Chapter 9

OTHER
CONSTRUCTION
MATERIAL
9.1. Bitumen
9.2. Rubber
9.3. Plastic
9.4. Polymer
9.5. Gypsum
9.6. Glass
9.7. Fiber Reinforced Polymer

The range of materials available to the engineer is vast and these materials
may possess widely differing properties. Concrete, timber, steel, bitumen,
glass, rubber and polymer are all used by engineers, but in character and
properties they are completely different from one another. Every engineer is
concerned with materials and has to select the most suitable material for the
job in hand, be it for some civil engineering structure, or some power plant,
or perhaps for an electronic component. An engineer has to consider many
factors when making the selection because within one group of materials,
properties may range from soft and easily deformed to tool steels which are
hard and tough.

9.1 Bitumen

Butimen by definition is soluble in carbon

disulfide. However, according to ASTM D8,
butimen is a class of black or dark-colored
(solid, semisolid, or viscous) cementitious
substances, natural or manufactured,
composed principally of high-molecular- Figure 9.1: Natural Bitumen
weight hydrocarbons, of which asphalts, tars, From Iran Mines
pithces and asphaltities are typical (Figure 9.1).

Most bitumens contain sulfur and several heavy

metals such as nickel, vanadium, lead, chromium,
mercury and also arsenic, selenium, and other
toxic elements. Bitumens can provide good
preservation of plants and animal fossils.

Properties of Bitumen

The Paving Grades of bitumen are 30/40, 60/70

and 80/100. The grade 80/100 is commonly used
in Malaysia but for lower temperatures other
grades are preferable.

Bitumen Application

Bitumen is primarily used for paving roads. Its other uses are for bituminous
waterproofing products, including the use of bitumen in the production of
roofing felt and for sealing flat roofs.

Thin bitumen plates are sometimes used by computer enthusiasts for

silencing computer cases or noisy computer parts such as the hard drive.
Bitumen layers are baked onto the outside of high end dishwashers to
provide sound insulation.

Bitumen alternatives

Bitumen can now be made from non-petroleum based renewable resources

such as sugar, molasses and rice, corn and potato starches. Bitumen can
also be made from waste material by fractional distillation of used motor
oils, which is sometimes disposed by burning or dumping into land fills. Non-
petroleum based bitumen binders can be made light-colored. Roads made
with lighter-colored pitch absorb less heat from solar radiation, and become
less hot than darker surfaces, reducing their contribution to the urban heat
island effect.

Methods of Testing

Most present day standard were developed in the early 1900s. Equipment
has change becoming electric and better control can be accomplished during
the testing period of the product.

1. Specific Gravity (ASTM D70)
- use of a pycnometer
- can be expressed as the ratio
of the weight of a given
volume of the material at
250C or at 15.60C to that of an
equal volume of water at the
same temperature
Method of Testing
5. Penetration of Bituminous
Materials (ASTM D5)
- measure the hardness and
softness of the material
- test are taken at least 3
determination on the surface of the
sample at points not less than 10
mm from the side of the container
and not less than 10 mm apart.
- However, the test is empirical and
many engineers would like to
replace it with ASTM D2171
(Viscosity of Asphalts by Vacuum
Capillary Viscometer)
2. Sampling Bituminous (ASTM
D140)
- cover the method used to
sample bituminous material at
points of manufacture,
storage or delivery
- is to determine the true nature
and condition of the material
3. Ductility (ASTM D113)
- is measured by the distance
to which it will elongate before
breaking when 2 ends of
specimen are pulled apart at
a specified speed and
temperature
- to measure the adhesive and
elasticity of the asphalt.
4. Viscosity
- ASTM D2170 : Kinematic
Viscosity of asphalt (Bitumen)
- Covers determination of the
kinematic viscosity of liquid
asphalt (bitumen), road oils
and distillation residue of
liquid asphalt (bitumen), all at
600C and for asphalt cement
at 1350C in the range of 6 to
100,000 centistokes.
- Meadure the resistance to
flow of a liquid under gravity.
- ASTM D2171 : Viscosity of
asphalt by Vacuum Capillary
Viscometer
- Determination of viscosity of
asphalt (bitumen) by vacuum
capillary viscometer at 600C.
- It is applicable to material
having viscosities in the range
from 0.036 to over 200,000
poiss (P).
6. Float Test (ASTM D139)
- is a consistency test used for
material that are too soft to
undergo the standard
penetration test and too hard
for use with viscosity test
 Pithces
is the name for any of a number of highly viscous liquids
which appear solid. Pitch can be made from petroleum
products or plants

Molasses
is a viscous by-product from the processing of the sugar
beet or sugar cane into sugar

Fractional distillation
is the separation of a mixture into its component parts, or
fractions, such as in separating chemical compounds by
their boiling point by heating them to a temperature at
which several fractions of the compound will evaporate.

Urban heat island

is a metropolitan area which is significantly warmer than its
surrounding rural areas.

9.2 Rubber

Christopher Columbus has been the first Europeans to handle natural rubber
since it was reported that some tribes of South American Indians played ball
games well before the days of Pele!. Rubber is a very important material
used in a wide range variety of product. It is an elastomer. This is a
substance in which the arrangement of the polymer molecules allows
considerable reversible extension to take place at normal temperatures.
Elastomer exists as long chain molecules which are irregularly coiled, bent
and generally entangled when in the unstressed state.

Engineering Properties of Elastomer Rubber

Elastomer is used in Civil Engineering for some good reason such as:

- Long lasting
- Good in impact absorption
- Good bonding with metal
- Good resistance to ageing
- Good tearing properties
- Good physical properties
- Good resistance to oil and chemicals
- Suitable for hot and cool temperature.
However, elastomer rubber is expensive especially for rubber with high
resistance to ageing. It also can be attack by ester, ketone, hydrocarbon
with nitrogen and aromatic. Table 9.1 shows physical properties of the
elastomer.

Engineering Application of Elastomer Rubber

To be value in engineering, a rubber must have a low

‘hysteresis’, that is, it must return within very close
limits to its original shape following each successive
deformation cycle of loading and unloading. In civil
engineering, elastomer rubbers are mostly used for
bridge and building structure where cyclic loading
such as vehicles and earthquake plays major role.
Types of elastomer rubber used are:

(i) natural rubber

(ii) Neoprene
(iii) High Damping Rubber (HDRB)
(iv) Styrene-butadiene Rubber (SBR)
(v) Acrylonitrile-butadiene Rubber (NBR) or Nitrile Rubber
(vi) Ethylene-propylene Diene Monomer (EPDM), as for liquid EPDM,
it can be used for roof coating

Table 9.1: Physical Properties of Elastomer

Physical Natural
SBR EPDM NBR Neoprene
Properties Rubber
Specific Gravity 0.93 0.94 0.86 1.00 1.23
Durometer, Range 30-100 40-100 30-90 30-90 40-95
Tensile Strength E F-G VG VG VG
Elongation VG-E G G G G
Compression Set G G G G F-G

Heat Resistance F F-G VG-E G F-G

Resilience or
E F-G G F-G VG
Rebound
Impact Resistance E E G F G
Abrasion Resistance E G-E G-E G-E G-E
Tear Resistance E F F-G F-G F-G
Cut Growth E G G G G
 Physical Natural
SBR EPDM NBR Neoprene
Properties Rubber
Flame Resistance P P P P G
Impermeability, Gas F F F-G G F-G
Weathering
P-F F E F-G VG
Resistance
-30°
Low Temperature -10° TO - 0° TO - -20° TO -10° TO -
TO -40
Limit* 50°F 50°F -60°F 50°F
°F
High Temperature 158° TO 158° TO 300° TO 275°F 225°F
Limit* 225°F 225°F 350°F
P = Poor, F = Fair, G = Good, VG = Very Good, E = Excellent

9.3 Plastic

Plastic is an important group of materials for construction. A plastic is a

polymeric (usually organic) of high molecular weight which can be shaped by
flow. In general, plastics exhibit a number of outstanding characteristic:

- lightness in weight (generally half as light as aluminum)

- high dielectric strength (electric insulation)
- low heat conductivity (heat insulation)
- special properties toward lights (colorability)
- extremely resistant toward chemical
- metal insert may be molded into the plastic
(since plastics are inert toward such materials)
- many high-quality products can be developed
by using a lathe, sawing, punching and drilling.

Organic plastic can be classified into three general classifications which are;

(i) Thermoplastic: an organic plastic, either natural or synthetic,

which remain permanently soft at elevated temperatures. Upon
cooling, they again become hard. These materials can be shaped
and reshaped any number of times by repeated heating and
cooling. Some of the most familiar natural thermoplastics include
asphalts, bitumen, pitches and resin.

(ii) Thermosetting: an organic plastic that were originally soft or

soften at once upon heating, then harden permanently.
Thermosetting plastic are hardened by chemical changes due to
 heat, catalyst or to both. Thermosetting plastics remain hardened
without cooling and do not soften appreciably when reheated. The
most common thermosetting plastic is polyester.

(iii) Chemically Setting Plastic: are those that harden by the addition
of a suitable chemical to the composition just before molding or by
subsequent chemical treatment following fabrication.

Properties of Plastic

The strength of plastics materials is generally much lower than that of other
constructional material. Nevertheless, plastics are light material with relative
density between 0.9 and 2.0. Table 9.2 shows the strength-weight
relationships for plastic and some common structural elements.

Table 9.2: Strength-weight relationships for plastic and some common

structural elements.
Specific Tensile Tensile Strength
Material
Gravity Strength (psi) Specific Gravity
Chrome-vanadium steel 7.85 164 000 20 800
Structural Steel 7.83 65 000 8 300
Cast iron, grey 7.03 5 000 5 000
Titanium alloy 4.7 145 000 31 000
Aluminum alloy 2.85 6 000 20 000
Magnesium Alloy 1.81 44 000 24 300
Glass fabric laminate 1.9 45 000 23 600
Asbestos cloth laminate 1.7 9 000 5 300
Paper laminate 1.33 20 000 15 000
Cellulose acetate 1.3 5 000 3 900
Methyl methacrylate 1.18 8 500 7 200
Polystyrene 1.06 5 500 5 200
Polyethylene 0.92 1 300 1 400
Sitka spruce 0.40 17 000 42 500

Application of Plastic

Raw materials used in the manufacture of

plastics traditionally come from two main sources:

i. Animal and vegetable by-products such

as casein (from cow’s milk), cellulose
(mainly from cotton fibers too short for
 spinning) and wood pulp, common products being cellulosics.

ii. Petroleum by-products obtained during the refining and ‘cracking’ of

crude oil, common products being polythene, PVC and polystyrene.
This method is responsible for the bulk of plastics manufacture.

Table 9.3 shows uses of some plastic material

Table 9.3: Typical uses of plastic material

Compound Typical Uses
(A) Vinyl Thermoplastics
Polythene HD Acid-resisting lining. Babies’ baths, kitchen and other
PE household ware. Piping, toys, fabric filaments.
Sheet, wrapping material, polythene bags, electric insulation
ink cartridge.
LD Sheets, wrapping material, polythene bags, squeeze
bottles, electrical insulation, ink cartridge.
Polystyrene Ceiling tiles, heat insulation, packaging for fragile equipment
(General purpose)
Polyvinyl chloride Domestic/industrial piping (rainwater, waste etc), light
PVC fittings, curtain rail (with metal insert). Safety helmets and
ducting
(B) Thermosetting Plastics
Silicones Water-proof coating fabrics. Anti foaming agents. Hydraulic
fluids. Electrical equipment such as switch parts, induction
heating equipment, insulation for motors and generator
coils.
Epoxides Sold as resins and syrups. Used as adhesive for gluing
metal, low-pressure laminations, surface coating, casting
and repairing casting.
Polymide Bearings, compressor valves, piston rings, diamond
abrasive wheel binders

9.4 Polymer

Polymer engineering is generally an engineering field that designs, analyses,

and/or modifies polymer materials. Polymer engineering covers aspects of
petrochemical industry, polymerization, structure and characterization of
polymers, properties of polymers, compounding and processing of polymers
and description of major polymers, structure property relations and
applications.

Polymer Materials

The basic division of polymers into thermoplastics and thermosets helps

define their areas of application. The latter group of materials includes
phenolic resins, polyesters and epoxy resins, all of which are used widely in
 Polymerization
is a process of reacting monomer molecules
together in a chemical reaction to form three-
dimensional networks or polymer chains

Acetal resin
is an engineering plastic, a polymer with the
chemical formula -(-O-CH2-)n-. It is often
marketed and used as a metal substitute

PET
is a thermoplastic polymer resin of the polyester
family and is used in synthetic fibers; beverage,
food and other liquid containers; thermoforming
applications; and engineering resins often in
combination with glass fiber.

composite materials when reinforced with stiff fibres such as fibreglass and
aramids. Since crosslinking stabilises the thermosetting matrix of these
materials, they have physical properties more similar to traditional
engineering materials like steel. However, their very much lower densities
compared with metals makes them ideal for lightweight structures. In
addition, they suffer less from fatigue, so are ideal for safety-critical parts
which are stressed regularly in service.

Thermoplastics have relatively low tensile moduli, but also have low densities
and properties such as transparency which make them ideal for consumer
products and medical products. They include polyethylene, polypropylene,
nylon, acetal resin, polycarbonate and PET, all of which are widely used
materials.

Elastomers are polymers which have very low moduli and show reversible
extension when strained, a valuable property for vibration absorption and
damping. They may either be thermoplastic (in which case they are known as
Thermoplastic elastomers) or crosslinked, as in most conventional rubber
products such as tyres. Typical rubbers used conventionally include natural
rubber, nitrile rubber, polychloroprene, polybutadiene, styrene-butadiene and
fluorinated rubbers such as Viton.
Applications of Polymer

Typical uses of composites are monocoque structures for aerospace and

automobiles, as well as more mundane products like fishing rods and
bicycles. The stealth bomber was the first all-composite aircraft, but many
passenger aircraft like the Airbus uses an increasing proportion of
composites in its fuselage. The quite different physical properties of
composites gives designers much greater freedom in shaping parts, which is
why composite products often look different to conventional products. On the
other hand, some products such as drive shafts, helicopter rotor blades, and
propellers look identical to metal precursors owing to the basic functional
needs of such components. See Figure 9.2 and Figure 9.3.

Figure 9.2: B-2 Spirit Figure 9.3: A time-trial

stealth bomber of the U.S carbon fibre composite
Air Force. bicycle with aerodynamic
wheels and aero bars

Monocoque
is a construction technique that supports structural
load by using an object's external skin as opposed to
using an internal frame or truss that is then covered
with a non-load-bearing skin

Stealth bomber
is an American heavy bomber with "low observable"
stealth technology designed to penetrate dense anti-
aircraft defenses and deploy both conventional and
nuclear weapons.
9.5 Gypsum Board

Gypsum board is widely used for internal

walls and ceilings by the construction
industry, and is a material of growing
importance in the do-it-yourself sector. It is
manufactured by calcining gypsum into a
plaster, making a slurry from the plaster,
and passing the slurry through machines
which shape, set, and cut into a board. Also
commonly known as drywall, wallboard and
plasterboard.

Gypsum Board Manufacture

A gypsum board panel is made of a paper liner wrapped around an inner

core made primarily from gypsum plaster, the semi-hydrous form of calcium
sulfate (CaSO4·½ H2O). The raw gypsum, CaSO4·2 H2O, (mined or obtained
from flue gas desulfurization (FGD)) must be calcined before use. The
plaster is mixed with fiber (typically paper and/or fiberglass), plasticizer,
foaming agent, potash as an accelerator, EDTA, starch or other chelate as
a retarder, various additives that increase mildew and fire resistance
(fiberglass or vermiculite), wax emulsion for lower water absorption and
water. This is then formed by sandwiching a core of wet gypsum between
two sheets of heavy paper or fiberglass mats. When the core sets and is
dried in a large drying chamber, the sandwich becomes rigid and strong
enough for use as a building material.

Hydrous
containing water as a constituent

Flue gas desulfurization

is the technology used for removing sulfur dioxide (SO2) from the exhaust flue
gases in power plants that burn coal or oil to produce steam for the steam
turbines that drive their electricity generators

Plasticizer
are additives that increase the plasticity or fluidity of the material to which they
are added, these include plastics, cement, concrete, wallboard and clay bodies

Foaming agent
is a surfactant, which when present in small amounts, facilitates the formation
of a foam, or enhances its colloidal stability by inhibiting the coalescence of
bubbles

Potash
is the common name given to potassium carbonate and various mined and
manufactured salts that contain the element potassium in water-soluble form.
 EDTA
Ethylenediamine tetra-acetic acid, a crystalline acid with a strong tendency to
form chelates with metal ions.

Starch
an odourless, tasteless white substance occurring widely in plant tissue and
obtained chiefly from cereals and potatoes. It is a polysaccharide which
functions as a carbohydrate store and is an important constituent of the human
diet.

Chelate
a compound containing a ligand (typically organic) bonded to a central metal
atom at two or more point.

Mildew
a thin whitish coating consisting of minute fungal hyphae, growing on plants or
damp organic material such as paper.

Vermiculite
is a natural mineral that expands with the application of heat.

Gypsum Board Waste

Because up to 17% of gypsum board is wasted during the manufacturing and

installation processes] and the gypsum board material is frequently not re-
used, disposal can become a problem. Some landfill sites have banned the
dumping of gypsum board. Some manufacturers take back waste gypsum
board from construction sites and recycle it into new board. Recycled paper
is typically used during manufacturing. More recently, recycling at the
construction site itself is being investigated. There is potential for using
crushed gypsum board to amend certain soils at building sites, such as clay
and silt mixtures, as well as using it in compost.

Application of Gypsum Board

• Regular white board, from 1/4" to 3/4" thickness

• Greenboard, the drywall that contains an oil-based additive in the green
colored paper covering that provides moisture resistance. It is
commonly used in washrooms and other areas expected to experience
elevated levels of humidity.
• Blueboard, blue face paper forms a strong bond with a skim coat or a
built-up plaster finish providing both water and mould resistance.
• Cement board, which is more water-resistant than greenboard, for use
in showers or sauna rooms, and as a base for ceramic tile
• Soundboard is made from wood fibers to increase the sound rating
(STC)
• Soundproof board is a laminated board made with gypsum, other
materials, and damping polymers to significantly increase the STC
• Enviroboard, a board made from recycled agricultural materials
• Lead-lined gypsum board, used around radiological equipment
• Foil-backed gypsum board to control moisture in a building or room
• Controlled density (CD), also called ceiling board, which is available
only in 1/2" thickness and is significantly stiffer than regular white board

See Figure 9.5 to Figure 9.6

Figure 9.5: Gypsum Board Wall

Figure 9.6: Gypsum Board False Ceiling

9.6 Glass
The principle ingredients of common soda glass
are silica sand, lime (from limestone) and soda
ash (crude sodium carbonate). Since glass can
be recycle, large amount of scrap glass (cullet)
are used in glass manufactured. At 15900C
temperature in gas-fired furnaces which hold up
to 250 tonnes of molten glass, acidic silicate will reacts with basic lime and
soda to form the mixed silicates known as glass. Glass can be rolled, blown,
cast or pressed for a variety of uses. From engineering point of view, glass is
extremely weak and codes and standard have been established to deal with
the utilization of glass in engineering project which is American National
Standards Institute (ANSI) Z97.1 Safety Glazing Material Used In Buildings –
Performance Specification and Methods of Test.

Properties of Glass

Glasses are plastic at high temperatures and rigid at low temperatures but
under normal manufacturing conditions glasses do not crystallize. When,
glasses have no crystal structure making molecules are unable to move
significant distance relatively at one another making glass extremely brittle at
ambient temperature. The rate of viscous flow is dependent mainly upon the
prevailing temperature but is also dependent upon the composition and
structure of the glass. Small applied stresses will cause the more highly
strained bonds within the structure to be ruptured. When glass is drawn to a
fine fiber and cooled quickly, a high tensile strength is produced. Glass is
extremely stable and will not deteriorate. Special glasses used in fiber-
reinforced composites can
reach strength of up to 15 000
MPa (under ideal condition),
but in practice a lower
strength of about 3500 MPa
would be obtained since
surface damage of the fiber is
caused by contact with other
material. These microscopic
surface scratches act as
stress-raisers.

Application of Glass
The coefficient of thermal expansion of ordinary soda glass is relatively high,
whilst its thermal conductivity is low, and this combination of properties makes
it unsuitable for use in the majority of domestic situation involving sudden
contact with boiling water. Table 9.4 shows other applications of glass in
wide range of use.

Table 9.4: Properties and Typical Use of Glass

Type of glass Properties and uses

Soda glass Window panes, plate glass, bottle, jar etc.

Lead glass High refractive index and dispersive power. Lenses,
lamp, prism and other optics. ‘Crystal’ glass table-ware
Boro-silicate glass Low coefficient of expansion and good resistance to
(Pyrex) chemical. Used for heat-resistance kitchen-ware and
laboratory apparatus.
Alumino-silicate glass High softening temperature (Tg up to 8000C).
(ceramic glass) A glass-ceramic for cooking ware, heat exchangers etc
High silicon glass ‘Vycor’-low coefficient of expansion. Missile noise
cones, window for space vehicles
Silicon-free glass Sodium vapour discharge lamp

There is little in common between mechanical properties of glasses and

metals when under the action of applied forces. Such difference can be
classified as follows:

(i) under short-time testing methods, glasses are brittle at ambient

temperatures. They are elastic right up to the point of fracture and
fail without any previous yield or plastic deformation (Figure 9.7).
Even the most brittle of metal show some plastic flow;
(ii) although an external load may be applied in compression, failure in
glass always results from a tensile component of the stress. The
strength of such materials can therefore best be described in terms
of tensile strength;
(iii) the time for which a static load is applied has a great influence on
the strength of glass in the long term. Thus the extrapolated
infinite-time modulus of rupture for glasses is usually between a
third and a half of that for short-time loading.
9.7 Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP)

Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) made of a combination of continuous fiber

embedded in resin matrix is an advanced composite material that has been
identified as a potential new construction material. Some of the advantages
of FRP are high tensile strength, lightweight, non-magnetic and durable.
Since it is a non-corrodible material it may be used as reinforcement in
concrete member. The most commonly available FRPs, which can be used
for civil infrastructure, are glass (GFRP), carbon (CFRP) and aramid (AFRP).

Properties of Fiber Reinforced Polymer

Advanced FRP composites are made from different constituent materials, i.e.
fiber, resins, interface, fillers, and additives. Higher modulus fibers contribute
to the mechanical strength of the FRP, whereas the matrix helps to transfer
or distribute the stress from one fiber to another, through interface shear
resistance, and to improve the durability of the fiber against environmental
and mechanical damage. The fiber generally occupies 30–70% of the matrix
volume of the composite (Figure 9.8). The interface between the fiber and the
matrix is known to significantly affect the performance of FRP composites. In
addition to these three basic components (fibers, resins, and interface), the
fillers serve to reduce cost and shrinkage. The additives help to improve the
mechanical and physical properties of the composites as well as the
workability.
Applications of Fiber Reinforced Polymer

The scope of applications of FRPs in concrete construction is very wide. In

fact, the true potential of FRP is yet to be realised. From the basic application
point of view, FRPs can be used in concrete in three basic forms:

• Internal reinforcement for reinforced concrete structures;

• External reinforcement for strengthening or repairing existing deficient
structures;
• FRP structural elements (e.g. beams, girder, and column) in concrete–
FRP composite structures.

Figure 9.10 shows typical varieties of FRP reinforcements for civil

infrastructure applications. Figure 9.11 illustrates GPRP reinforcing bars for
use in concrete.

Figure 9.10: FRP reinforcements for civil infrastructure application

FRP reinforcement, external to a concrete structure, can be effective in the
form of external plate bonding or fiber wrapping. External plate bonding by
adhesive is a well established technique to strengthen or repair deficient
reinforced concrete beams or slabs. Initially the method was developed with
steel plates but, at present, CFRP plates are being widely used all over the
world.

The wrapping of concrete columns by resin impregnated FRP fabrics or

straps to improve the strength and ductility is a technique used in seismic
retrofitting of concrete structures. This method is an alternative to the steel
jacket technique. The application of FRP external reinforcement has a long-
term durability advantage, and a great potential to be used extensively to
strengthen or upgrade ageing reinforced concrete infrastructure facilities.
Figure 9.12 shows the wrapping technique used for column rehabilitation.

Figure 9.12: Concrete columns reinforced with FRP sheets

 Tutorial 9

1. Briefly define:

a. Bitumen
b. Plastic
c. Polymer
d. Gypsum Board
e. Glass
f. Fiber Reinforced Polymer

and give two uses of each material.

2. Discuss the specific ASTM standards for bituminous. Give the

purpose and procedure for each test.
3. List seven outstanding characteristics of plastics.
4. List three general classifications of organic plastics.
5. List and discuss the four types of glazing material utilized today.
6. Discuss the main application of FRP components in construction
application.
1. Materials For Engineers and Technicians, Raymond A. Higgins,
Newnes, 2006
2. Materials For Civil & Highway Engineers, 4th ed., Kenneth N. Derucher,
Prentice Hall, 1998
3. Properties of Engineering Materials, R.A. Higgins, Edward Arnold, 1994
4. Introduction to Engineering Materials, V. B. John, English Language
Book Society, 1983