chapter 10 Post-independence
developments (1980 •·p[:
introduction
ost independence developments
The P .h .
. Zimbabwe were met wit mi xed
in . d . hree
rtu
nes and they were carne out mt
fo es namely, po1·1tlca, . 1 economic . an d
h
t em . 1
oc1 ·at developments. Th e mternatlona
.
5
munity at first believed that the Robert
~:abe led government would establish
a Marxist - Lennist state and above .all
thought that his government was gomg
to expel the whites from Zimbabwe and
that the ZAND (PF) government would
without fear or favour punish all ZANU
(PF)'s political foes.
Measures taken by the
Zimbabwean government
to improve education
since 1980
Zimbabwe has two ministries of education:
The Ministry of Primary and Secondary
Education which is purely and exclusively
responsible for education of the young
from early childhood to the age of 18 as
well as adult and non-formal education.
The Ministry of Higher and Tertiary
Education Science and Technology
Development ' is responsible for tertiary
education. The Zimbabwe Education Act
stipulates that all children have the right
to education.
Upon independence, (in 1980) the
Mugabe regime pursued a policy of
education for ~11 and the so called free
' .
and compulsory education. Education is
. . ;- f/ ,J,
n~t. free since pupils are required to ·pay
tmtton fees as well as levies. These levies
at some institutions are so stupendous
and have proved to be impediments to the
provision of free education.
The presence and existence of street
kids (children in the streets) in urban and
growth point areas is an indictment against
any claim that education in Zimbabwe is
compulsory and free. More schools were
built (both primary and secondary) with
more teachers trained. The government
introduced the Zimbabwe Integrated
Teacher Education Course (ZINTEC)
programme, a crash course which trained
primary school teachers. Hot-sitting in
schools was introduced.
Expanded tertiary education was
launched through establishment of
polytechnics, universities and c~llege_s.
It sent science teachers to be tramed m
Cuba and offered scholarships, bursaries
and grants to students. The govern~ent
decentralised the Ministry of Education,
Sport, Arts and Culture to provinces and
districts. Upper top schools mushroo~ed
in rural areas to make secondary education
accessible. Booklets and pamphlets were
produced by the Curriculum Dev~lopment
Unit (CDU) for use in schools. Zimbabwe
Science Kits were made.
It launched Adult Literacy ~nd
Presidential Scholarships to South Afnca.
Teachers now receive rural allowances,
transport allowances, housing allowanhces
. Th government as
and incentives. e for
vided social support progra1?s,
pro . Education Assistance
example, Basic
Module (BEAM). This has not been able
to carter for all disadvantaged pupil s
because secondary education is not free
in Zimbabwe.
Successes of the
Zimbabwean government in
improving education
• Increased enrolment in schools ( a
positive move against the Smith
regime's bottle-neck/pyramid
education system). More primary,
secondary, colleges and universities
were built with more teachers being
trained.
• The launch of Education With
Production.
• High pass rates and high literacy rate .
• Allowing teachers to get incentives .
Failures/hindrances
• The economic difficulties in Zimbabwe
have reversed some of the gains
previously achieved in the provision
of education.
• There has been an exodus of teachers
from Zimbabwe to neighbouring
countries in search of higher wages
and better conditions of services.
The situation has not improved as
the conditions of service and salaries
still remain unattractive. Former
Zimbabwe Teacher's Association
(ZIMTA) President, Tendai
Chikowore, is quoted as saying in
2008, "The socio-economic status
of the teacher in Zimbabwe declined
drastically over the years".
• Thus the schools are failing to attract
experienced qualified teachers.
• There are about 14 Teachers' Colleges
in the country but due to the economic
difficulties in the country, few colleges
108
are operating at their o ptimum
capacities.
• N o t on ly th a t, very few youn g
people are opting to join the teaching
profess ion as they find the conditi ons
of service, including very poo r
salaries under which teachers work ,
unattractive.
• There has been under funding of the
education system.
Land resettlement
programme
When Robert Mugabe's government was
voted into power in 1980, they promised
to resettle 162 000 families within three
years. However, in its first phase of the
resettlement programme government
managed to settle 71 000 families. The
then Minister without Portifolio, Joseph
Msika, pointed out that 100 000 families
would be resettled over the next five years.
The only problem with Msika's promise
"is that political rhetoric has tended to
race ahead of decisive action whenever
the government discusses the land re-
distribution equation". (Percy F. Makombe:
1998 September Motto Magazine).
The government intended to acquire
1 480 farms, which they listed on 28
November 1997. Some of the farms,
originally listed, have since been delisted
prompting cries of favouritism.
Government detractors have dismissed
the land resettlement programme as a
populist move by a desperate government
struggling to assert its authority and its
tenure of office. Those who support the
government's move say Mugabe is only
giving back to the people what legitimately
belongs to them.
J

NB. Mugabe has always argued that most
of the white farmers merely inherited the
land from their ~orefathe:s who did not pay
any compensat10n for displacing blacks.
The church has added its voice to the land
debate. Heads of Christian denominations
and the Zimbabwe Council of Churches
issued a pastoral letter on the current state
of the nation. They argued that whoever
owns land must know that they have an
obligation to the nation as a whole.
Reasons for the land reform
programme in Zimba bwe
• To fulfill promises made during the
liberation struggle.
• To relieve pressure in overcrowded
rural areas.
• Black empowerment.
• Failure by the British government
to release funds to the Zimbabwean
government to buy land.
• The white commercial farmers were
reluctant to give up "their" land.
• Pressur e from peasan ts and war
veterans to use underutilised land.
• The "NO" vote during the 2000
refere ndum influe nced the
government.
It is alleged that it was part of the
campaigning strategy by the ruling
party to acquire the sympathy and
votes from the landless and the poor.
• White comme rcial farmers openly
supported the opposition, for example,
the Movement for Democratic Change
(MDC).
To achieve equitable distribution of
land.
-
NB. "Fast Track" lan d refom1
was made possible b th prog~amme,
concentration of y . e accretion and
executive .
Presidency. In part1·c I 1t. 1spower m the
. u ar a d that
wide presidential powers' of ap rgue·
and the power t0 h.. pomtment
ue and fire virt 11
top government officials h . ua Y all
in land policy. as its corollary
From this premise one can conclude
that. .state. control over land un dermmes .
po 1itical nghts, locks up collateral val ue of
I d d .
an an v10_lates the principles underlying
the economic efficiency.
Robert Mugabe at a function in Harare,
1980
Land policy changed from supporting the
poor to privileging the rich, from focusing
on reducing poverty in the communal
areas to rewarding supporters with land
in resettlement areas and from enjoying
secure property rights after independence
to seizures of property by force after ~ ?·
00
Quote "Stay with us. Please r~mam m
this country and constitute a natI~n based
. unity We will not seize land
on nat10na1 · f ·t"
from anyone else who has a use o 1 .
G M abe at a rally in Highfield, 27
~~80: appealing to white fa°?ers ).
(R.
January th1· s statement in relat10n to
Comment on nd Refonn Programme.
the Fast Track La

Methods used to acquire
and redistribute land in
Zimbabwe
Political pundits see the land invasion_s as a
mere election campaign strategy to wm th e
fast waning ZANU (PF) rural support. T~at
land redistribution is necessary for social
equity and stability is not doubtable. What is
doubtable is government's commitment to
land resettlement. Some white commercial
farmers are also part of the problem as they
have arrogantly refused to entertain the
government on land reform.
A look at histo ry will show that just
betwe en 1936 and 1959 with the help
of the oppre ssive Land Appo rtionm ent
Act, over 113 000 families were removed
from highv eld fertile land to the infertile
lowve ld land witho ut comp ensat ion. It
was not surprising that the rallying point
for Zimb abwe 's libera tion strugg le was
land. Those who took up arms to fight the
colonialists wante d land to be given to the
people.
Zimbawe 's Land Problem
Who is foolin g who?
By Augustine Deke and
Percy, R Makombe
The traditional precepts on land, combined
with socia list ideol ogy, resul ted in a
resettlement programme that was designed
with an inherent and unsustainable financial
flaw. To conti nue the prog ramm e and
balan ce its "bala nce sheet ", the rulin g
party's government comm ence d passing
legislation that initia lly short chan ged
farm ers for their land and even tuall y
nationalised it. The government became
110
. · ly stride nt. in . dema nding . funds
111 crcas mg
d" by Bri tain,· and . passe.d .a
" rom1· se
dmen t makmg Britai n
const 1 l amen .
P 1't·ut'ona .
paym g comp ensat ion to
respons1'bl e for
disposed white farm e~s._ .
The Land Acqu1s1t1on ~ct was to
used to take over ]and ]ega!ly. Farms to be
taken woul d be publi shed m a newspap~r.
ite) were to be served with
Farmers (wh
. es so that they can vaca . te farms.
notic
the ordm ary peop le
L an d invas ions by .
forced the white farm ers to vacat e t 1
1e1r
farm s. Land distr ibuti on was done by
the District Land Com mitte es led b_Y t~e
District Adm inistr ator (D.A ). Provmcial
Gove rnors also play ed an impo rtant
role in the redis tribu tion of land. People
who applied for land eithe r they got land
within the Al mode l or A2 model. They
were given 99 year lease agree ment s.
Cons tituti onal amen dmen t No. 17 was
crafted to ensur e legal ity of this process
of land redistribution.
The Land Tenu re Syst em here is
based chiefly on the alloc ation of land and
creates mark et failu re in land and other
facto r mark ets. The Fast Trac k Syste m
and land redis tribu tion prog ramm e lacks
a mech anism to reali se econ omie s of
scale, does not reali se how this mark et
failu re leads to insat iable dema nds for
land whic h then resul ts in environmental
degradation, rural pove rty and dependence
on gove rnme nt subs idies and dono r
assistance.
The orig inal idea ls of land
redistribution to help the poor est citize ns
after inde pend ence slow ly beca me
corru pted. Afte r 2000 , the crite rion for
resettlement had been reduc ed to any black
Zimbabwean who was prepa red to settle on
commercial farms seize d from their former
white owners.
j
 fits and non-benefits
aene the land reform
from
programme
aenefits
S me benefited by settling under the
• A~ model and A2 model.
p asants got access to better farming
• la:ds and pastures for their livestock.
Got good and reliable water resources
on new farms.
• Decongestion of rural areas was/is
seen.
• Realising more and good yields or
harvests in some farms.
• Some peasants acquired better
accommodation which was/were
electrified, better farm equipment and
effective communication networks
(road and rail connectivity).
Non-benefits
• Abuse of inputs allocated to A2
farmers by some "big shots".
• Many peasants were not able to get
land.
• Corruption within government officials
and those heading the programme.
• Urban dwellers got most of the land
especially under the A2 model.
• Vandalising farm property and
equipment, for example, irrigation
pipes.
• Health and education facilities not
adequate or non-existent on some
farms.
• Lack of inputs and transport problems
for the farmer.
• Sometimes peasants forced to vacate
occupied land for other settlers.
• Lack of equipment has hampered
progress as some of the land is not
being used.
Economic and political
problems faced by
Zimbabwe
There are a multiplication of eco-political
problems being faced by the Zimbabwean
government.
Economic problems include:
Black market, low salaries for workers,
unemployment, economic sanctions,
shortage of basic commodities, closure
of banks and factories, rampant inflation,
persistent droughts, budget deficit (negative
balance of payments), electricity power
cuts, corruption, cash shortages and so on.
Political problems:
Violence during elections especially the
1985 elections and 2008 elections and
runoff. Dismissal of PF ZAPU ministers
from the government as a result of arm
caches allegedly found on PF ZAPU
farms. Joshua Nkomo fled to Britain
after the discovery, for fear for his life.
Clashes between ZAND (PF) and PF
ZAPU freedom fighters in Chitungwiza,
Entumbane Bulawayo and at Conemara
in 1983. Dissident problems erupted in
the Midlands and Matebeleland provinces
when they destroyed some Airforce of
Zimbabwe installations in Gweru. .
Attacks by South African aparth~1d
forces (Pieter Willem Botha) supportmg
REN AMO in Mozambique. and ar~as
bordering Mozambique. The mtergrat10n
of Rhodesian Forces and former_Freedom
Fighters into a single army, Zimbabwe
National Anny (ZNA), caused desertion
from the army by both Zimbabwe People's
Revolutionary Anny (ZIPRA) and
Zmbabwe African National Liberation
Army ZANLAForces.
Measures taken by the
Zimbabwe government to
solve economic problems
• Government introduced the Economic
Structural Adjustment Programme
(ESAP), a five year development plan
in 1991.
• Price control of essential goods/
commodities were removed.
• Government introduced the Basic
Commodity Supply Side Intervention
(BACCOSI) programme.
• Collective free bargaining for wages
was introduced and employers were
given permission to hire and fire
employees with little government
intervention.
• In 1997, The Zimbabwe Programme for
Economic and Social Transformation
(ZIMPREST) replaced ESAP,
especially to reduce budget deficits and
increase private sector participation in
the economy.
• The Civil Service was reduced in size
and there was extensive privatisation
of government parastatals and
companies such as Dairy Marketing
Board.
• Small to Medium Enterprises (SMEs)
provided finance and a ministry to this
was created.
112
• The Nationa l Oi l Com pa ny n l'
Zimbabwe (NOCZIM) was created
to import fue l.
• Legislation aga inst corrupt io n and
M in istry for c ur b ing corr upt ion
w as formulated (Anti- Co rrupti on
Commission).
• Land Reform Programme to solve land
shortage and unemployment.
• Cash shortages were solved by the
introduction of the Bearer Cheque and
the introduction of the multi-currency
system.
Successes
• Availability of goods after removal
of price control and power cuts were
reduced after the importation of
electricity.
• Many people got land.
• Export processing zones boosted
production and source markets for
producers.
• Foreign currency is now readily
available and the informal sector has
expanded.
Failures
• Corruption is still rampant and
unemployment still high.
• Shortages of basic commodities is
still problematic and both ESAP and
ZIMPREST have totally failed to
address economic problems.
• Increased vending due to
unemployment.
• Power cuts still a major problem.
j
serninar task •
Passing of AIPPA and POSA .
• The credibility of the judiciary syst
lid is the assertion that from the .. .
J-loW va • Tl1e po11hc1sa em .
0 to the present, there has been bad tion of churches.
199 5
bwe.? •
·· ance in· Zimb
•
a Stifling of the operations of civic
goven 1
groups.
• Clean up campaigns for instance
Guide
Operation Murambatsvina. '
.
Give an assessinen t
, . of gover
. nance in
.
Zimbabwe. Us~.the,!~llowmg to illustrate
On the other hand, allegations of bad
the extent of bad g?V~Fan~e \ . . governance have been rejected by the
• Econom,i.c ~.a~ds~ips whic h were gove rnme nt as good intentions , for
manifesfodlhrqughh,igh in~a,tion, example,
unemployinerih J~reign curr~ncy
• ,, • <'._•
• · Land redistribution .
'

shortages. -'>'i ,. \ ,. ,· ., , • Human resources development.

Chaotic land:·r efotin. ·. ·. • · . · • Provision of health facilities and so
• De facto critrµfi~iisa~ion of opposition on.
parties. ·