cells,
photoelectrochemical, and energy storage systems such as batteries, supercapacitors, or
ultra-capacitors.

a.  Fuel cells

            A device which converts chemical energy obtained from fuel to electrical energy. In
fuel cells, the energy conversion takes place by the chemical reaction. The electrolyte used
in fuel cells is classified as proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) and solid oxide
fuel cell. The efficiency of a fuel cell is around 40–60%.

b.  Photoelectrochemical
            A battery is a device that converts chemical energy into electrical energy by the
chemical reactions in the device. Batteries play a vital role for automobiles and electronic
devices such as mobile phones, watches, and remote devices. There are two types of
batteries such as primary cells and secondary cells.

            Primary cells are your regular batteries. They are safe, inexpensive, and have a long
storage life. They are suitable for light circuit loads such as remote controls, smoke alarms,
watches, clocks, toys, and medical devices. Secondary cells are rechargeable batteries.
They power most portable devices such as computers, cellphones, and electric and hybrid
vehicles. Rechargeable batteries have a particular advantage over regular batteries
because they are reusable, have longer lifetimes, and, thus, more cost-effective.

c.  Supercapacitors
            A supercapacitor is a device that stores energy more than batteries (10 to 100 times
more than batteries). The charge movement is also very fast in this device. These are used
for electric cars, elevators, loco motives, trains and cranes.

Renewable Energy

Let's distinguish between alternative energy and renewable energy.

Alternative energy sources are energy sources that are not based on fossil fuels and
nuclear processes. In contrast, renewable energy sources are energy sources from natural
processes that are constantly replenished.  (Shipman, Wilson, Higgins, Jr., & Lou, 2021) In
large part, these energy sources overlap.

Hydroelectric Power

            Hydroelectric power, also called hydropower, is produced from generators driven by

turbines that convert the potential energy of falling or fast-flowing water into mechanical
energy. In the early 21st century, hydroelectric power was the most widely utilized form of
renewable energy because falling water generates electricity cleanly and efficiently. In 2019
it accounted for more than 18 percent of the world's total power generation capacity.

            In hydroelectric power generation, water is collected or stored at a higher elevation

and led downward through large pipes or tunnels (penstocks) to a lower elevation; the
difference in these two elevations is known as the head. At the end of its passage down the
pipes, the falling water causes turbines to rotate. The turbines, in turn, drive generators,
which convert the turbines' mechanical energy into electricity. Transformers are then used
to convert the alternating voltage suitable for the generators to a higher voltage suitable for
long-distance transmission. The structure that houses the turbines and generators and the
pipes or penstocks feed is called the powerhouse.

Wind Power
            Anything that moves has kinetic energy, and scientists and engineers harness the
wind's kinetic energy to generate electricity. (National Geographic, n.d.) Wind energy, or
wind power, is created using a wind turbine, a device that channels the power of the wind to
generate electricity. (National Geographic, n.d.)

            The wind blows the blades of the turbine, which are attached to a rotor. The rotor
then spins a generator to create electricity. Once the electricity is generated, it can be used,
connected to the electrical grid, or stored for future use.

            The Philippines is one of the largest wind power generators in the ASEAN region.
Currently, there are seven wind farms in the country, namely:

Bangui Wind Farm in Ilocos Norte

Burgos Wind Farm in Ilocos Norte
Caparispisan Wind Farm in Ilocos Norte
Pililla Wind Farm in Rizal
San Lorenzo Wind Farm in Guimaras
Nabas Wind Farm in Aklan
Puerto Galera Wind Farm in Mindoro

            Aside from their capacity to generate electricity,  these wind farms are also tourist
attractions. They also help raise awareness about the benefits of wind power among
tourists who visit these sites.

The Bangui Bay Farm is the first wind farm in Southeast Asia.
Source: "Bangui Windmills" by dougie is licensed under CC BY 2.0

Solar Power
            Solar power is any type of energy generated by the sun. Solar energy is captured in
various ways, the most common of which is with photovoltaic solar panels that convert the
sun's rays into usable electricity. Aside from using photovoltaics to generate electricity, solar
energy is commonly used in thermal applications to heat indoor spaces or fluids. Residential
and commercial property owners can install solar hot water systems and design their
buildings with passive solar heating in mind to fully take advantage of the sun's energy with
solar technology.

            Solar energy is a clean, inexpensive, renewable power source that can be

harnessed nearly everywhere in the world - any point where sunlight hits the surface of the
earth is a potential location to generate solar power. And since solar energy comes from the
sun, it represents a limitless source of power. There will always be consistent sunlight
shining on Earth's surface. After turning sunlight into electricity, there is still an infinite
amount of sunlight to turn into electricity in the future. That is what makes solar power, by
nature, renewable energy.

Geothermal Energy
            Geothermal energy is the heat produced deep in the Earth's core. It is a clean,
renewable resource that can be harnessed for use as heat and electricity.

Low-Temperature Geothermal Energy

Low-temperature geothermal energy is heat energy that can be accessed and used
immediately as a source of heat.  This is obtained from heat pockets about 1500C (3020F),
and most can be found just a few meters below ground. Low-temperature geothermal
energy can be used for heating greenhouses, homes, fisheries, and industrial processes. It
can also be used to generate electricity.

Geothermal Power Plant

To harvest enough energy to generate electricity, geothermal power plants depend on heat
that exists a few kilometers below the Earth's surface.  In some areas, heat naturally exists
underground as pockets of hot water or steam. Most areas, however, need injected water to
create steam.

            At a geothermal power plant, wells are drilled 1 or 2 miles deep into the Earth to
pump steam or hot water to the surface. You're most likely to find one of these power plants
in an area with a lot of hot springs, geysers, or volcanic activity because these are places
where the Earth is particularly hot just below the surface.

1. Hot water is pumped from deep underground through a well under high
pressure.
2. When the water reaches the surface, the pressure is dropped, which causes
the water to turn into steam.
3. The steam spins a turbine, which is connected to a generator that produces
electricity.
4. The steam cools off in a cooling tower and condenses back to the water.
5. The cooled water is pumped back into the Earth to begin the process again.

Hydrothermal Energy
            A geothermal resource requires fluid, heat, and permeability to generate electricity.
Conventional hydrothermal resources contain all three components naturally. These
geothermal systems can occur in widely diverse geologic settings, sometimes without clear
surface manifestations of the underlying resource.

            Three geothermal power plant technologies convert hydrothermal fluids to electricity:

dry steam, flash, and binary cycle. The type of conversion technology used depends on
whether the fluid is present as steam or water and its temperature.

Biomass
            Biomass is any organic matter available on a renewable basis. It includes crops,
wood and wood wastes, animal wastes, municipal wastes, and aquatic plants.

            When burned, the energy in biomass is released as heat. If you have a fireplace,
you already are using biomass as the wood you burn in it is a biomass fuel.

            In biomass power plants, wood waste or other waste is burned to produce steam
that runs a turbine to make electricity or provides heat to industries and homes. Fortunately,
new technologies, including pollution controls and combustion engineering, have advanced
to the point that any emissions from burning biomass in industrial facilities are generally less
than emissions produced when using fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, oil.)

Biogas
            If geological differences produce a fossil fuel, biogas is a renewable energy source
produced biologically through anaerobic digestion. (Badurek, n.d.) It is primarily composed
of methane, carbon dioxide, and trace amounts of nitrogen, hydrogen, and carbon
monoxide. 

            Biogas occurs naturally in compost heaps, both as swamp gas and as a result of
fermentation in cattle. It can also be produced from plant or animal wastes or collected from
landfills. It is burned to generate heat or used in combustion engines to generate electricity
(Badurek, n.d.)

Week 9

COMMON HOUSEHOLD CLEANING PRODUCTS

          The most common ingredients in household cleaning products include acids,
alkalines, detergents, sanitizers, and solvents.

Acids
          Acids are beneficial in removing hard-water deposits, discoloration from aluminum,
brass, bronze, and copper and iron rust stains. Strong acids also eat away clothing, leather,
skin, and some metals. They can also irritate and injure the skin and eyes.

Examples of acids and their strengths:

  Very Mild: Vinegar is about 5% acid and counteracts oven cleaners. Vinegar
removes hard-water deposits from glassware. Lemon juice is a citric acid and
works in much the same way as does vinegar.
 Very Strong: Oxalic acid is especially effective as a rust remover and is very
poisonous. It is sometimes found in toilet bowl cleaners. Hydrochloric and sulfuric
acid is used in dilute concentrations in some toilet bowl cleaners.

Alkalines
         Alkalines are soluble salts that are effective in removing dirt without excessive
rubbing. They are good grease removers because the alkalies form an emulsion, a mixture
where oily or solid particles are held in suspension. The particles do not separate from the
rest of the liquid; therefore, they are not redeposited on the cleaned surface.

         Alkalines readily remove oily dirt. Alkaline cleaners also can remove oil from oil-based
paint, drying it and causing it to crack or peel. Alkalines tend to darken aluminum surfaces.

Mild: Baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) is an example of a mild alkali.

 Moderate: Household ammonia is a dilute mixture of 5 to 10% ammonia gas in

water. It can be found in all-purpose cleaners, oven cleaners, and window
cleaners. Borax is a white crystalline powder, and trisodium phosphate (TSP) is a
crystalline powder found in some all-purpose cleaners.
 Very Strong: Washing soda, also called sal soda, is sodium carbonate. Lye is
sodium hydroxide and is also called caustic soda, which can be found in some
oven cleaners and drain cleaners.

Bleaches
         Chlorine generally is the most common bleach used in household cleaning products.
However, new non-chlorine bleaches are becoming more popular, mainly because they are
safer to use and store.

Detergents
         Some laundry detergents may be used for housecleaning jobs. Detergents loosen dirt,
and if complex soluble phosphates (called “builders”) are added to a detergent, they will
remove oily dirt. If a builder is added, the cleaning product is marked “heavy-duty” or “all-
purpose.”

Sanitizers
          Sanitizers are chemicals that reduce the number of bacteria and often are used in
cleaning bathrooms and washing dishes. Use with caution and follow the directions on the
bottle.

          Sanitizers also help deodorize surfaces because they kill odor-producing

microorganisms.
Spirit Solvents
          Most polishes and waxes for wood furniture and floors contain a spirit solvent. These
solvents are similar to the fluids used in dry-cleaning processes because they remove oily
dirt.

ACTIVE INGREDIENTS
         Potentially dangerous chemicals can be found in every room in your home. If not
properly stored or used, these products could cause minor to serious and even life-
threatening health problems for you or your children.

IN THE LAUNDRY ROOM/UTILITY ROOM

         Laundry detergents. These products contain enzymes (as noted by the names
"cationic," "anionic," or "non-ionic" on the label) to loosen stains and ground-in dirt. Cationic
detergents are the most toxic when taken internally. Ingestion can result in nausea,
vomiting, shock, convulsions, and coma. "Non-ionic" detergents are less toxic but can
irritate skin and eyes or make you more sensitive to other chemicals. Asthma can develop if
a person is exposed to large quantities of detergent. Detergents are also responsible for
many household poisonings from accidental swallowing.

         All-purpose cleaners. There are numerous "all-purpose" cleaning products on the

market. These products usually contain detergents, grease-cutting agents, solvents, and/or
disinfectants. The specific chemicals in these ingredients include ammonia, ethylene glycol
monobutyl acetate, sodium hypochlorite, and/or trisodium phosphate. Depending on the
ingredients used, all-purpose cleaners can irritate the skin, eyes, nose, and throat. They can
be highly poisonous to both humans and animals if swallowed.

         Bleach. Household bleach contains the chemical sodium hypochlorite in different

concentrations ranging from 0.7 percent to 5.25 percent. These percentages are the
amount of the chemical in the liquid; the rest of the liquid is mostly water. Chlorine bleach
liquid and vapors can irritate the skin, eyes, nose and throat. Dermatitis may result from
direct skin contact. Ingestion can cause esophageal injury, stomach irritation, and prolonged
nausea and vomiting.

         Dishwashing detergents. The main ingredient in automatic and hand dishwashing

detergents is phosphate. Automatic dishwashing detergents are known to produce skin
irritations or burns and may be poisonous if swallowed. Hand dishwashing detergents are
milder than automatic dishwashing detergents. If swallowed, they may irritate the mouth and
throat, nausea, but they are not fatal if swallowed.

         Oven cleaners. The basic ingredient in oven cleaners is lye (consisting of either
sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide). Lye is extremely corrosive which can burn your
skin and eyes. It can also cause severe tissue damage and may be fatal if swallowed.

         Antibacterial cleaner. Antibacterial cleaners usually contain water, a fragrance, a

surfactant, and a pesticide. The pesticides commonly used in antibacterial cleaners are
phenolic chemicals or quaternary ammonium. Antibacterial cleaners are irritants which
affect eyes, skin, and throat.

         Window and glass cleaner. The basic ingredients of window/glass cleaners are
ammonia and isopropanol. These products may be irritating to the eyes, skin, nose, and
throat. If swallowed, they may cause drowsiness, unconsciousness, or death.

IN THE BATHROOM
         Toilet bowl cleaners. Toilet cleaners contain the chemicals sodium hypochlorite or
hydrochloric acid, or bleach. Most disinfectant cleaners are very irritating to your eyes and
skin and will burn your throat.

         Rug, carpet, upholstery cleaners. These cleaning products can contain

perchloroethylene (used in dry cleaning), naphthalene and ammonium hydroxide. The
fumes given off by these products can cause cancer and liver damage and have been
known to cause dizziness, sleepiness, nausea, loss of appetite, and disorientation.

         Furniture polish. Furniture cleaners for wood may contain petroleum distillates and oil
of cedar. Furniture polish typically contains one or more of the following substances:
ammonia, naphtha, nitrobenzene, petroleum distillates, and phenol. These chemicals may
irritate your skin, eyes, throat, lungs, and windpipe. If swallowed, furniture polish can cause
nausea and vomiting; medical help should be sought.

IN THE BACKYARD, POOL AND GARDEN SHED

         Swimming pool chloride tablets. Disinfectants containing chlorine for use in swimming
pools are the chemicals calcium and sodium hypochlorite. These chemicals are the same
but in a higher concentration than those found in other household disinfectant cleaners
because they will be diluted in a very large amount of water. Coming in contact with these
chemicals before they are diluted cause breathing problems and a burning sensation to
eyes and skin. If swallowed, the chemicals can burn the throat and could be fatal.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
         Keep in mind that most household cleaning products and pesticides are reasonably
safe when used as directed, and that the level of toxicity of a product is dependent on the
dose of the product used (never use more than the amount listed on the label) and the
length of exposure to the product.

IN THE LAUNDRY ROOM/UTILITY ROOM

Laundry detergents
         Safety tips: When working with an all-purpose cleaner, always wear rubber gloves to
protect your skin. Also, be sure that there is good air circulation in the room. Open several
windows or keep a fan running. Most importantly, NEVER mix two cleaners of different
kinds together, especially products containing ammonia and chlorine (bleach). This mixture
can result in the production of a gas called chloramine, which can cause serious breathing
problems and be potentially fatal if inhaled in great quantities.

Pet flea and tick treatments

          Safety tips: When using these products on your dog or cat, be sure not to pet them
for at least 24 hours. If you forget and do pet them, wash your hands and skin immediately
with a lot of soap and water.

Insecticides
          Safety tips: When using an insecticide in the home, make sure it doesn't get on food
or substances that come in contact with food, like dish towels, dishes, silverware, or
countertops.

IN THE KITCHEN
Oven cleaners
          Safety tips: When working with oven cleaners, always wear an apron, gloves, and
safety goggles. Do not breathe the fumes. Make sure the work area is well ventilated. The
best tip: Non-toxic oven cleaners without lye are available. Look at the label and select a
product that does not contain lye.

Antibacterial cleaner
          Safety tips: To help protect your skin when using these cleaners, wear latex
dishwashing gloves. If you get some of the cleaners on your skin or in your eyes, wash it off
immediately.

Window and glass cleaner

          Safety tips: Always wear gloves to use these products and use them in a well-
ventilated area.

Toilet bowl cleaners

          Safety tips: Always be sure when cleaning your bathrooms that the room has plenty
of ventilation. Leave the door open and use the exhaust fan if you have one. Wear latex
dishwashing gloves to help protect your skin from splashes when using toilet cleaners. If
you splash some on your skin, wash it off immediately.

Mold and mildew removers

          Safety tips: Wear latex dishwashing gloves to help protect your skin when using these
products. If you get some on your skin, wash it off immediately.

Drain cleaners
          Safety tips: Always use protective gloves and wear goggles when using these
products. Also, make sure there is good air circulation in the room when these cleaners are
used.

IN THE LIVING ROOM

Rug, carpet, upholstery cleaners
          Safety tips: Use these products in well-ventilated areas and try not to breathe the
fumes.
Air fresheners
          Safety tips: Do not spray air fresheners around an open flame. Use them only in a
well-ventilated area. Baking soda, which is not toxic, can be used as an alternative to air
freshener.

Insect repellents
          Safety tips: If the label says that you can apply the repellent to skin or clothes, apply it
only to your clothes. It will work just as well. Keep repellents away from the eyes and mouth
and away from any cuts on the skin. Don’t spray the repellent on your face. When you come
indoors, take a bath to wash off the chemicals and launder your clothes.

Week 11

EARTH IS SPHERICAL

Direct Quote:
          “As the stars move across the sky each night, people of the world have looked up and
wondered about their place in the universe. Throughout history, civilizations have developed
unique systems for ordering and understanding the heavens. Babylonian and Egyptian
astronomers developed systems that became the basis for Greek astronomy, while
societies in the Americas, China, and India developed their own.

          By the 5th century B.C., it was widely accepted that the Earth is a sphere. This is a
critical point, as there is a widespread misconception that ancient peoples thought the Earth
was flat. This was simply not the case.

          In the 5th century B.C., Empedocles and Anaxagoras offered arguments for the
spherical nature of the Earth. During a lunar eclipse, when the Earth is between the sun and
the moon, they identified the shadow of the Earth on the moon. As the shadow moves
across the moon, it is clearly round. This would suggest that the Earth is a sphere.

          Ancient Greek astronomers' work is richly documented in the collections of the

Library of Congress largely because of the way the Greek tradition of inquiry was continued
by the work of Islamic astronomers and then into early modern European astronomy. This
section offers a tour of some of the astronomical ideas and models from ancient Greece as
illustrated in items from the Library of Congress collections.

          Given that opportunities for observations of a lunar eclipse do not come along that
often, there was also evidence of the roundness of the earth in the experiences of sailors.

          When a ship appears on the horizon it's the top of the ship that is visible first. A wide
range of astronomy texts over time use this as a way to illustrate the roundness of the
Earth. As the image suggests this is exactly what one would expect on a spherical Earth. If
the Earth were flat, it would be expected that you would be able to see the entire ship as
soon as it became visible.”  (Library of Congress, n.d.)
ASTRONOMY

          “Before telescopes, people were able to observe the movement of the planets and
the stars, and begin to form hypotheses about how the universe was structured.” (Asking A
Lot, n.d.) Tycho Brahe, who lived 1546 - 1601, cataloged the stars in astounding detail.
Later astronomers, even after the development of the telescope, depended heavily on
Tycho’s observations, and for a long time, they were the best anybody had.

          Early astronomers got a lot wrong. Most placed the Earth at the center of the
universe. A lot — maybe most — astronomy in earlier times was performed because people
believed in astrology and thought a better understanding of the universe would lead to more
accurate astrological predictions.

          The ancients had no idea what the stars and planets were, but they learned a few
things. They organized the sky into constellations — although they did it for astrological
reasons — and they knew that the planets were different from stars because they moved
differently from stars. “The word “planet” comes from the Greek term for “wandering star.”)
They knew that the planets, and even some stars, had colors.” (Asking A Lot, n.d.) They
knew about comets and other transient astronomical events, although they didn’t
understand what they were. They studied eclipses and could predict them. They knew the
motions of the sun and Moon with great precision and built calendars based on them.

TYCHO BRAHE

Direct Quote:
          “Tyco Brahe lived by the motto ‘Non viduri sed esse. Translated into English, this
statement reads, "Not to be seen but to be. “

          Tycho Brahe was born in Denmark in 1546 to a noble family. He was the nephew of
Jorges Brahe, a sailor who gave his life in an effort to save the life of King Fredrik II of
Denmark. Tycho Brahe benefited greatly from King Fredrik's generous support. Brahe
received an island called Hven from the king. He turned this island into his own little
country. Brahe built a castle on Hven and named it Uraniborg after Urania, the goddess of
the sky. He also built an observatory on the island. For over 20 years, Brahe used the island
as his base from which to make astronomical observations. In 1597, Tycho Brahe lost the
Danish king's support, so he went to Wandsbech in what is today known as Germany.

          He eventually settled in Prag where he continued his astronomical observations. Over
a 20-year period of time, Tycho Brahe made consistent observations which supported the
heliocentric theory proposed earlier by Copernicus. These observations were made using
only a compass and a sextant. Brahe catalogued over 1000 stars. He also proved that
comets were not just components of Earth's atmosphere, but actual objects traveling
through space. Brahe showed irregularities in the Moon's orbit and discovered a new star in
the Cassiopeia formation. Brahe invented many instruments such as the Tyconian Quadrant
which were widely copied and led to the invention of improved observational equipment. In
1600, Tyco Brahe hired Johannes Kepler as his assistant. In later years, Kepler would use
Brahe's work as the basis for the laws of planetary movement which he developed.

          Tyco Brahe, though of noble descent, married a commoner. Together they had three
sons and five daughters. Brahe died in 1601. His last words, ‘Ne frusta vixisse vidar’ (May I
not seemed to have lived in vain), were recorded by his assistant Kepler. Within a few years
of his death, the castle and observatory he built on his beloved island Hven were
destroyed.”  (StarChild Team, n.d.)

SUMMARY OF BRAHE'S CONTRIBUTIONS

Direct Quote:
“Among the important contributions of Brahe:

 He made the most precise observations that had yet been made by devising the
best instruments available before the invention of the telescope.
 His observations of planetary motion, particularly that of Mars, provided the
crucial data for later astronomers like Kepler to construct our present model of
the solar system.
 He made observations of a supernova (literally: nova= "new star") in 1572 (we
now know that a supernova is an exploding star, not a new star). This was a
"star" that appeared suddenly where none had been seen before, and was
visible for about 18 months before fading from view. Since this clearly
represented a change in the sky, prevailing opinion held that the supernova was
not really a star but some local phenomenon in the atmosphere (remember: the
heavens were supposed to be unchanging in the Aristotelian view). Brahe's
meticulous observations showed that the supernova did not change positions
with respect to the other stars (no parallax). Therefore, it was a real star, not a
local object. This was early evidence against the immutable nature of the
heavens, although Brahe did not interpret the absence of parallax for stars
correctly, as we discuss below.
 Brahe made careful observations of a comet in 1577. By measuring the parallax
for the comet, he was able to show that the comet was further away than the
Moon. This contradicted the teachings of Aristotle, who had held that comets
were atmospheric phenomena ("gases burning in the atmosphere" was a
common explanation among Aristotelians). As for the case of the supernova,
comets represented an obvious change in a celestial sphere that was supposed
to be unchanging; furthermore, it was very difficult to ascribe uniform circular
motion to a comet.
 He made the best measurements that had yet been made in the search for
stellar parallax. Upon finding no parallax for the stars, he (correctly) concluded
 that either the earth was motionless at the center of the Universe, or the stars
were so far away that their parallax was too small to measure.

          Not for the only time in human thought, a great thinker formulated a pivotal question
correctly, but then made the wrong choice of possible answers: Brahe did not believe that
the stars could possibly be so far away and so concluded that the Earth was the center of
the Universe and that Copernicus was wrong.

          Brahe proposed a model of the Solar System that was intermediate between the
Ptolemaic and Copernican models (it had the Earth at the center). It proved to be incorrect,
but was the most widely accepted model of the Solar System for a time.

          Thus, Brahe's ideas about his data were not always correct, but the quality of the
observations themselves was central to the development of modern astronomy.” (University
of Rochester, Department of Physics and Astronomy, n.d.)

KEPLER’S WORK

Direct Quote:
          “On April 27, 4977 B.C., the universe is created, according to German mathematician
and astronomer Johannes Kepler, considered a founder of modern science. Kepler is best
known for his theories explaining the motion of planets.

          Kepler was born on December 27, 1571, in Weil der Stadt, Germany. As a university
student, he studied the Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus’ theories of planetary
ordering. Copernicus (1473-1543) believed that the sun, not the earth, was the center of the
solar system, a theory that contradicted the prevailing view of the era that the sun revolved
around the earth.

          In 1600, Kepler went to Prague to work for Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe, the
imperial mathematician to Rudolf II, emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. Kepler’s main
project was to investigate the orbit of Mars. When Brahe died the following year, Kepler took
over his job and inherited Brahe’s extensive collection of astronomy data, which had been
painstakingly observed by the naked eye. Over the next decade, Kepler learned about the
work of Italian physicist and astronomer Galileo Galilei (1564-1642), who had invented a
telescope with which he discovered lunar mountains and craters, the largest four satellites
of Jupiter and the phases of Venus, among other things. Kepler corresponded with Galileo
and eventually obtained a telescope of his own and improved upon the design.

          In 1609, Kepler published the first two of his three laws of planetary motion, which
held that planets move around the sun in ellipses, not circles (as had been widely believed
up to that time) and that planets speed up as they approach the sun and slow down as they
move away. In 1619, he produced his third law, which used mathematic principles to relate
the time a planet takes to orbit the sun to the average distance of the planet from the sun.
          Kepler’s research was slow to gain widespread traction during his lifetime, but it later
served as a key influence on the English mathematician Sir Isaac Newton (1643-1727) and
his law of gravitational force. Additionally, Kepler did important work in the fields of optics,
including demonstrating how the human eye works, and math. He died on November 15,
1630, in Regensberg, Germany. As for Kepler’s calculation about the universe’s birthday,
scientists in the 20th century developed the Big Bang theory, which showed that his
calculations were off by about 13.7 billion years.”  (History.com Editors, 2020)s

Week 12
CONCEPT OF MOTION
           We live in a universe that is in continual motion. Even the smallest particle of matter,
the atom, is in constant motion. A body on the surface of the Earth may appear to be at rest
when viewed by someone on the same surface. When we talk about motion or rest, we use
a point of reference or origin. The simplest type of motion occurs when a body traverses
along a straight line. Distance is the length of the path covered during the movement.
Displacement is the distance between the point of origin and where it stopped.

TYPES OF MOTION
           Every object moves differently as some go a curved path, some go a straight path,
and so on (Introduction to motion, 2019). Therefore, we can classify motion into the
following depending on the nature of the object’s movement:

 Translational Motion
 Rotational Motion
 Oscillatory Motion
 Random Motion

Translational Motion
           In translational or linear motion, the particles move from one point to another in one
spatial dimension. Examples of linear motion are the train's motion, football, and the motion
of a car on the road.
We can further divide the translational motion depending on the object’s course of motion
into the following (Introduction to motion, 2019).

A.   Rectilinear Motion – The motion that the object follows is a straight line.
B.   Curvilinear Motion – The motion that the object follows is curved.
C.   Circular Motion – The motion that the object follows is a circle.
Rotary Motion

           Rotatory motion is “the motion that occurs when a body rotates on its axis”
(Introduction to motion, 2019, para.7). Examples of the rotatory motion are:

 The earth's motion on its axis as it revolves around the sun

 The wheels and the steering wheel's motion on their own axis in a moving car
 The circular motion of the Ferris wheel

Oscillatory Motion

           Oscillatory motion is the repeated motion of a body about its mean position.
Examples of oscillatory motion are:

 Swinging to and from of the swing

 Swaying side to side of a pendulum of a clock
 Vibrating strings of a guitar when strummed

Random Motion

           In random motion, an object has no particular direction, and the motion may shift
unexpectedly. Examples of random motion are:

 Movement of the fly

 Movement of a helium balloon
 Movement of a dust particle

Scientists who contributed to the study of motion

GALILEO GALILEI
           When he was 25, Galileo became the Chair of Mathematics at the University of Pisa.
Because of his study of motions, he was able to provide the foundation for the study of
dynamics, and “his contributions to the development of gravitational theory and motion were
to undermine Aristotelian motion and physics tenets terminally” (Galileo & Newton, n.d.,
para. 1). Furthermore, he did not agree with Aristotle and his proposal regarding forced and
natural motions. Aristotle said that heavier objects fall quicker. Galileo observed that the
mass of an object did not affect the speed at which it fell. In his final years, Galileo worked
to further understand motion and published his final book, Dialogues, which laid the
foundations on two new subjects: the strength of beams and uniformly accelerated motion.
(Galileo & Newton, n.d.).

SIR ISAAC NEWTON

           Isaac Newton is one of the most prominent figures of the scientific revolution, which
occurred in the 16th and 17th centuries (Galileo & Newton, n.d.). We can see the effects of
his works today, as his laws of motion and work on universal gravitation have been the
basis of modern physics. He expanded the work of Galileo in defining the relationship
between energy and motion.

           In 1665 to 1666, he went home to Woolsthrope because Cambridge closed down
due to the Great Plague. Because of this, he was able “to develop his ideas on optics and
light, planetary motions, and the concept of gravitation” (Galileo & Newton, n.d., para. 12).

           In 1687, Newton published his greatest work, the Philosophiae Naturalis Principia
Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy) because of the urging and
funding of Edmond Halley (Galileo & Newton, n.d.). Furthermore, his work on the concept of
force and inertia is summarized in his Laws of Motion.

NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION

 LAW OF INERTIA
The Law of Inertia states that “if a body is at rest or moving at a constant speed
in a straight line, it will remain at rest or keep moving in a straight line at constant
speed” as long as no external force acts on it (Newton’s laws of motion, 2021,
para. 2). Galileo Galilei first formulated this law for the horizontal motion on Earth
from his experiments with balls rolling down inclined planes (Newton’s laws of
motion, 2021).
  THE LAW OF ACCELERATION
Newton's second law, known as the Law of Acceleration, “is a quantitative
description of the changes that a force can produce on a body's motion”
(Newton’s laws of motion, 2021, para 5). It states that a force upon an object
causes it to accelerate equally in both magnitude and direction of the force
imposed on it. The acceleration of an object depends directly on the force acting
on it and inversely on the mass of the object. The larger the mass (inertia), the
smaller the acceleration produced by a force.

Acceleration = Force/mass
Force = mass x acceleration

 THE LAW OF INTERACTION

Lastly, Newton's third law, known as the Law of Interaction, “states that when two
bodies interact, they apply forces to one another equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction” (Newton’s laws of motion, 2021, para. 6). The third law is
also known as the law of action and reaction, illustrating symmetry in nature.
According to the third law, force occurs in pairs. A table applies an equal and
opposite force to the book. This force occurs because the book's weight causes
the table to deform slightly. The table pushes back on the book like a coiled
spring.

NATURE OF LIGHT
             Light gives a sensation of vision to us. We see things around us due to light. It is a
form of energy, but what exactly is the nature of light? Different theories are put forward by
different scientists about the nature of light.

NEWTON’S CORPUSCULAR THEORY

             The Corpuscular theory was one of the earliest attempts to describe the nature of
light. This theory was put forward by Sir Isaac Newton in 1678 AD. According to this theory,
light consists of small particles called ‘Corpuscles.’ Luminous sources produce these small
particles. They travel in all directions with high velocity. When these particles enter the
retina of an eye, they give the sensation of vision. Different colors are due to the different
sizes of corpuscles.

             This theory tried to explain the phenomena of refraction of light. According to this
theory, when light travels in a denser medium, corpuscles are attracted by the particles of a
denser medium due to which direction of light changes and velocity increases. But, the fact
is the velocity of light decreases in a denser medium. Also, this theory fails to explain
phenomena like interference, diffraction, etc. So, this theory was discarded as an inaccurate
theory.

WAVE THEORY
             In 1690, Dutch physicist Christian Huygens proposed the wave theory of light.
According to this theory, light is a form of energy and travels as a wave. Each point of light
acts as a source and sends waves in all directions. It travels in a hypothetical medium
called Aether (or ether). In 1801, Thomas Young demonstrated the interference of two light
beams, which is strong evidence for the wave theory of light. This theory successfully
explained reflection, refraction interference, and diffraction. Later, Young and Fresnel
assumed light as a wave. The hypothetical medium Aether was a matter of interest to many
scientists like Maxwell, Tesla, Huygens, etc. The existence of Aether was disproved by the
Michelson Morley experiment.

ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY

             According to Definition of 'electromagnetic waves' (n.d.), the following is how

electromagnetic waves are formed.

Electromagnetic waves are formed when an electric field comes in contact with a magnetic
field. They are hence known as electromagnetic waves. The electric field and magnetic field
of an electromagnetic wave are perpendicular (at right angles) to each other. They are also
perpendicular to the direction of the EM wave. EM waves travel with a constant velocity of
3.00 x 108 ms-1 in a vacuum. They are deflected neither by the electric field nor by the
magnetic field. However, they are capable of showing interference or diffraction. (para. 2)

             Furthermore, it is possible for electromagnetic waves to travel through anything as it

does not require any medium to travel from area to area (Definition of 'electromagnetic
waves,' n.d.). Unlike electromagnetic waves, mechanical waves, such as sound waves or
water waves, need a medium to travel. In addition, electromagnetic waves are transverse
waves as they are measured by their wavelength and amplitude. The crest is the highest
point of a wave, while the trough is the lowest (Definition of 'electromagnetic waves,' n.d.).

             Lastly, electromagnetic waves have different frequencies called the electromagnetic

spectrum: radio waves, microwaves, infrared waves, visible light, ultraviolet rays, x-rays,
and gamma rays (Definition of 'electromagnetic waves,' n.d.).

QUANTUM THEORY OF RADIATION

             Wave theory of light couldn’t explain certain phenomena such as photoelectric

effect, atomic excitation, Compton Effect, etc. In 1905 AD, Albert Einstein proposed a new
theory of light called quantum theory based on the assumptions of Max Planck. According
to this theory, light consists of a tiny packet of energy called quanta or photons. The energy
of each ‘Quanta’ is given by;

             The absorption and the release of energy are always in the integral multiple of this
energy.

DUAL NATURE OF LIGHT

             Some experiments show the wave nature of light, whereas some show the particle
nature of light. Wave theory light successfully explained the interference, diffraction,
polarization, etc., but it couldn't explain the photoelectric effect, Compton scattering, atomic
excitation, etc. The quantum theory of radiation can explain the photoelectric effect,
Compton scattering, atomic excitation, but it can’t explain interference, diffraction,
polarization. Instead of considering light as a wave or particle, we can treat light as having
both particle and wave nature. This is called the dual nature of light.

QUANTIZATION OF ENERGY
             James Clerk Maxwell's suggestion on the wave nature of electromagnetic radiation
helped explain events such as diffraction and interference (Planck's Quantum Theory, n.d.).
However, his suggestions could not explain other phenomena such as "the nature of
emission of radiation from hot bodies, photoelectric effect, i.e., ejection of electrons from a
metal compound when electromagnetic radiation strikes it, the dependence of heat capacity
of solids upon temperature, line spectra of atoms" (Planck's Quantum Theory, n.d., para. 2).

BLACK BODY RADIATION

             When you heat solids, they emit radiation from different ranges of wavelengths
(Planck's Quantum Theory, n.d.). To illustrate, when solids are heated, there would be
changes in color as temperature increases as the change in color occurs from a lower
frequency to a higher frequency.

             A black body is a body that is able to absorb and emit radiation of any frequency,
and the radiation it emits is called black body radiation (Planck's Quantum Theory, n.d.).
Therefore, the "variation of frequency for black body radiation depends on the temperature
[as] at a given temperature, the intensity of radiation is found to increase with an increase in
the wavelength of radiation which increases to a maximum value and then decreases with
an increase in the wavelength" (Planck's Quantum Theory, n.d., para. 4). With this in mind,
Planck proposed the quantum theory to explain this as Maxwell's suggestion could not.

PLANCK’S QUANTUM THEORY

Plank’s Quantum Theory states that:

 “Different atoms and molecules can emit or absorb energy in discrete quantities
only…the smallest amount of energy that can be emitted or absorbed in the form
 of electromagnetic radiation is known as quantum” (Planck’s Quantum Theory,
n.d., para. 6).
 “The energy of the radiation absorbed or emitted is directly proportional to the
frequency of the radiation” (Planck’s Quantum Theory, n.d., para. 7)

LIGHT AS WAVE AND PARTICLE

             Electromagnetic radiation is "light which is present in a rainbow [and also] a

spectrum consisting of radio waves, microwaves, infrared waves, visible light, ultraviolet
radiation, X-rays, and gamma rays" (Dual behavior, n.d., para. 1). Moreover, energy can be
transferred from one place to another through a wave or a particle. In addition,
electromagnetic radiation is considered both a particle and a wave, and light is deemed to
be electromagnetic radiation (Dual behavior, n.d.).

DUAL BEHAVIOR OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION

             Quanta, which are small packets of energy that can be treated as particles, could
explain the photoelectric effect. On the other hand, radiation exhibits both diffraction and
interference, which shows that it possess a wave nature. It could be concluded that
electromagnetic radiations have both particle and wave nature (Dual behavior, n.d.).

PARTICLE NATURE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION

             According to Planck's Quantum Theory, a photon of light has exactly one quantum
of energy. Wave theory cannot give an explanation for the photoelectric effect and black
body radiation (Dual behavior, n.d.).

Wave Nature of Electromagnetic Radiation

             If white light were to disperse, VIBGYOR (Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow,
Orange, and Red) would appear (Dual behavior, n.d.).

Emission & Absorption Spectrum

             You can divide spectra based on the absorption of gas or the emission of vapor and
white light.

             Emission Spectrum: This type of spectrum is caused by the gas' emission of white
light at high temperatures. It is usually made up of bright lights on the dark background. This
could also be generated by electrons' emission of energy (Dual behavior, n.d.).

             Absorption Spectrum: This type of spectrum occurs when gas absorbs white light
and transmits white light. It is made up of dark lines on a bright background, and it is
generated by electrons' absorption of energy (Dual behavior, n.d.).

SPEED OF LIGHT

             The speed of light is the rate at which light spreads to other objects, and the rate is
at exactly 299,792,458 meters per second (Speed of light, 2021). Furthermore, Speed of
light (2021) states that it is important to describe the electromagnetic waves' properties.

It serves as the single limiting velocity in the universe, being an upper bound to the
propagation speed of signals and to the speeds of all material particles. In the famous
relativity equation, E = mc2, the speed of light (c) serves as a constant of proportionality,
linking the formerly disparate concepts of mass (m) and energy (E). (para. 2.)
MIRRORS

             You first need to understand light to fully comprehend mirrors (Flinn, n.d.).
According to the law of reflection, on the times a ray of light would hit a surface, it would
bounce in a certain way (Flinn, n.d.). Moreover, the angle of incidence will always be the
same as the angle of reflection. For example, if a surface is hit by light at a low angle, the
light will bounce off at that same angle (Flinn, n.d.).

             Furthermore, we cannot see the light until it comes into contact with an object and
light bounces off into our eyes (Flinn, n.d.). For example, “a beam of light traveling through
space can't be seen from the side until it runs into something that scatters it, like a cloud of
hydrogen or a satellite,” which is called the diffuse reflection (Flinn, n.d., para. 2). In this
case, the law of reflection is still in effect as the light hits many microscopic surfaces (Flinn,
n.d.).

             When light hits a mirror, it does not scatter in the same way as ordinary objects do
as specular reflection occurs (Flinn, n.d.). This is when the image is reflected by the light
without any disruption because of the mirror’s smooth surface. Furthermore, “mirrors switch
front and back, like a printing press or a rubber stamp…your mirror image is a light-print of
you, not a reflection of your mirror’s perspective (Flinn, n.d., para. 3).

LASER

             Laser, an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation,

emits a narrow light beam and is commonly used for technologies and instruments (What is
a laser, 2021). Furthermore, the wave nature of light can be measured through its
wavelength. Every color of light has a different size of wavelength such as blue light having
a shorter wavelength than red light (What is a laser, 2021). In addition, the light we see from
the sun, or a lightbulb, is a combination of wavelengths called white light (What is a laser,
2021).

             However, unlike the sun, lasers are not naturally occurring (What is a laser, 2021).
However, we have made a way to create them artificially. Lasers emit “a narrow beam of
light in which all of the light waves have very similar wavelengths…the laser’s light waves
travel together with their peaks all lined up, or in phase” (What is a laser, 2021, para. 5).
Because of this, lasers would concentrate the energy it omits into a small area because it is
focused, does not spread a lot, and can travel long distances (What is a laser, 2021).
COLORS

             Your eyes and brain work together to turn light into color as your eyes have light
receptors that transmit messages to your brain and produce the sensation of color (How we
see color, n.d.). Furthermore, it was observed by Newton that objects do not inherently have
color but rather reflect some colors and absorbs the rest (How we see color, n.d.). For
example, an apple reflects the wavelengths we perceive as red while absorbing all the
others, or an object that appears to be white reflects all the wavelengths, and an object that
appears to be black absorbs all the wavelength (How we see color, n.d.).

             Moreover, additive primary colors are blue, red, and green light. If you combine all
of these with equal parts, you will have pure white, and if you are to mix these colors in
varying amounts, you will have all the colors of the visible spectrum (How we see color,
n.d.).

             Our retinas are covered by “millions of light-sensitive cells, some shaped like rods
and some like cones…these receptors process the light into nerve impulses and pass them
along to the cortex of the brain via the optic nerve” (How we see color, n.d., para. 5). In
each eye, there are above 120 million rods concentrated on the edge of the retina. Black
and white information are transferred by these rods and are more sensitive to dim light,
which helps your eyes in adjusting when you enter a dim room (How we see color, n.d.). On
the other hand, cones are situated in the middle of the retina, and there are “six million
cones in each eye [that] transmit the higher levels of light intensity that create the sensation
of color and visual sharpness” (How we see color, n.d., para. 7). Furthermore, these cone-
shaped cells can be classified into three types based on their sensitivity to long, medium, or
short light wavelengths, and they work along with the nerve cells to provide information to
the brain in perceiving colors (How we see colors, n.d.). In addition, 2/3 of the cones in our
eyes process red, orange, and yellow wavelengths, making us perceive more warmer
colors.

             In terms of color impairment, around 1% of women and 8% of men have a form of it
(How we see color, n.d.). These people can still perceive color, but there are colors that
their brain perceives differently. Furthermore, the most common form of impairment is red
and green dichromatism, and it is very rare for a person to have total color blindness (How
we see color, n.d.)

LIGHT PHENOMENA

AURORA

             One could experience auroras if they go to high latitudes. These auroras can
appear as curtains of light, arcs, or spirals, depending on the lines of force in the Earth’s
magnetic field (Imster, 2017). Furthermore, they can appear in different colors such as
green, pink, red, violet, and white colors.
             Even though the sun is 93 million miles far, we can still feel its effects (Imster,
2017). There are storms on the sun that could hurl charged solar particles towards the Earth
that could cause its magnetic field and atmosphere to react (Imster, 2017). Suppose these
charged particles come in contact with atoms in the Earth’s atmosphere. In that case, the
“electrons move to higher-energy orbits, further away from the nucleus…then when an
electron moves back to a lower-energy orbit, it releases a particle of light or photon” (Imster,
2017, para. 4).

SUNSET 

             The colors you see during sunrise and sunset are due to scattering. This
phenomenon occurs because there is a change in the direction of light caused by molecules
and small particles (Curiosities, 2007). Furthermore, the color of the light from the sky is
dependent on the size of the particle and the wavelength of light. Blue and violet are much
shorter wavelengths and are much more scattered by the molecules than the other colors
(Curiosities, 2007). This explains why the sky looks blue.

             Furthermore, due to the sun's position on the horizon during sunset and sunrise,
the light it emits goes through more of the atmosphere (Curiosities, 2007). As it goes
through more of the atmosphere, it goes through more molecules that would scatter away
blue and violet light. Given the length of the path, blue and violet light could be scattered
away from your line of sight which would let other colors such as red, yellow, and orange to
travel to our eyes (Curiosities, 2007). In addition, because red has the longest wavelength
of any visible light, the sun is red when it’s on the horizon, where its extremely long path
through the atmosphere blocks all other colors (Curiosities, 2007, para. 5).

MIRAGE

             Imagine you are driving through a desert on a hot sunny day. If you look ahead, you
can see a puddle of water a few yards ahead. When you pass by that location, there is no
puddle, but when you look ahead, there is another puddle of water at the same length. This
is what is called a mirage, and it is “an optical phenomenon that creates the illusion of water
and results from the refraction of light through a non-uniform medium” (Mirage, n.d., para.
3).

             Commonly occurring on bright sunny days, this phenomenon of a mirage occurs

because of the following (Mirage, n.d.).

The role of the sun is to heat the roadway to high temperatures. This heated roadway in
turn heats the surrounding air, keeping the air just above the roadway at higher
temperatures than that day's average air temperature. Hot air tends to be less optically
dense than cooler air. As such, a non-uniform medium has been created by the heating of
the roadway and the air just above it. While light will travel in a straight line through a
uniform medium, it will refract when traveling through a non-uniform medium. (para. 4)
HEINRICH RUDOLPH HERTZ

              Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (February 22, 1857 - January 1, 1894), a German physicist,
was the first to demonstrate the existence of electromagnetic radiation waves.  He built an
apparatus to produce and detect them. His discovery led to radio waves and all the invisible
octaves of the electromagnetic spectrum being used in communications and broadcasting.

              As the pioneer who opened the invisible but real world of electromagnetism, Hertz
could not have imagined the multitude of uses of these electromagnetic waves.  Others
benefited from his discoveries and would lead to them determining other uses of EM.

              Hertz showed an advanced aptitude for mathematics in his youth and took extra
geometry lessons even on Sundays. He usually  ranked first in his class. He was also
interested in languages, quickly learning Latin, Greek, Arabic, and Sanskrit. He was also
skilled in drawing, sculpture, and handicraft. Combining these interests, he at first, pursued
a career in engineering construction.

HERTZ EXPERIMENT

So, how did Hertz discover radio waves?

              Hertz experimented with radio waves in his laboratory in 1887. Through

experimentation, he proved that electromagnetic waves could travel over some distance
through the air. James Clerk Maxwell and Michael Faraday had predicted this. With his
apparatus configuration, the electric and magnetic fields would radiate away from the wires
as waves.

              The oscillator was positioned about 12 meters from a zinc reflecting plate to
produce standing waves of four meters long, similar to how a musical note is produced by
sound waves reverberating in a tube of a set length.  He recorded how the magnitude and
direction of the waves varied using the ring detector. Hertz failed, however, to conclusively
measure the speed of the waves. He thought initially that the speed was infinite.
Measurements showed a large discrepancy between the velocity of waves in a wire and
through the air. Later, investigators resolved this and showed that the waves move at the
speed of light.

              Hertz did not anticipate the wide-ranging potential applications of the production
and detection of electromagnetic radiation. His objective was to demonstrate certain
principles contained in Maxwell's theory.

              Hertz could not have imagined the consequence of his discoveries. When asked
about the ramifications of his discoveries, Hertz replied, "Nothing, I guess." Had Lodge and
Fitzgerald not been working in the same field, his work and its applications might not have
been well understood. Later on, his discoveries became a critical part of the new "wireless
age."

RADIO WAVES

Lastly, what are radio waves?

              Radio is one of seven types of electromagnetic (EM) radiation. It has the longest
wavelength but the lowest frequencies because each cycle takes longer to be completed.
Radio waves are used to transmit radio and television signals.  A transmitter generates a
radio wave as electrons accelerate in the wire.  An antenna receiver picks up the small
electric oscillations and convert them to mechanical vibrations to create them into sound
waves. Transmitters and receivers are designed to operate over a limited range of
frequencies.
Important terms:

 Cycle- The entire pattern of a wave, before it repeats itself Wavelength-  The
distance a wave takes to complete one cycle.
 Wavelength- The distance between two consecutive peaks of a wave
 Frequency- The number of cycles or times that a wave repeats in a second
 Hertz (Hz) - The unit of measurement of frequency
 Kilohertz (kHz) One thousand hertz   
 Megahertz (MHz)- One million hertz
 Gigahertz (GHz)- One  billion hertz 

              The range of the radio spectrum frequency is considered to be three (3) kilohertz
up to 300 gigahertz with corresponding wavelengths from 1 millimeter to 100 kilometers.
Similar to other electromagnetic waves, radio waves travel at the speed of light. Long waves
may be able to travel over a significant area of the Earth. Shorter waves are reflected off of
the ionosphere which will help it travel around the world.

              In nature, lightning and astronomical objects produce radio waves. The technology
of generating radio waves is applied to many fields such as radio and broadcast
communication, radar and navigation systems, computer networks, and communications
satellites.
       In the late 19th century, Newtonian mechanics (applying Newton’s laws of motion)
considered distance, time, and mass fixed concepts in all inertial frames of reference.

            In another theory, the laws of electricity and magnetism represented by Maxwell’s
equations, was not “invariant” under Galilean transformation. Light travels at a constant
speed and was not dependent on the observer. 
            In his “Special Theory of Relativity,” Einstein broadened the scope of the invariance
to extend the validity of all physical laws, including electromagnetic theory, to all inertial
frames of reference. The two important principles were the constancy of the speed of light
and relativity owing to variations in frame of reference.

THE SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY

            Albert Einstein proposed the idea of special relativity in 1905. The theory of special
relativity explains the behavior of moving objects in space and time. The theory is based on
two postulates.

RELATIVITY POSTULATES

            The first postulate refers to frames of reference. Velocities are measured relative to
a frame of reference. In all inertial frames of reference, the laws of physics are the same
and can be stated in their most basic form. For relativistic momentum and energy, they
were redefined in this equation:
E=mc squared
            The second postulate is a result of Maxwell’s theories of electricity and magnetism,
which predict that the speed of light in a vacuum is c, which is constant at 3.00 x 10 8th m/s.

            In the mid-1880s, the Michelson-Morley experiment established that the speed of
light in a vacuum is unaffected by the Earth’s orbit around the Sun. It was difficult for
scientists to successfully explain this finding until Einstein published the Theory Special
Relativity.

IMPLICATIONS OF THE THEORY OF SPECIAL RELATIVITY

            The theory spurred a paradigm shift in understanding space and time. Before 1905,
it was thought that time could not affect space and vice versa. Special relativity showed that
these are not independent and can be mixed into each other. Space and time mixing
causes:

 Time dilation- the slowing of the passage of time experienced by moving objects
relative to an observer, which can be measured at relativistic speeds.

 Length contraction- the phenomenon of observers measuring a moving object as

smaller than when it is stationary.

 Relativity of Simultaneity- For space-like separated space-time points, the time

ordering between events is relative. An event that is simultaneous for one
observer may not be for another.

 Mass-energy equivalence-Mass is concentrated energy as shown in Einstein’s

formula E=mc squared

 Cosmic speed limit-Nothing has the ability to travel faster than light. Light moves
at the cosmic speed limit because it has zero mass.