M o D U L e 0 1 - 0 2 A Mathematics: Algebra Algebraic Expressions

AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 01 - Mathematics
Category  A  B1  B2  B3 02 – Algebra
Level  1  2  3 a – Algebraic expressions
Module 01-02a
Mathematics
Algebra
Algebraic expressions
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Table of contents
EVALUATING SIMPLE ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS, ADDITION, SUBTRACTION, MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION, USE OF BRACKETS, SIMPLE
ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS. ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3
1. DEFINITIONS: ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3
1.1. Algebraic expression: .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3
1.2. Algebraic terms:................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
1.3. Like terms: ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
1.4 Monomials ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 6
1.5 Polynomials .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7
2. EVALUATING SIMPLE ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS:........................................................................................................................................................... 8
2.1. Evaluating an algebraic expression - Numerical value:....................................................................................................................................................... 8
2.2 Evaluating an algebraic expression with several variables - Numerical value ..................................................................................................................... 8
3. ADDITION, SUBTRACTION, MULTIPLICATION, DIVISION: ................................................................................................................................................ 10
3.1. Algebraic properties:.......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 10
3.2. Addition of algebraic terms: ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 10
3.3 Subtraction of algebraic terms............................................................................................................................................................................................ 11
3.4. Multiplication of algebraic terms: ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 12
3.5. Division of algebraic terms: ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 13
4. USE OF BRACKETS:.............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 15
4.1. Expanding an algebraic expression:.................................................................................................................................................................................. 16
4.1.1. Double distributive property: ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 18
4.1.2. Algebraic identities – Pascal’s Triangle: ..................................................................................................................................................................... 20
4.2. Factorizing an algebraic expression: ................................................................................................................................................................................. 24
4.2.1. Main methods to factorize an algebraic expression:................................................................................................................................................... 24
4.2.2. General methods to factorize second degree polynomials:........................................................................................................................................ 32
4.2.3. Factorizing polynomials by Euclidean (or polynomial) division:.................................................................................................................................. 46
5. SIMPLE ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS: ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 51
5.1. Reducing (simplifying) an algebraic fraction:..................................................................................................................................................................... 52
5.2 Addition and subtraction of algebraic fractions................................................................................................................................................................... 56
5.3 Multiplication and division of algebraic fractions ................................................................................................................................................................ 65
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EVALUATING SIMPLE ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS, ADDITION, SUBTRACTION, MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION, USE
OF BRACKETS, SIMPLE ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS.
Algebra is a branch of mathematics. Algebra is the study of the relations and operations between numbers and symbols.
In algebra, numbers may be replaced by letters.
For example, 2  3  1 may be written a  b  c , with a  2 , b  3 and c  1
Numbers are called numerical symbols, while letters are called literal symbols.

The use of literal symbols makes it possible to create rules between them which are true for any number.
1. DEFINITIONS:
1.1. Algebraic expression:
An algebraic expression is a phrase with one or more algebraic symbols. Algebraic symbols can include constants (values), variables,
operations and relations.
For example,
A  5 y  2 x  6
7 , 5 , 2 and 6 are constants (6 is a constant, 5 and 2 are constant coefficients)

x and y are variables, literal symbols are called variable because their value may vary.
 ,  ,  , are operations,
 is a relation.
Algebraic relations include equality (sign  ) and inequalities (signs  ,  ,  ,  ,  ).
Note 1:
The multiplication sign is often omitted (or a mid dot is also sometimes used) when it applies to a variable.
B  8  x 2  3  x  7 can be written as B  8  x 2  3  x  7 or simply B  8 x 2  3 x  7 .
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Note 2:
An algebraic expression can include several variables.
For example, C  9 xy 2  2z  5 is an algebraic expression with 3 variables:  x, y , z  .
In order to show the variables, an algebraic expression can be written in term of the variables.
D  3 x 2  x  1 can be written as D( x )  3 x 2  x  1 to show that x is the variable.
E  4 xy 2  z  3 can be written as E  x, y , z   4 xy 2  z  3 to show that x , y and z are the variables.
More complicated algebraic expressions can be found. These are constructed with other mathematical objects such as functions, derivatives,
integrals, summations, …
Problems in science have to be translated into algebraic language.
An algebraic expression symbolizes a part of a sentence which describes part of the problem.
Examples: Let the variable n represent the word “number”. Write an algebraic expression A that symbolizes the following:

1) Three times the number
A  3n
2) Four plus the number
A  n4
3) The number minus 2
A n2
4) 6 minus the number
A  6n
5) The number repeated twice as a factor
A  n  n  n2
6) The sum of the number and of its 2 consecutive numbers
A  n   n  1   n  2 
7) Seven times the number minus 2
A  7n  2
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1.2. Algebraic terms:
An algebraic term in an algebraic expression is either a single variable, or the product of several variables separated from another term by a + or
- sign in an overall expression.
In other words, an algebraic term is a product of the form x n  
x  x , or more generally of the form x1a  x2b    xn k .
  
x 
n times x
Strictly speaking, an algebraic term has no coefficient.
Examples:
1) A  x 3  x ,
1
Algebraic terms: x 3 and x  x 2 .
2) B  xy  x ,
Algebraic terms: xy and x .
3) C  4 xz  7 y ,
Algebraic terms: xz and y .
4) D  3 x 2  5 x  1 ,
Algebraic terms: x 2 , x and 1 .
5) E  7 x 2 y  3 ,
Algebraic terms: x 2 y and 1 . Note that 1 is any variable raised to power 0, the coefficient of this algebraic term 1 being here 3.
However, by extension, “algebraic term” is used to designate the product of variables possibly together with coefficients.

For instance, considering A  3 xz  7 y  5 , you may say that the algebraic terms are 3xz , 7 y and 5 .
1.3. Like terms:

Like terms are algebraic terms that contain the same variables raised to the same power.
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Examples:
1) 5x and 2x are like terms.
2) 3x and 7y are not like terms
3) xy and 4xy are like terms
4) x 2 yz3 and xyz 3 are not like terms.
1.4 Monomials
A monomial is an algebraic term with some restrictions regarding the powers of the variables.
A monomial is a product of positive integer powers of a fixed set of variables (possibly) together with a coefficient.
In other words, a monomial is an algebraic term (possibly with a coefficient) whose powers must be positive integers.
Examples:
1) A  5 x  2 ,
Monomials: 5x and 2 .
2) B  3 xy  x ,
Monomials: 3xy and x .
3) C  4 xz  7 y ,
Monomials: 4xz and 7y .
1
4) D  3 x 2  5 x  1  ,
x
Monomials: 3x 2 , 5x and 1 .
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Note:
1
The term  x 1 is not a monomial as its exponent is not a positive integer.
x
5) E  5 x 2 y  3 x  6  x ,
1
Monomials: 5x 2 y , 3x and 6 . Note that x  x 2 is not a monomial as its exponent is not a positive integer.
The exponent on a variable in a monomial is called the degree of the variable in that monomial.
The degree of the monomial is the sum of the degrees of the variables
For example, in 5x 2 y , the degree of x is 2, the degree of y is 1 and the degree of the monomial is 3.
1.5 Polynomials
A polynomial is an algebraic expression of finite length composed of a sum of monomials.
Hence, in a polynomial, each variable may have an exponent that is a non-negative integer.
The degree of a polynomial is the largest degree of any one monomial.
If possible, the monomials in a polynomial are arranged according to degree, generally in descending powers, with the largest term first.
Examples:
1) A  2 x 3  3 x 2  x  1 is a polynomial in x of degree 3.
2) B  3 xy  x is a polynomial in x and y of degree 2
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2. EVALUATING SIMPLE ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS:

2.1. Evaluating an algebraic expression - Numerical value:
Evaluating an algebraic expression consists of finding its numerical value when the variables are given. Numbers must be plugged in for the given
variables, and then, arithmetic calculation has to be performed.
Examples:
1) A  x   3 x . If the given variable is x  2 , the numerical value of A  x   3 x is:
A  2  3  2  6
2) B  x   x  1, x  8
B 8  8  1  7
3) C  y   4 y  9 , y  5
C  5   4  5  9  20  9  11
4) D  a   5a 2  2a  6 , a  3
D  3   5  32  2  3  6  5  9  2  3  6  45  6  6  45
2.2 Evaluating an algebraic expression with several variables - Numerical value

If an algebraic expression has several variables, you can be asked to find the expression when one or several variables are given. If all the variables
are given, you get the numerical value.
Examples:
1) A  x, y   3 xy  x 2 . If the given variable is x  2 , what is A  2, y  ?
A  2, y   3  2  y  22
 6y  4
 6y  4
2) B  x, y , z   3 x 2  xyz  3z3 x . If the given variables are x  1 and y  2 , what is B 1,2, z  ?
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B 1,2, z   3  12  1 2  z  3z3  1
 3  2  z  3z 3
 3  2z  3 z 3
3) C  x, y   x 3  2 xy . If the given variables are x  5 and y  3 , what is the numerical value of C  5,3  ?

C  5,3   53  2  5  3
 125  30
 95
4) D  x, y   9 x 2 y  3 . If the given variables are x  8 and y  4 , what is the numerical value of D  8, 4  ?

D  8, 4   9  82   4   3
 9  64   4   3
 2304  3
 2307
Note that an algebraic expression may consist of literal symbols that are defined by other algebraic expressions.
Examples:
1) A  m 2  2 with m  x  2
2
A   x  2  2

2) B  m  n with m   x  1 and n   x  1
B   x  1 x  1
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3. ADDITION, SUBTRACTION, MULTIPLICATION, DIVISION:
3.1. Algebraic properties:
Algebraic operations share the same properties as when using numbers.
Addition and multiplication have the following properties:
PROPERTY ADDITION MULTIPLICATION
Commutative ab  ba a b  b a
Associative a  b   c  a  b  c  a  b   c  a  b  c 
Distributive a  b  c   a  b  a  c
Subtraction and division can be defined respectively by the operation of addition and the operation of multiplication.
Subtraction can be carried out by adding the opposite.
a  b  a   b 
Division can be carried out by multiplying by the inverse (the reciprocal).
 1
a b  a  
b
3.2. Addition of algebraic terms:
In an algebraic expression, only like terms can be added.
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Examples:
1) A  x  2 x
A  3x
2) B  x 2  4 x  x
B  x 2  5x
3) C  x 2  x 2  7 x
C  2x 2  7x
4) D  x 2  x 2 y  2 x 2 y
D  x2  3x2 y
3.3 Subtraction of algebraic terms
In an algebraic expression, only like terms can be subtracted.
Examples:
1) A  6 x  2 x
A  4x
2) B  2 x 2  3 x  4 x
B  2x 2  x
3) C   x 2  2 x 2  5
C  x2  5
4) D  x 3  x 2 y  6 x 2 y  y 3  3
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3.4. Multiplication of algebraic terms:
Multiplication of algebraic terms obeys Index law:
x m  x n  x m n
If we want to multiply the terms with coefficients: ax m and bx n , we get: ax m  bx n  a  x m  b  x n  a  b  x m  x n   a  b  x m  n
In an algebraic expression, multiplication is performed

by:
 Multiplying the coefficients,
 Adding the indices of the same variables.
Examples:
1) A  2 x  3 x
A  2 x 3 x
 23 x  x
 6  x11
 6x 2
2) B  3 x 2  5 x
B  3  5  x 2  x
 15  x 2 1
 15 x 3
3) C  x  x 2 y 4
C  x  x2  y 4
 x1 2  y 4
 x3y 4
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4) D  4 x 2 y  5 xy 3 z
D  4  x2  y  5  x  y 3  z
 4  5  x2  x  y  y 3  z
 20  x 2 1  y 1 3  z
 20 x 3 y 4 z
3.5. Division of algebraic terms:
xm
Division of algebraic terms obeys Index law:  x m n .
xn
xm
 x m n
xn
ax m a x m  a  m n
If we want to divide the terms with coefficients: ax m and bx n , we get:    x
bx n b x n  b 
In an algebraic expression, division is performed by:

 Dividing the coefficients,
 Subtracting the indices of the same variables.
Examples:
4x
1) A 
2x
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4 x
A 
2 x
4
  x11
2
 2  x0
 2 1
2
3x 2
2) B 
5x
3 x2
B 
5 x
3
  x 2 1
5
3
  x1
5
3
 x
5
7x5 y
3) C 
3x 2
7 x5
C  y
3 x2
7
  x 52  y
3
7
 x3y
3
4 x 2 yz 4
4) D 
5 x 2 y 4 z2
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4 x2 y z4
D   
5 x 2 y 4 z2
4
  x 2 2  y 1 4  z 4 2
5
4
  x 0  y 3  z 2
5
4
 y 3 z 2
5
Note:
You should always be careful when simplifying an algebraic division.
Actually, the divisor must always be different from zero, or the division is not defined (that is, it is wrong).
For example, considering the division A  x 2  2 x , the divisor 2x must be different from zero. In other words, 2x must be different from zero for

the division to be defined.
A  x 2  2 x is defined only if x  0 .
x
When you simplify A  x 2  2 x , you get an equivalent algebraic expression: A 
2
Although the equivalent simplified expression may seem to be always true (as the denominator 2 is different from zero), in fact, it is not. It is true only
and only with the condition given by the algebraic expression we started from: A  x 2  2 x . That is to say, it is true only if x  0 .
We will investigate this topic in depth in section 4 which relates to algebraic fractions.
4. USE OF BRACKETS:
Using brackets in algebraic operations abide by the same properties as when using numbers.
Parentheses   , brackets   and braces   share the same function. They are all grouping symbols. After parentheses are used, brackets are

used to clarify an expression. And after brackets, braces.
Removing or adding parentheses, brackets and braces follow the same rules.
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You may want to remove the grouping symbols in an algebraic expression. You can moreover sometimes express the expression as a sum of

algebraic terms. This is called expanding (or developing) the algebraic expression.
On the contrary, you may want to express the algebraic expression as a product of several factors. This is called factorizing the algebraic expression.
4.1. Expanding an algebraic expression:

Expanding an algebraic expression means that all parentheses, brackets and braces are removed in the expression.
The properties used to remove parentheses, brackets and braces in an algebraic expression are the same as in arithmetic.
 Distributive law of multiplication:
a  b  c   ab  ac
 Associative laws of addition and multiplication:
a   b  c    a  b   c  a  b  c
a   b  c    a  b   c  a  b  c
Examples: Remove the parentheses in the following algebraic expressions
1) A  2 x  3 x  5 
A  2 x  3 x  2x  5
 6 x 2  10 x
2) B  4a  2b  c 
B  4a  2b  4a  c
 8ab  4ac
3) C  x 2  x  1
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C  x2  x  x2 1

 x3  x2
4) D  x  x y 
D  x  x  x y
 x  x y
5) E  x   2 x  y 
E  x  2x  y
 3x  y
6) F  3 x  4 x  y 
F  3x  4x  y
 12 x 2 y
7) G  2 x x 2  3  
G  2 x  x 2  2 x   3 
 2 x 3  6 x
8) H   a  b    ab 
H  a   ab   b   ab 
 a 2 b  ab 2

9) I   x 3  y 2 
I  x3  y 2
10) J   x  2 x  y 
J   x  2x  x   y 
 2 x 2  xy
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Note:
The distributive law of multiplication a  b  c   ab  ac shows that one should be careful with the sign of the symbols inside the brackets when
they are removed.
If we take a  1 , we get   b  c   b  c . When parentheses are preceded by a plus sign + simply remove them. Nothing changes.
But if we take a  1 we get   b  c   b  c . When parentheses are preceded by a minus sign - , change the sign of every term inside
the parentheses.
 a  b  c   a  b  c
  a  b  c   a  b  c
4.1.1. Double distributive property:

 Suppose we take a  e  f , then the distributive law of multiplication a  b  c   ab  ac becomes:  e  f  b  c    e  f  b   e  f  c .
By using another time the distributive law of multiplication, we get:
 e  f  b  c   eb  fb  ec  fc
Examples: Remove the brackets in the following algebraic expressions
 
1) A  x 2  1  2 x  y 
  
A  x 2  1  2x  x 2  1  y 
2 2
 x  2 x  1 2 x  x  y  1 y
 2x 3  2x  x 2 y  y
 2x 3  x 2 y  2x  y
2) B   2 x  1 x 2  3 
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B   2 x  1  x 2   2 x  1  3
 2 x  x 2  1 x 2  2 x  3  1 3
 2x 3  x 2  6 x  3
3) C   x y   x  1
C   x     x  1    y     x  1
  x     x    x    1    y     x     y    1
 x  x  y x  y
 
4) D  x 2  x  1  x  2 
  
D  x2  x  1  x  x2  x  1  2 
 x 3  x 2  x  x 2  2  x  2  1 2
 x3  3x 2  3x  2
2
5) E  1  x  This expression can be decomposed as a multiplication:
E  1  x   1  x 
 1  x   1  1  x     x 
 1 1    x   1  1   x     x     x 
 1 x  x  x2
 1  2x  x 2
3
6) H   x  2  This expression can be decomposed as a multiplication:
01 - 02a - 19
H   x  2   x  2   x  2
  x  2    x  2     x  2 
  x   x  2   2   x  2     x  2 
  x  x  x  2  2  x  2  2    x  2 
  x 2  2 x  2x  4    x  2 
 
  x 2  4x  4   x  2
 
 x 2   x  2  4x   x  2  4   x  2
 x 2  x  x 2  2  4x  x  4x  2  4  x  4  2
 x 3  2x 2  4x 2  8x  4x  8
 x 3  6 x 2  12 x  8
4.1.2. Algebraic identities – Pascal’s Triangle:

2 2
 Some identities (called known or algebraic identities) make it possible to develop easily expressions such as  a  b  ,  a  b  or
 a  b  a  b  :
 a  b 2  a2  2ab  b2
 a  b 2  a2  2ab  b2
 a  b  a  b   a2  b2
Examples: Remove the brackets in the following algebraic expressions
2
1) A   y  4 
A  y 2  8 y  16
01 - 02a - 20
2
2) B  1  x 
B  12  2  1 x  x 2  1  2 x  x 2
n
 The binomial Formula is an algebraic identity which makes it possible to expand any expression like  a  b  , with n a positive
n n n
integer. Any expression like  a  b  is easily derived from the binomial formula by rewriting it like:  a  b   a   b    .
The general expression of the binomial Formula is quite complex, so let’s take some example and see how it works:
n
n  a  b n a  b
n

 a   b  
n0 0 0
a  b  1 a  b   1
n  1  a  b 1  a  b  a  b 1  a  b
n2
 a  b 2  a2  2ab  b2  a  b 2  a2  2ab  b2
n3
 a  b 3  a3  3a2 b  3ab2  b3  a  b 3  a3  3a2 b  3ab2  b3
n4
 a  b 4  a 4  4a3 b  6a2 b2  4ab3  b 4  a  b 4  a 4  4a3 b  6a2 b2  4ab3  b 4
n n n n  n  n 1  n  n n n n n  n  n 1  n  n

a  b     a n    an 1b    a n 2 b 2      ab    b a  b    a n    a n 1b    a n  2 b 2      ab    b
n 0
  1
  2
   n  1 n 0
  1
  2
   n  1 n
n n n n n

The factors   ,   ,   ,   ,   , … are called the binomial coefficients. They can be found thanks to Pascal’s triangle.
 0   1  2 3   4
01 - 02a - 21
Pascal’s triangle is a triangular array of Pascal’s coefficients in triangle.
Pascal’s triangle
 The first coefficient on top of the triangle is 1
 Then the two next coefficients are 1 and 1.
 Each coefficient in the triangle is the sum of
the two numbers directly above it.
7 7
For example, to find   you must go to line n=7 and count raw 0, raw 1, raw 2 and stop at raw 3. You get    35 .
3 3
01 - 02a - 22
n n
With some practice, you can directly expand any expression like  a  b  or  a  b  :
Examples: Using Pascal’s triangle, expand the following algebraic expressions:
5
1)  x  y 
I go to line n  5 .
The first coefficient is 1 to be multiplied by x 5
The second coefficient is 5 to be multiplied by x 4 y
The third coefficient is 10 to be multiplied by x 3 y 2
The fourth coefficient is 10 to be multiplied by x 2 y 3
The fifth coefficient is 5 to be multiplied by xy 4
The sixth coefficient is 1 to be multiplied by y 5
 x  y 5  x 5  5 x 4 y  10 x 3 y 2  10 x 2 y 3  5 xy 4  y 5
3
2)  x  y 
The first coefficient is 1 to be multiplied by x 3
1
The second coefficient is 3 to be multiplied by  x 2 y (There is a minus which comes from   y    y )
2
The third coefficient is 3 to be multiplied by xy 2 (There is no minus as   y   y 2 )
3
The fourth coefficient is 1 to be multiplied by  y 3 (There is a minus which comes from   y    y )
 x  y 3  x 3  3 x 2 y  3 xy 2  y 3
n
You see that when you expand an expression like  x  y  , the first term has a positive sign, then the next term has a negative sign,
and then a positive sign, and then a negative, an so on, positive and negative signs alternate, until the last term.
8
3)  x  y 
 x  y 8  1x 8  8 x 7 y  28 x 6 y 2  56 x 5 y 3  70 x 4 y 4  56 x 3 y 5  28 x 2 y 6  8 xy 7  1y 8
01 - 02a - 23
7
4)  x  y 
 x  y 7  1x 7  7 x 6 y  21x 5 y 2  35 x 4 y 3  35 x 3 y 4  21x 2 y 5  7 xy 6  1y 7
4.2. Factorizing an algebraic expression:

Factorization means you want to express an algebraic expression as a product of factors. Factorizing is an important way to solve algebraic equations
or inequations.
All algebraic expressions are not factorizable.
Factorization may be sometimes very tricky.
4.2.1. Main methods to factorize an algebraic expression:

 Find a common algebric factor in the expression. For instance,
ab  ac  a  b  c 
Examples: Factorize the following algebraic expressions
1) A  2 xy  xz
A common factor is x :
A  2y  x  z  x
  2y  z   x
2
2) B  2 1  x   1  x 
A common factor is 1  x  :
B  2  1  x   1  x   1  x 
  2  1  x   1  x 
  3  x   1  x 
01 - 02a - 24
3) C  2 x  4  3( x  2)2
A common factor is: ( x  2) :
C  2  x  2  2  3( x  2)2
 2  ( x  2)  3( x  2)  ( x  2)
 2  ( x  2)  (3 x  6)  ( x  2)
  2  (3 x  6)  ( x  2)
  2  3 x  6   ( x  2)
  4  3 x   ( x  2)
2
4) D   x  3   x  3
A common factor is: ( x  3) :
D   x  3   x  3   x  3
  x  3    x  3    x  3    1
  x  3    x  3  1
  x  3   x  4
 This method can be used twice in order to factorize expressions like:
ac  ad  bc  bd  a  c  d   b  c  d 
  a  b  c  d 
1) A  9 x 2  12 xy 2  6 xy  8 y 3
01 - 02a - 25
A  3 x  3 x  3 x  4 y 2  2y  3 x  2y  4 y 2
 
 3 x 3 x  4 y 2  2y 3 x  4 y 2  

  3 x  2y  3 x  4 y 2 
2) B  x  cos y   2 x  cos y   4 y x  8 yx
B   cos y   x   cos y   2 x  4 y  x  4 y  2 x
  cos y     
x  2x  4 y  x  2x 
   cos y   4 y    x  2 x 
 Algebraic identities: These identities can be used to factorize some expressions. The three main algebraic identities are:
2
a 2  2ab  b 2   a  b 
2
a 2  2ab  b 2   a  b 
a 2  b 2   a  b  a  b 
1) A  x 2  2  x  1
2
We try and use the identity: a 2  2ab  b 2   a  b 
A  x 2  2  x  1  12
2
  x  1
2) B  x 2  4 x  4
2
We try and use the identity: a 2  2ab  b 2   a  b 
B  x 2  2  x  2  22
2
  x  2
01 - 02a - 26
1
3) B  x 2 
9
We try and use the identity: a 2  b 2   a  b  a  b 
2
 1
B  x2   
3
 1  1
  x   x  
 3  3 
Note:
The three main algebraic identities are part of a much larger family of algebraic identities that may be used to factorize an expression.
Binomial formulas
2
a 2  2ab  b 2   a  b 
3
a3  3a 2 b  3ab 2  b3   a  b 
 a  b 4  a 4  4a3b  6a2b2  4ab3  b 4


Other factoring formulas
a 2  b 2   a  b  a  b 
01 - 02a - 27

a3  b3   a  b  a2  ab  b2  
a3  b3   a  b  a2  ab  b2 

a 4  b 4   a  b  a3  a2 b  ab2  b3 

a5  b5   a  b  a 4  a3 b  a2 b2  ab3  b 4  
a5  b5   a  b  a 4  a3 b  a2 b2  ab3  b 4 

a6  b6   a  b  a5  a 4 b  a3 b2  a2 b3  ab 4  b5 

a7  b7   a  b  a6  a5 b  a 4 b2  a3 b3  a2 b 4  ab5  b6  
a7  b7   a  b  a6  a5 b  a 4 b2  a3 b3  a2 b 4  ab5  b6 
 
 A method can also be used to try and force the factorization of second degree polynomials like:
P ( x )  ax 2  bx  c
It may not always be possible to force the factorization of a second degree polynomial.
Examples: Try to factorize the following second degree polynomials
1) P ( x )  2 x 2  4 x  16
We factorize the polynomial by the first factor 2:
 4 16 
P( x )  2  x2  x 
 2 2 

 2 x 2  2x  8 
2 2
We want to force the factorization in the brackets with one of the known identities: a 2  2ab  b 2   a  b  ; a 2  2ab  b 2   a  b  or
a 2  b 2   a  b  a  b 
2
The two first terms of the expression into the brackets, x 2  2 x , show that we could use a 2  2ab  b 2   a  b  , with a  x and
2
b  1 , except that b 2   1  1 is missing.
01 - 02a - 28
2
In order to force the factorization, we add b 2   1  1 and subtract it in the brackets (so that the overall sum is zero and we did not
change the expression):

P( x )  2 x 2  2x  1  1 8 
2
We can then use a 2  2ab  b 2   a  b  with a  x and b  1 , and factorize the first three terms in the brackets:
2
x 2  2 x  1   x  1 . That is:
2
P ( x )  2  x  1  1  8 
 
Or:
2
P ( x )  2  x  1  9 
 
2
 2  x  1  32 
 
We recognize in the brackets a known identity of the type: a 2  b 2   a  b  a  b  , with a  x  1 and b  3 , so that
2
 x  1  32   x  1  3    x  1  3  .
Therefore:
2
P ( x )  2  x  1  32 
 

 2  x  1  3    x  1  3 
 
 2  x  2    x  4 
 2  x  2  x  4 
2) P ( x )  3 x 2  9 x  6
We factorize the polynomial by the first factor 3:
 9 6
 3 3

P( x )  3  x 2  x    3 x 2  3x  2 
2
The two first terms of the expression into the brackets, x 2  3 x , show that we could use a 2  2ab  b 2   a  b  , with a  x and
2
3 3 9
b , except that b 2     is missing.
2 2 4
01 - 02a - 29
2
3 9
In order to force the factorization, we add b 2     and subtract it in the brackets (so that the overall sum is zero and we did not
2
  4
 9 9 
 
P( x )  3 x 2  3x  2  3  x 2  3x    2 
 4 4 
2 3
We can then use a 2  2ab  b 2   a  b  with a  x and b  , and factorize the first three terms in the brackets:
2
2
9  3
x 2  3x    x   . That is:
4  2
 2 
 9 9  3 9
P ( x )  3  x 2  3 x    2   3  x     2 
 4 4   2 4 
Or:
 2 2 2 2
3 9 8  3 1  3  1 
P ( x )  3  x       3  x      3  x      
 2 4 4  2 4  2 2 
  
3 1
We recognize in the brackets a known identity of the type: a 2  b 2   a  b  a  b  , with a  x  and b  , so that
2 2
2 2
 3  1  3   1    3   1 
 x  2    2    x  2    2     x  2    2   .
            
Therefore:
 2 2
3  1   3   1    3   1   4  2
P ( x )  3   x        3  x         x        3  x     x  
2 2  2   2    2   2  2  2
   
P ( x )  3  x  2  x  1
3) P ( x )  2 x 2  7 x  6
01 - 02a - 30
 7 6
P( x )  2  x2  x  
 2 2
 7 
 2 x2  x  3 
 2 
 2 2 
7 7 7
 2  x 2  2   x        3
 4 4 4 
 2
7 49 48 
 2  x     
4 16 16 
 
 2
7 1
 2  x    
 4  16 

 2 2
7  1 
 2  x      
 4 4 

 7 1  7 1
 2  x    x   
 4 4  4 4
 8  6
P ( x )  2  x   x  
 4  4
 3
P( x )  2  x  2  x  
 2
  x  2  2 x  3 
4) P ( x )  2 x 2  2 x  1
01 - 02a - 31
 1
P( x )  2  x2  x  
 2 
 2 2
1  1  1 1
 2 x2  2   x        
 2 2 2 2

 2
1 1 1
 2  x     
2 4 2
 
 2
1 1
 2  x    
 2 4

It is not possible to force the factorization of this second degree polynomial. Indeed, there is no known identity which allows to go on
factorizing.
2
 1 1
Note that we could have gone on factorizing if there had been a minus sign (-) in the brackets between  x   and by using the
 2 4
known identity a 2  b 2   a  b  a  b  .
4.2.2. General methods to factorize second degree polynomials:
 Forcing the factorization of a second degree polynomial might be tricky. Let’s try to find a general method.
Considering the second degree polynomial:
P ( x )  ax 2  bx  c
We want to force its factorization. We factorize the polynomial by the first factor a :
P ( x )  ax 2  bx  c
 b c
 a  x2  x  
 a a
01 - 02a - 32
b 2
The two first terms of the expression into the brackets, x 2  x , show that we could use the known identity A2  2 AB  B 2   A  B  ,
a
2
b  b 
with A  x and B  , except that B 2    is missing:
2a  2a 
 b c
P( x )  a  x 2  2  x 
 2a a
2
 b 
In order to force the factorization, we add B 2    and subtract it in the brackets (so that the overall sum is zero and we did not
 2a 
 2 2
b  b   b  c
P( x )  a  x 2  2  x      
 2a  2a   2a  a
 
2 b
We can now use the known identity A2  2 AB  B 2   A  B  , with A  x and B  and factorize the first three terms in the
2a
2 2
b  b   b 
brackets: x 2  2  x   x  . That is:
2a  2a   2a 
 2 2
b   b  c
P ( x )  a  x       
 2a   2a  a

We then rewrite this expression as:
 2
b  b2 c 
P ( x )  a  x    2  
 2a  4a a

 2
b  b 2 4ac 
 a  x   
 2a  4a 2 
01 - 02a - 33
2
 b  b 2 4ac
We can go on factorizing if there is a minus sign (-) in the brackets between  x  and by using the known identity
 2a  4a 2
A2  B 2   A  B  A  B  .
b 2 4ac b 2 4ac b 2 4ac

The presence of the minus sign depends on the expression . If is positive, then there is a minus and if is
4a 2 4a 2 4a 2
negative, we get a positive sign after simplification.
b 2 4ac
As 4a 2  0 (since a square is always positive and a  0 , 4a 2 is strictly positive), is positive if and only if the numerator
4a 2
b 2 4ac is positive. b 2 4ac is called the discriminant and is denoted  .
We can go on factorizing if and only if: b 2 4ac  0 . Suppose this condition is fulfilled, then we can use the known identity

2
2 2  b  b 2 4ac b b 2 4ac b 2 4ac
A  B   A  B  A  B  to factorize  x    2
, with A  x  and B   :
 2a  4a 2a 4a 2 2a
2
 b  b 2 4ac  b b 2 4ac  b b 2 4ac 
 x    2
 x    x   
 2a  4a  2a 2a  2a 2a 
  
 b  b 2 4ac  b  b 2 4ac 
 x   x  
 2a  2a 
  
And the second degree polynomial can be factorized as:
 b  b 2 4ac  b  b 2 4ac 
P(x )  a  x   x  
 2a  2a 
  
 b   b  
 a x    x  
 2a 2a
  
01 - 02a - 34
Usually this factorized polynomial is rewritten as (As it is more convenient for solving second degree equations):
 b    b   
P( x )  a  x   x 
 
2a   2a 

 CONCLUSION.
Considering the second degree polynomial:
P ( x )  ax 2  bx  c
If its discriminant  is positive:
  b 2 4ac  0
Then the polynomial can be factorized:
P ( x )  a  x  x1  x  x2 
 b    b   
P( x )  a  x   x 
 
2a   2a 

b   b  
x1  and x2  are called the roots of the polynomial.
2a 2a
Note:
01 - 02a - 35
If   b 2 4ac  0 , the polynomial can not be factorized.
If   b 2 4ac  0 , the polynomial can be factorized as:
 b  b 
P( x )  a  x    x
 2a   2a 
2
 b 
 a x 
 2a 
b
The two roots of the polynomial are identical: x1  x2  
2a
Examples: Try to factorize the following second degree polynomials
1) P ( x )  2 x 2  4 x  16
The discriminant is
  b 2 4ac
 ( 4)2  4  2   16 
 16  128
 144  0
It is positive, so the polynomial can be factorized:
P ( x )  2  x  x1  x  x2 
b   b  
The roots x1  and x2  of the polynomial are:
2a 2a
4  144 4  12 8 4  144 4  12 16
x1     2 and x2    4
22 4 4 22 4 4
Therefore: P ( x )  2  x  2  x  4 
01 - 02a - 36
2) P ( x )  2 x 2  5 x  2
The discriminant is
  b 2 4ac
 52  4  2  2
 25  16
90
P ( x )  2  x  x1  x  x2 
b   b  
2a 2a
5  9 5  3 8 5  9 5  3 2 1
x1     2 and x2    
22 4 4 22 4 4 2
 1
Therefore: P ( x )  2  x  2   x  
 2
3) P ( x )  4 x 2  12 x  9
The discriminant is
  b 2 4ac
2
  12   4  4  9
 144  144
0
It is not negative as it is zero, so the polynomial can be factorized:
P ( x )  4  x  x1  x  x2 
b   b  0 b b   b  0 b
The roots x1    and x2    of the polynomial are identical:
2a 2a 2a 2a 2a 2a
01 - 02a - 37
  12  12 3
x1  x1   
24 8 2
2
P ( x )  4  x  x1  x  x1   4  x  x1 
2
 3
P( x )  4  x  
 2
4) P ( x )  3 x 2  5 x  2
The discriminant is
  b 2 4ac
2
  5   4  3  2
 25  24
 1 0
P ( x )  3  x  x1  x  x2 
b   b  
2a 2a
  5   1 5 1 4 2   5   1 5  1 6
x1     and x2     1
23 6 6 3 23 6 6
 2
Therefore: P ( x )  3  x    x  1   3 x  2  x  1
 3
5) P ( x )  x 2  2 x  2
The discriminant is
01 - 02a - 38
  b 2 4ac
 22  4  1 2
 48
 8  0
It is negative, so the polynomial cannot be factorized.
6) P ( x )  6 x 4  7 x 3  x 2
We note that a common algebric factor in the expression is x 2 , so that:

P(x )  x 2 6x2  7x  1 
Considering 6 x 2  7 x  1 , the discriminant is
  b 2 4ac
2
  7   4  6  1
 49  24
 25  0
6 x 2  7 x  1  6  x  x1  x  x2 
b   b  
2a 2a
  7   25 75 2 1   7   25 7  5 12
x1     and x2     1
26 12 12 6 26 12 12
 1
Therefore: 6 x 2  7 x  1  6  x    x  1   6 x  1 x  1
 6 
And finally, P ( x )  x 2  6 x  1 x  1
7) P ( x )   x 2  e x  x  e x  2  e x
01 - 02a - 39
We note that a common algebric factor in the expression is the function e x , so that:

P( x )  ex x2  x  2 
Considering  x 2  x  2 , the discriminant is
  b 2 4ac
 12  4   1  2
 1 8
90
 x 2  x  2    x  x1  x  x2 
b   b  
2a 2a
1  9 1  3 4 1  9 1  3 2
x1     2 and x2     1
2   1 2 2 2   1 2 2
Therefore:  x 2  x  2    x  2  x  1   2  x  x  1
And finally, P ( x )  e x  2  x  x  1
2
8) P ( x )   cos x   2cos x  3
Let’s make the substitution: y  cos x :
P ( y )  y 2  2y  3
The discriminant is:
01 - 02a - 40
  b 2 4ac
 22  4  1  3 
 4  12
 16  0
P ( y )   y  y1  y  y 2 
b   b  
The roots y1  and y 2  of the polynomial are:
2a 2a
2  16 2  4 6 2  16 2  4 2
y1     3 and y 2     1
2 1 2 2 2 1 2 2
Therefore: P ( y )   y  3  y  1
And finally, as y  cos x ,
P ( x )   cos x  3  cos x  1
 Roots and polynomials. Factorization of polynomials of degree higher than 2.
Considering the second degree polynomial: P ( x )  ax 2  bx  c , if its discriminant  is positive,   b 2 4ac  0 , then the

polynomial can be factorized:
P ( x )  a  x  x1  x  x2 
b   b  
x1  and x2 
2a 2a
01 - 02a - 41
b   b  
x1  and x2  are called the roots of the polynomial.
2a 2a
Now, let’s evaluate this polynomial for x  x1 :
P ( x1 )  a  x1  x1  x1  x2   a  0   x1  x2   0
And the same for x  x2 :
P ( x2 )  a  x2  x1  x2  x2   a   x2  x1   0  0
In other words, if the numerical value of a second degree polynomial is zero for a given number x  x0 , P ( x0 )  0 , then x  x0 is a

root of the polynomial and the polynomial can be factorized by the algebraic factor  x  x0  .
Note:
This property extends to any degree polynomials.
P ( x )  an x n    a2 x 2  a1x  a0
If P ( x0 )  0 then x0 is a root and P ( x ) can be factorized by  x  x0 
P ( x )   x  x0  Q( x ) with Q( x ) a polynomial of degree one less than the degree of P ( x ) :

P ( x )   x  x0  bn x n 1    b2 x 2  b1x  b0 
It is very useful to factorize polynomials of degree 2 or more, as far as we know one ore several roots.
For instance, let’s try to factorize the following polynomial:
01 - 02a - 42
P(x )  x3  4x 2  5x  2
We notice that x0  1 is a root of this polynomial. Indeed, P (1)  13  4  12  5  1  2  1  4  5  2  0 .

This polynomial can therefore be factorized by the algebraic factor  x  x0    x  1 .

We write P ( x )   x  1 Q( x ) , with Q( x ) a polynomial of degree 3-1=2: P ( x )   x  1 ax 2  bx  c 
Now we want to find the coefficients a, b, c of Q( x ) .

In order to do so, we expand P ( x )   x  1 ax 2  bx  c : 

P ( x )   x  1 ax 2  bx  c 
 ax 3  bx 2  cx  ax 2  bx  c
 ax 3   b  a  x 2   c  b  x  c
As P ( x )  x 3  4 x 2  5 x  2 , we identify the two expressions of P ( x ) and we get:
a  1 , c  2
b  a  4 , that is b  1  4 hence b  3
Therefore:

P ( x )   x  1 ax 2  bx  c 
  x  1  x 2
 3x  2 
 
We know how to factorize the second degree polynomial Q( x )  x 2  3 x  2 . We get: Q( x )   x  1 x  2  , and finally:
P( x )  x 3  4x 2  5x  2
  x  1 x  1 x  2 
2
  x  1  x  2
01 - 02a - 43
Examples:
1) Factorize the polynomial P ( x )  x 3  6 x 2  11x  6 . Note that P ( 3)  0

P ( x )   x  3  Q( x )

  x  3  ax 2  bx  c 
 ax 3   3a  b  x 2   3b  c  x  3c
a 1
3c  6  c  2
3a  b  6  3  b  6  b  3

P ( x )   x  3  ax 2  bx  c 
  x  3  x 2
 3x  2 
3  1 3  1 2 3  1 3  1 4
Q( x )  x 2  3 x  2 ;   32  4  1 2  1 ; x1     1 ; x1     2
2 2 2 2 2 2
Q( x )   x  1 x  2 
P ( x )   x  3  x  1 x  2 
2) Factorize the polynomial P ( x )  2 x 3  4 x 2  2 x  4 . Note that P ( 1)  0 and that P (1)  0

P ( x )   x  1 x  1 Q( x )
  x  1 x  1 ax  b 
 ax 3  bx 2  ax  b
a2
b4
P ( x )   x  1 x  1 ax  b 
  x  1 x  1 2 x  4 
P ( x )  2  x  1 x  1 x  2 
3) Factorize the polynomial P ( x )  x 4  x 3  x 2  x . Note that P ( 1)  0 and P (0)  0
01 - 02a - 44
P ( x )   x  1 x  0  Q( x )
 x  x  1 Q( x )

 x  x  1 ax 2  bx  c 
 ax 4   a  b  x 3   b  c  x 2  cx
a 1
c  1
a  b  1  1 b  1  b  0

P ( x )  x  x  1 ax 2  bx  c 
 x  x  1  x 2
1
 
We recognize a known identity x 2  1   x  1 x  1 , so:
P ( x )  x  x  1 x  1 x  1
2
 x  x  1  x  1
CONCLUSION:
Given a polynomial P ( x )  an x n    a2 x 2  a1x  a0 , and knowing one of its roots x0 , we factorize it by  x  x0  :
P ( x )   x  x0  Q( x ) , with Q( x ) a polynomial of degree one less than the degree of P ( x ) :

P ( x )   x  x0  bn x n 1    b2 x 2  b1x  b0 
 
We then expand  x  x0  bn x n 1    b2 x 2  b1x  b0 and compare the result with the polynomial P ( x )  an x n    a2 x 2  a1x  a0
in order to find the coefficients bn ;  ; b2 ; b1 ; b0
This last step can be performed much faster with a very powerful method called Euclidean (or polynomial) division.
01 - 02a - 45
4.2.3. Factorizing polynomials by Euclidean (or polynomial) division:
 Euclidean (or polynomial) division makes it possible to divide a polynomial by another one of less degree.
 Polynomials can be divided mechanically by Euclidean division, much like numbers can be divided by long division.
Numbers represented in decimal form are sums of powers of 10.
Polynomial expressions similarly are sums of powers of the variable (For example: x ).
 Recall that when dividing a number (dividend) a by another number (divisor) b , we get the quotient q and the remainder r . We write:
a  b
  q
  r
Dividend Divisor Quotient Remainder
With r  b , The remainder is smaller than the divisor.
When dividing a polynomial a( x ) by another polynomial b( x ) , we get:
a( x )  b( x )  q( x )  r ( x )
With the degree of r ( x ) less than the degree of b( x ) .
With numbers, the “size” is measured by absolute value, with polynomials, the size is measured with degrees.
If the remainder r ( x ) is zero, the polynomial a( x ) can be factorized by the divisor b( x ) :
a( x )  b( x )  q( x )
 Long polynomial division works the same way as long numerical division. Let's illustrate this process with some examples.
01 - 02a - 46
1) Divide x 2  x  20 by x  4
Set up the division: Place the dividend x 2  x  20 and the divisor x  4 .
x2  x  20 x  4
If I divide the leading x 2 of the dividend by the leading x of the divisor, you get an x . So I put an x in the divisor:
x2  x  20 x  4
x
Now I'll take that x , and multiply it through the divisor, x  4 . I write down the result under the corresponding terms of the dividend:
x2  x  20 x  4
x2  4x x
Then I draw the "equals" bar, so I can do the subtraction. To subtract the polynomials, I change all the signs in the second line.
x2  x  20 x  4
 (x 2  4x ) x
0x 2  5x
01 - 02a - 47
I perform the subtraction:
x2  x  20 x  4
 (x 2  4x ) x
2  5x
0x
I carry down the next terms (here there is only one term) from the dividend:
x2  x  20 x  4
x2  4x   x
 5x  20
I continue proceeding the same way with the bottom line of the division:
x2  x  20 x  4
x2  4x   x  5
 5x  20
x2  x  20 x  4
x2  4x   x  5
 5x  20
 (5x  20)
01 - 02a - 48
0x  0
x2  x  20 x  4
x2  4x   x  5
 5x  20
 (5x  20)
0x  0
The quotient of this division is x  5 , and the remainder is zero ( 0 x  0 ).
The division comes out "even".
When you do regular division with numbers and the division comes out even, it means that the number you divided by is a factor of the
number you're dividing. For instance, if you divide 20 by 10 , the answer will be 2 with a zero remainder, because 10 is a factor of
20 .
In the case of the above polynomial division, the zero remainder tells us that x  4 is a factor of x 2  x  20 , which you can confirm by

factoring the original quadratic dividend, x 2  x  20 . The second factor is the quotient (x + 5).
We write: x 2  x  20   x  4  x  5 
2) Divide 2 x 3  6 x 2  3 x  4 by 2 x  1
By following the same steps as the above example, we get:
2x 3  6x 2  3x  4 2x  1
3 2
 (2x  2x )     2
2x  4x  1 2
0x 3  8x 2  3x  
 (8x 2  4x )  
2 x
0x   4
01 - 02a - 49
 (x  1 2)
0x  7 2
1 7
The quotient of this division is 2 x 2  4 x  , and the remainder is . We write:
2 2
 1 7
2 x 3  6 x 2  3 x  4   2 x  1  2 x 2  4 x   
 2 2
As the remainder is not zero, we cannot factorize 2 x 3  6 x 2  3 x  4 by 2 x  1 .
3) Divide 2 x 3  4 x 2  2 x  4 by x  1
2x 3  4x 2  2x  4 x  1
 (2x 3  2 x 2 )     2
2x  2x  4
3  2 
0x 2x 2x  
 (2x 2  2x )  
2 
0x 4x  4
 (4x  4)
0x  0
The quotient of this division is 2 x 2  2 x  4 , and the remainder is 0 .
As the remainder is zero, we can factorize 2 x 3  4 x 2  2 x  4 by x  1 . In other words, x0  1 is a root of the polynomial

2 x 3  4 x 2  2 x  4 .
We write:

2 x 3  4 x 2  2 x  4   x  1 2 x 2  2 x  4 
4) Divide x 3  2 x 2  2 x  3 by x  3
x3  2x 2  2x  3 x  3
 (x 3  3x2 )     x2  x  1
0x 3  x2  2x  
01 - 02a - 50
 (x 2  3x )  
2  x  3
0x
 (x  3)
0x  0
The quotient of this division is x 2  x  1 , and the remainder is 0 .
As the remainder is zero, we can factorize x 3  2 x 2  2 x  3 by x  3 . In other words, x0  3 is a root of the polynomial
x 3  2 x 2  2 x  3 .
We write:

x 3  2x 2  2 x  3   x  3  x 2  x  1 
5. SIMPLE ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS:
An algebraic fraction is a fraction in which the denominator and the numerator are algebraic expressions.
Let A and B be algebraic expressions, an algebraic fraction has the form:
A
B
For example,
x 2  2x  5 1 z 4  y 2  xyz 3a  1
, , , are algebraic fractions.
x 1 m3 xz 1
When dealing with numbers, division by zero is not allowed. The same is true for algebraic fractions. When dealing with algebraic fractions it will
always be assumed that whatever the variable are, they will not give division by zero, that is, a denominator equal to zero:
Let A and B be algebraic expressions,
A
with B  0 is WRONG
B
For example,
01 - 02a - 51
x 2  2x  5
is wrong if x  1 for the denominator would be: x  1  1  1  0 .
x 1
1
is wrong if m  3 for the denominator would be: m  3  3  3  0 .
m3
z 4  y 2  xyz
is wrong if x  z for the denominator would be: x  z  z  z  0 .
xz
3a  1
is always true, whatever the value of a , as the denominator is always different from zero.
1
5.1. Reducing (simplifying) an algebraic fraction:

An algebraic fraction can be reduced (simplified) only if its numerator and its denominator are factorized. After verifying the non-zero condition in the
denominator, common factors can then be cancelled.
The numerator and the denominator of algebraic fractions can be factorized by using the techniques explained in section 4.2.
Examples: Simplify the following algebraic fractions
2 x  x  1
1)
 x  1
Both the numerator and the denominator are factorized.
2 x  x  1
Non zero condition in the denominator: is true if and only if  x  1 is different from zero, that is, x  1
 x  1
We note that there is a common factor  x  1 in the denominator and the numerator which can be cancelled (only if x  1 ):
2 x  x  1
Therefore  2 x if and only if x  1 .
 x  1
x 2  16
2)
x4
This algebraic fraction is defined only if its denominator is different from zero, that is, only if x  4
01 - 02a - 52
In order to reduce the fraction, we must try and factorize the numerator x 2  16 .
We recognize a known identity of the type: a 2  b 2   a  b  a  b  , with a  x and b  4 ,
Numerator: x 2  42   x  4  x  4 
x 2  16  x  4  x  4 
Hence, 
x4 x4
We note that there is a common factor  x  4  in the denominator and the numerator which can be cancelled (if x  4 ):
x 2  16
Therefore  x  4 if and only if x  4 .
x4
x 1
3) 2
x  2x  1
In order to reduce the fraction, we must try and factorize the denominator x 2  2 x  1 .
2
We recognize a known identity of the type: a 2  2ab  b 2   a  b  , with a  x and b  1 ,
Denominator: x 2  2 x  1  ( x  1)2
x 1 x 1
Hence, 
x 2  2 x  1 ( x  1)2
This algebraic fraction is defined only if its denominator is not zero, that is if x  1
We note that there is a common factor  x  1 in the denominator and the numerator which can be cancelled:
x 1 1
Therefore 2
 which is defined only if x  1 .
x  2x  1 ( x  1)
x2  x  2
4)
x2  4
In order to reduce this fraction, we must try and factorize both the numerator and the denominator:
Denominator: We recognize a known identity of the type: a 2  b 2   a  b  a  b  , with a  x and b  2 ,
x 2  4   x  2  x  2 
Numerator: It is a second degree polynomial, we try to force its factorization:
01 - 02a - 53
2 2
 1  1  1
x2  x  2  x2  2     x        2
2
  2 2
2
 1 1
 x    2
 2  4
2
 1 1 8
 x    
 2 4 4
2
 1 9
 x   
 2 4
2 2
 1 3
 x    
 2  2
 1 3  1 3
  x    x   
 2 2  2 2
That is to say, the numerator can be factorized as: x 2  x  2   x  1 x  2 
Therefore,
x 2  x  2  x  1 x  2 

x2  4  x  2  x  2 
This algebraic fraction exists only if its denominator is non zero, that is, if x  2 and if x  2
There is a common factor  x  2  in the denominator and the numerator which can be cancelled:
x2  x  2  x  1
 , with the conditions: x  2 and x  2 .
x 42
 x  2
6x 4  7x 3  x 2
5)
6x  1
1
This algebraic fraction is defined only if x  , since the denominator 6 x  1 must be different from zero.
6
Considering the numerator 6 x 4  7 x 3  x 2 , we note that a common algebric factor in the expression is x 2 , so that:

6x 4  7x3  x 2  x 2 6x2  7x  1 
01 - 02a - 54
Considering 6 x 2  7 x  1 , the discriminant is
  b 2 4ac
2
  7   4  6  1
 49  24
 25  0
6 x 2  7 x  1  6  x  x1  x  x2 
b   b  
2a 2a
  7   25 75 2 1   7   25 7  5 12
x1     and x2     1
26 12 12 6 26 12 12
 1
That is to say: 6 x 2  7 x  1  6  x    x  1   6 x  1 x  1
 6
And finally, 6 x 4  7 x 3  x 2  x 2  6 x  1 x  1
The algebraic fraction can therefore be simplified:
2
6 x 4  7 x 3  x 2 x  6 x  1 x  1

6x  1 6x  1
 x 2  x  1
1
It is defined for x  .
6
x2  x  2
6)
x2  4
This algebraic fraction is defined for x  2 and for x  2 , since the denominator x 2  4 must be different from zero.
Considering the numerator x 2  x  2 , the discriminant is:
01 - 02a - 55
  b 2 4ac
2
  1  4  1  2 
 1 8
90
x 2  x  2   x  x1  x  x2 
b   b  
2a 2a
  1  9 1  3 2   1  9 1  3 4
x1     1 and x2     2
2 1 2 2 2 1 2 2
2
That is to say: x  x  2   x  1 x  2 
Considering the denominator x 2  4 , we recognize the known identity A2  B 2   A  B  A  B  with A  x and B  2 .
That is to say: x 2  4   x  2  x  2 
The algebraic fraction can therefore be simplified:
x 2  x  2  x  1 x  2 

x2  4  x  2  x  2 
 x  1

 x  2
It is defined for x  2 and x  2 .
5.2 Addition and subtraction of algebraic fractions

Only algebraic fractions with same denominator can be added or subtracted.
A B AB A B AB
  and  
C C C C C C
Examples:
01 - 02a - 56
2x 3x  1 2x  3x  1 5x  1
1)   
x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1
7x  2 2x  1 7 x  2   2 x  1 7x  2  2x  1 5x  3
2) 2
 2
  
x 4 x 4 x2  4 x2  4 x2  4
If two algebraic fractions have different denominators, you must put them under the same denominator in order to add or subtract them.
a ad c c b
You can always multiply both the numerator and the denominator of each fraction by the denominator of the other one:  and  . This
b bd d d b
way,
a c ad c b
  
b d bd d b
Where the sign  means + if you add the fractions and – if you subtract them.
Now we have both fractions with the same denominator b  d :
a c ad  cb
 
b d bd
Examples:
2 3
1) 
x 1 x  3
2 3 2   x  3 3   x  1
  
x  1 x  3  x  1   x  3   x  3    x  1
2x  6  3x  3

 x  1 x  3 
5x  3

 x  1 x  3 
01 - 02a - 57
2x 1
2) 
y 1 x
2x 1 2x  x 1  y  1
  
y  1 x  y  1  x x   y  1
2x 2  y  1

x  y  1
x 5 x2
3) 
x 1 x  2
x 5 x2  x  5    x  2  x 2   x  1
  
x  1 x  2  x  1   x  2   x  2    x  1
x 2  2 x  5 x  10  x 3  x 2

 x  1 x  2 
x 3  7 x  10

 x  1 x  2 
4x 2  2x  5 3x  2
4) 
x2 x 2
4x 2  2x  5

3x  2

 
4 x 2  2x  5   x  2  3 x  2   x 2

2
x x 2 x 2   x  2  x  2  x 2
4 x 3  2 x 2  5 x  8 x 2  4 x  10  3 x 3  2 x 2

x 2  x  2
x 3  8 x 2  9 x  10

x 2  x  2
Note that if the denominators of the fractions have one or several common factors, the result of the addition or subtraction can be simplified. For

example, consider the following addition:
01 - 02a - 58
1 2 1 x  x  1 2   x  1
  
x  1 x  x  1  x  1  x  x  1 x  x  1   x  1
x 2  x  2x  2
 2
x  x  1
x 2  3x  2
 2
x  x  1
The denominators of the two added fractions have a common factor: x  1 . The result can be simplified:
x 2  3x  2  x  1 x  2 

2 2
x  x  1 x  x  1

 x  2
x  x  1
In order to get directly a simplified result, you must find the Lowest Common Multiple (LCM) of the denominators, just like we do in arithmetic when we
add or subtract two fractions.
The Lowest Common Multiple (LCM) of two expressions is the expression of smallest degree that can be divided by these expressions. In
order to find the LCM of two algebraic expressions:
In order to find the LCM of several expressions:

 Factorize the expressions,
 Identify their common factors
 3) Multiply the highest degree common factors by the
remaining factors which are not common, from both
expressions.
Examples:
1) 2x 5 y and 3x 2 y 3
01 - 02a - 59
Factorize:
2x 5 y  2  x 5  y
3x2 y 3  3  x 2  y 3
Highest degree common factors: x 5 and y 3
LCM  x5  y 3  2
 3

Highest common factors Remaining factors
 6x5 y 3
2) x 2  3 x  4 and x 2  3 x  2
Factorize:
x 2  3 x  4   x  4    x  1
x 2  3 x  2   x  2    x  1
Highest degree common factor:  x  1
LCM  x
1   x  4   x  2

Highest common factor Remaining factors
  x  1 x  4  x  2 
3) x 2  2 x  1 and x 2  5 x  6
Factorize:
2
x 2  2 x  1   x  1
x 2  5 x  6   x  1   x  6 
2
Highest degree common factor:  x  1
2
LCM  
x  1
 
 
x  6
Highest common factor Remaining factor
2
  x  1  x  6
4) x 2  1 and  x  1 x  2 
Factorize:
x 2  1   x  1   x  1
01 - 02a - 60
 x  1 x  2    x  1   x  2 
Highest degree common factor:  x  1
LCM  x
1   x  1 x  2 
 
Highest common factor Remaining factor
  x  1 x  1 x  2 
1 2
Considering our previous example  , the two denominators are x  1 and x  x  1 and the LCM is x  x  1 .
x  1 x  x  1
LCM x  x  1 LCM x  x  1
Indeed, we verify that the LCM x  x  1 is divisible by the first denominator x  1 :   x and by the other one:   1
 x  1  x  1 x  x  1 x  x  1
1 2
In order to add and , we simply put these fractions under the LCM of the denominators:
x 1 x  x  1
1 2 x 2
  
x  1 x  x  1 x  x  1 x  x  1
x2

x  x  1
In order to add or subtract fractions whose denominators

share one or several common factors:
 Find the Lowest Common Multiple (LCM) of the
denominators,
 Convert each fraction to an equivalent fraction that has
the LCD as its denominator.
 To do this, multiply the numerator and denominator of
each fraction by the appropriate factor.
 3) Add or subtract the fractions.
01 - 02a - 61
Examples:
2x  1 x  2
1) 
4x  1 x  3
LCM  4 x  1 ;  x  3     4 x  1 x  3 
2 x  1 x  2  2 x  1 x  3   x  2  4 x  1
  
4 x  1 x  3  4 x  1 x  3   x  3  4 x  1

 2 x  1 x  3    x  2  4 x  1
 4 x  1 x  3 

 2x 2
 
 5x  3  4x2  9x  2 
 4 x  1 x  3 
2
6x  4x  1

 4 x  1 x  3 
x 1 3x  1
2) 2
 
x  5x  6 x 2 x 3
x 1 3x  1 x 1 3x  1
    
2
x  5x  6 x  2 x  3  x  2  x  3  x  2 x  3
LCM  x  2  x  3  ;  x  2  ;  x  3     x  2  x  3 
x 1 3x  1 x  x  3  3 x  1 x  2 
    
 x  2  x  3  x  2 x  3  x  2  x  3   x  2  x  3   x  3  x  2 


x   x  3  3x 2  5x  2 
 x  2  x  3 
x  x  3  3x2  5x  2

 x  2  x  3 
3 x 2  7 x  1

 x  2  x  3 
01 - 02a - 62
1
3) 5 x 
x 1
1 5x 1
5x   
x 1 1 x 1
LCM  x  1 ;1   x  1  1   x  1
1 5 x   x  1 1
5x   
x  1 1  x  1  x  1
5x 2  5x  1

 x  1
cos x 1
4) 
 x  1 2
  cos x
x  1
2 2
LCM  x  1 ;  x  1 cos x    x  1  cos x
 
cos x 1  cos x  cos x   x  1
  
 x  1
2
 x  1 cos x  x  1 cos x  x  1 cos x  x  1
2
2

 cos x   x  1
2
 x  1 cos x
7 1
5) 2
 3
a a
7 1 7 1 3
2
3  2  
a a a a 1
LCM a ; a;1  a  1  a 2
2 2
 
7 1 7 1 a 3  a 2
 3  2  2  2
a2 a a a a
3a 2  a  7

a2
01 - 02a - 63
x 1
6) 2
 2
x  6x  9 x  9
x 1 x 1
 2  
2
x  6x  9 x  9  x  3  2
 x  3  x  3 
2 2
LCM  x  3  ;  x  3  x  3     x  3   x  3 
 
x 1 x   x  3 1  x  3 
  
 x  3
2
 x  3  x  3   x  3    x  3   x  3  x  3    x  3 
2

 x 2  3x    x  3 
2
 x  3  x  3
x 2  3x  x  3
 2
 x  3  x  3
x2  4x  3

 x  3 2  x  3 
1 a 1
7) 
a  x  1 a
1
1 a 1 1 a 2 1
   1
a  x  1 a a   a2
x  1
 1 
LCM a  x  1 ; a 2   a  x  1
 
01 - 02a - 64
1 1 1
1 a 2 1 1 a 2 1 a 2  x  1
 1   1
a  x  1 a 2 a  x  1 a 2  a 12 x  1
 
1 1 1
1 a 2 a 2x  a 2

a  x  1
1
a 2x  1

a  x  1
1 a 1 ax  1
 
a  x  1 a a  x  1
3a 2b
8) 
5bc 3c
LCM 5bc;3c   15bc
3a 2b 3a  3 2b  5b
  
5bc 3c 5bc  3 3c  5b
9a  10b 2

15bc
5.3 Multiplication and division of algebraic fractions

The procedure for multiplying algebraic fractions is the same as the procedure for multiplying common fractions.
Multiplying two algebraic fractions produces a new algebraic fraction. Multiply the two numerators to get the new numerator and multiply the two
denominators to get the new denominator:
a c ac
 
b d bd
The resulting fraction can be sometimes simplified.
Examples:
01 - 02a - 65
3 x 3 y 2 z 3 x  3 y 2 z 9 xy 2 z 9 y
1)  2   
4 yz x 4 yz  x 2 4 yzx 2 4 x
 x  1 x  x  1  x  x  1 x 1
2)    
x  x  2    1
2
x x 2
 x  2    x  1 x 2
 x  2  x  1   2 
x x
3)
a 1
 2
x a x

a 1 x a 1

 
   
a 1  x a 1  a 1  a 1    a  12

a 1
x x  2ax  a 2 x  x  a 2 x   x  a
2
 x  a 2
 x  a 2
 x  a 2
2 2
2x  4 x 2  6x  9 2  x  2  x  3 2  x  2  x  3  2  x  3
4)     
x3 2
x 4 x3  x  2  x  2   x  3  x  2  x  2   x  2 
The procedure for dividing algebraic fractions is the same as the procedure for dividing common fractions.
Dividing two algebraic fractions consists in multiplying the first one by the inverse of the second one:
a c a d ad
   
b d b c bc
The resulting fraction can be sometimes simplified.
Examples:
7 yz 2 14 y 2 z 7 yz 2 cos x 7 yz 2 cos x z
1)     
cos x cos x cos x 14 y z 14 y 2 z cos x 2y
2
2)
x2  1 x  1
 
x2  1 3x  6
 
 

x 2  1  3 x  6   x  1 x  1  3  x  2  3  x  1
  3  x  1
x  2 3x  6 x  2 x 1  x  2  x  1  x  2 x  1 1
3) 2
x2  x  2

x  1 x2  x  2 x  2
  
 

x 2  x  2  x  2   x  2  x  1 x  2  x  2

x  x  6 x  2 x2  x  6 x  1 x 2  x  6  x  1  x  2  x  3  x  1 x  3
 
01 - 02a - 66
4)
3x 2  3x  3 x 2  x  1 3x 2  3x  3
   2
x2

  
 
3 x 2  3 x  3  x  2 3 x 2  x  1  x  2 3  x  2

2x  1 x2 2x  1 x  x 1 
 2x  1 x 2  x  1  2 x  1 x 2  x  1  2 x  1
 
01 - 02a - 67

M o D U L e 0 1 - 0 2 A Mathematics: Algebra Algebraic Expressions

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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 01 - Mathematics

Numbers are called numerical symbols, while letters are called literal symbols.

7 , 5 , 2 and 6 are constants (6 is a constant, 5 and 2 are constant coefficients)

Algebraic relations include equality (sign  ) and inequalities (signs  ,  ,  ,  ,  ).

Examples: Let the variable n represent the word “number”. Write an algebraic expression A that symbolizes the following:

However, by extension, “algebraic term” is used to designate the product of variables possibly together with coefficients.

1.3. Like terms:

1) 5x and 2x are like terms.

3) xy and 4xy are like terms

4) x 2 yz3 and xyz 3 are not like terms.

The degree of a polynomial is the largest degree of any one monomial.

2. EVALUATING SIMPLE ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS:

2.2 Evaluating an algebraic expression with several variables - Numerical value

2) B  x, y , z   3 x 2  xyz  3z3 x . If the given variables are x  1 and y  2 , what is B 1,2, z  ?

3) C  x, y   x 3  2 xy . If the given variables are x  5 and y  3 , what is the numerical value of C  5,3  ?

4) D  x, y   9 x 2 y  3 . If the given variables are x  8 and y  4 , what is the numerical value of D  8, 4  ?

Addition and multiplication have the following properties:

PROPERTY ADDITION MULTIPLICATION

Commutative ab  ba a b  b a

3.2. Addition of algebraic terms:

In an algebraic expression, only like terms can be added.

3.3 Subtraction of algebraic terms

In an algebraic expression, only like terms can be subtracted.

If we want to multiply the terms with coefficients: ax m and bx n , we get: ax m  bx n  a  x m  b  x n  a  b  x m  x n   a  b  x m  n

In an algebraic expression, multiplication is performed

3.5. Division of algebraic terms:

In an algebraic expression, division is performed by:

For example, considering the division A  x 2  2 x , the divisor 2x must be different from zero. In other words, 2x must be different from zero for

Parentheses   , brackets   and braces   share the same function. They are all grouping symbols. After parentheses are used, brackets are

You may want to remove the grouping symbols in an algebraic expression. You can moreover sometimes express the expression as a sum of

4.1. Expanding an algebraic expression:

4.1.1. Double distributive property:

4.1.2. Algebraic identities – Pascal’s Triangle:

n n n n  n  n 1  n  n n n n n  n  n 1  n  n

n n n n n

4.2. Factorizing an algebraic expression:

4.2.1. Main methods to factorize an algebraic expression:

 Algebraic identities: These identities can be used to factorize some expressions. The three main algebraic identities are:

 a  b 4  a 4  4a3b  6a2b2  4ab3  b 4

 A method can also be used to try and force the factorization of second degree polynomials like:

4.2.2. General methods to factorize second degree polynomials:

b 2 4ac b 2 4ac b 2 4ac

We can go on factorizing if and only if: b 2 4ac  0 . Suppose this condition is fulfilled, then we can use the known identity

If   b 2 4ac  0 , the polynomial can not be factorized.

If   b 2 4ac  0 , the polynomial can be factorized as:

Considering the second degree polynomial: P ( x )  ax 2  bx  c , if its discriminant  is positive,   b 2 4ac  0 , then the

In other words, if the numerical value of a second degree polynomial is zero for a given number x  x0 , P ( x0 )  0 , then x  x0 is a

If P ( x0 )  0 then x0 is a root and P ( x ) can be factorized by  x  x0 

We notice that x0  1 is a root of this polynomial. Indeed, P (1)  13  4  12  5  1  2  1  4  5  2  0 .

As P ( x )  x 3  4 x 2  5 x  2 , we identify the two expressions of P ( x ) and we get:

1) Factorize the polynomial P ( x )  x 3  6 x 2  11x  6 . Note that P ( 3)  0

2) Factorize the polynomial P ( x )  2 x 3  4 x 2  2 x  4 . Note that P ( 1)  0 and that P (1)  0

3) Factorize the polynomial P ( x )  x 4  x 3  x 2  x . Note that P ( 1)  0 and P (0)  0

This last step can be performed much faster with a very powerful method called Euclidean (or polynomial) division.

 Euclidean (or polynomial) division makes it possible to divide a polynomial by another one of less degree.

 Polynomials can be divided mechanically by Euclidean division, much like numbers can be divided by long division.

 Recall that when dividing a number (dividend) a by another number (divisor) b , we get the quotient q and the remainder r . We write:

When dividing a polynomial a( x ) by another polynomial b( x ) , we get:

If I divide the leading x 2 of the dividend by the leading x of the divisor, you get an x . So I put an x in the divisor:

Now I'll take that x , and multiply it through the divisor, x  4 . I write down the result under the corresponding terms of the dividend:

Then I draw the "equals" bar, so I can do the subtraction. To subtract the polynomials, I change all the signs in the second line.

The quotient of this division is x  5 , and the remainder is zero ( 0 x  0 ).

In the case of the above polynomial division, the zero remainder tells us that x  4 is a factor of x 2  x  20 , which you can confirm by