Mixer

fundamentals
 I’m Scott Adamson and I built
The Production Academy
to talk about my profession — live sound.

In this PDF version of our Mixer video series, we

explore the fundamentals of using an audio console
for live sound.

Over 8 sections, we run through the major features of

a soundboard, desk, mixing console, mixer, or whatever
you want to call it. (I tend to just say “console.”)

And since both the audience and performers rely on the

audio system for shows, I think this is really
important stuff for both musicians and technicians.
 SECTION 1 - THE MIXER
We begin by taking a brief overview of the mixer.

First, we’ll talk about the signal chain, which is the path for an audio signal. Then, we’ll
run through the channel strip, which is made up of a signal chain. And, we’ll look at
outputs, which send signal to the rest of the system.
 section 1 - THE MIXER

Even though we’re using the term mixer, it’s name changes depending on whom
you ask, or where you are in the world. People also call it a soundboard, desk, or a
mixing console. I personally tend to say console, but these terms are interchange-
able, and what we’re talking about is the master control for how the audience and
performers hear the music.

To really understand the console we need to cover a critical concept in audio: the
signal chain. Every audio signal passes through equipment in a specific order, with
each thing along the way affecting the sound. If the chain is broken at any point,
the signal won’t be able to pass. If you remember this concept it will not only help
you understand audio, but will also help you troubleshoot problems that may come
up during a show.

Each channel strip is made of a signal chain. First comes the preamp, then the
EQ, then the pan/mute Section, and finally on to the fader. We also have an insert
in the preamp section, which lets us use compressors and gates, and we’ll get to
each of these in later sections.

Once the signal passes through the channel strip, we send it to outputs. There are
a couple ways to do this. One is right on the channel strip, with aux sends. These
usually feed either stage monitors or FX, like reverb or delay. The signal can also be
sent through the faders to subgroups or directly to the main mix.

Every knob and fader can help get the sound where you want it to go, sounding the
way you want it. When you’re looking at a console it can seem like a lot, but it’s not
too difficult. You’ll be most of the way there if you know the channel strip — which
we’ll cover in the next couple sections.
 Section 2 - CHANNEL STRIP (PART 1)
Let’s talk about the channel strip, which is a building block of any mixing console.
Since there’s a lot of information here, we’ll do it in two parts.

In Part 1, we’ll see how inputs from stage go to channel strips, then we’ll see how the
preamp section is the primary control for the signal. In our next video, we’ll look at the
rest of the signal chain.
 section 2 - CHANNEL STRIP (PART 1)

The mixer takes inputs from microphones, DIs and line level sources, each of
which gets its own channel strip. So, we can think of each channel as the control for
one input.

As we talked about before, the channel strip has multiple sections, which make up a
signal chain. We start with the preamp section, then the EQ section, followed by the
pan/mute and fader sections. As we go more depth with these, keep in mind that
digital consoles won’t have the same layout as analog consoles, but the concepts
we discuss here apply to both.

(Note: advanced digital consoles can change the order of the signal chain.)

Since the preamp section is the first part of the signal chain, the settings affect
everything else. The most important knob on the console is the gain, or trim knob.
This is the very first step to getting a good signal into the mixer — we look at some
tips on how to set the gain in the next section.

The preamp also has a pad button, which cuts the signal by a fixed amount. This
comes in handy when the input signal is so hot that it’s clipping the input even when
the gain is all the way down. Clipping is bad, and most consoles flash a red light
if this happens. If the gain is already down, then you would push the pad button to
keep the input from clipping.
 section 2 - CHANNEL STRIP (PART 1)

Next is the polarity or phase button, which flips the polarity of the audio signal. This
is super important for professional sound engineers, but a little advanced for this
guide.

The phantom power button is part of the preamp section as well. This sends 48
volts through the mic cable to power condenser mics and active DIs.

And even though it’s technically an EQ, the high pass filter, or HPF, is also found in
the preamp section. A high pass filter lets the high frequencies pass, while cutting
the low frequencies. This is used pretty heavily by most live sound engineers. It’s
really helpful for getting clean sounds on cymbals, guitars, and especially voice, by
keep unnecessary low frequencies out of your mix.

The insert is also in the preamp section. This is where we insert our gates and
compressors into the channel strip. Analog consoles don’t have gates or compres-
sors built in, so you have to physically connect outboard gear. On digital consoles,
gates and compressors are built in to every channel.

The insert is important to note here — since it’s part of the preamp section, it comes
before the rest of the signal chain. That means gates and compressors come before
the EQ, Fader, and Aux sends.
 SECTION 3 - CHANNEL STRIP (PART 2)
We continue to look at the channel strip, which is the main building block of a mixing console.

In the last section, we learned about input signals and the preamp section. Now, let’s cov-
er EQ, which changes the tone, and the Pan/Mute and Fader sections, which direct the
signal to outputs.
 section 3 - Channel Strip (part 2)

After the preamp, the signal goes through the EQ. We all know what EQ does in
general, but professional EQ is pretty powerful. We have things like bandwidth,
shelving, parametric, graphic, and, most importantly, we use all of these tools to
create a good mix.

If you’ve seen our frequency video (part of our free Stage course), you know that we
can divide the frequency spectrum into a number of bands. EQ can make boosts
or cuts to these bands. It can do this with a narrow or wide bandwidth. And, the
frequency of each band is usually adjustable to different parts of the spectrum.

These settings can drastically alter the sound, so be careful about using too much
EQ, especially when boosting. It’s almost always better to cut frequencies in live
sound rather than boost them.
 section 3 - Channel Strip (part 2)

After the EQ, our signal passes through the pan/mute section. On a FOH (Front of
House) console, pan affects how much goes to the left or right of the main speak-
ers. On a monitor console, it affects how much is sent to the left or right of a stereo
monitor mix, which is great for in-ear-monitors. The mute button, like it sounds, just
stops the audio from going to the fader, and also mutes other outputs like auxes.

We also have the solo/PFL, which stands for pre fader listen, and this does a couple
really important things: it sends the signal to the headphones so we can hear what
it sounds like, and it also shows the level on the meter. This way, we can make sure
we have a clean signal — and also set the gain.

Earlier, I said that the gain knob is the most important knob on the console. If we
properly set the gain for each channel, it’s much easier to get a good mix. To do this,
we solo the channel and look at the meter. If the signal is too low, we can turn up the
gain. If it’s too hot, we can adjust the gain it so it’s just right. It’s a great idea to go
through this process first with every channel.

Finally, we hit the fader, which controls the amount of signal that goes to the
outputs. Here we can also assign which outputs it goes to, either subgroups, or,
directly to the main left-right mix. If your mixer doesn’t have subgroups, that’s okay
— the signal should just be routed directly to the main mix.
 section 4 - aux sends
Now that we’ve seen the inputs of a mixer, let’s look at the outputs, starting with aux sends.

First, we’ll learn about pickoff points, and how they are pre or post. Then, we’ll see how
aux masters control the overall aux send. Also, we’ll see how we use auxes, which are
mainly for monitors and FX.
 section 4 - AUX SENDS

When we plug an input into the console, the signal runs through the channel strip.
What aux sends do is pick off the signal and send it to an aux output.

You’ll notice that there are two different places the signal can be split. These are
called pickoff points. Aux pre is picked off directly after the preamp section, which
means it is pre-EQ and pre-fader. Aux post is picked at the end of the channel strip,
which means it’s post-EQ and post-fader. On many consoles, we can switch be-
tween pre and post with a button, but on many small analog consoles, this is fixed to
one or the other.

With aux pre, only the settings in the preamp section affect the signal. This includes
gain, the pad button, as well as the polarity and high pass filter. Remember, the
insert is part of the preamp section, so it affects both aux pre and aux post.

With aux post, all of the sections of the channel strip affect it. For example, a
pre-EQ send will not be affected by changes to the EQ. But a post-EQ send will be
affected by changes to the EQ.

Also, with aux post, if the fader is up the signal will flow to the output depend-
ing on how high the fader is set. And if the fader is down, no signal will flow even
though the aux knob is still turned up.

But with aux pre, if the fader is down the signal will still flow to the output, be-
cause it is pre-fader.
 section 4 - AUX SENDS

Aux sends also have master knobs or faders that control the overall level of the
aux output. If the master is down, no signal will flow — we get signal to the aux out-
put only if the aux master is up. This master level control is helpful for keeping the
same balance between multiple channels while adjusting the overall level.

Auxes have two main uses, monitors and FX. In general, if we are controlling the
monitors from FOH (the front of house console), we would want the auxes set to
pre. That way, if fader or EQ changes have to be made for the main mix, the mon-
itors won’t be affected. If we are using a dedicated monitor console, we use aux
post so we have EQ and fader control for each individual channel.

FX sends are usually aux post. This way, any EQ or fader moves affect the FX. For
instance, say we have a microphone that sounds muddy, and we’re sending it to a
reverb. When we cut the low frequencies on the channel strip to clean up the sound,
we also want the reverb to have that nice clean signal.
 section 5 - SUBGROUPS AND MAIN LEFT-RIGHT MIX
These output busses are commonly found on most mixing consoles.

We’ll look at how subgroups and left-right are outputs of the console. Then, we’ll look at
pan and how it affects stereo groups, and we’ll discuss double bussing, which can boost
the signal.
 section 5 - subgroups and main left-right mix

When we’re mixing FOH, we need to create a good balance so everything on stage
can be heard. We make necessary adjustments on the channel strip and move the
faders to where we think it sounds best. Then, we send the signals through the
main left-right mix and on to the speakers.

Subgroups are a way for us to group channels together before they get to the main
mix. We assign channels to groups in the same place we assign them to the main
mix, which on analog consoles is usually near the fader. Here we could assign a
channel to subgroups 1+2, or 3+4, or directly to left-right.

This essentially just adds another fader in between the channel and the main mix.
But we do need to remember that each fader along the way is part of the signal
chain.

Say we assign the channel to subgroups 1+2, we would then need to assign sub-
groups 1+2 to the main left-right mix. The channel fader must be up, as well as the
group faders, for the signal chain to reach the main outputs.
 section 5 - subgroups and main left-right mix

Small analong consoles will typically have 4 subgroups. Larger consoles will have 8
or even 16 groups, and you can assign any channel to any group. So, you could send
your signal to subgroup 6, and then assign group 6 to left-right, to get it to the main
outputs.

You’ll often assign channels to groups in stereo pairs, like 1-2 and 3-4. When us-
ing stereo groups, the pan knob can be used to route the signal to the odd or even
group.

For example, if the channel is assigned to groups 1 and 2 and the pan is set all the
way to the left, the signal will only go to group 1. Group 1 can then be assigned to
the main left output. But, if we assign group 1 to both left and right, it will go to
both sides of the main mix, even though the pan on the channel strip is all the way
left.

Channels can be assigned to subgroups plus the main mix. This is called double
bussing. Nothing is bad about doing this, just be aware that you’ll be getting more
signal to the output. This can be handy if you just need to bump up a certain group
of instruments, like vocals.
 section 6 - aFTER THE MIXER
We’ve seen how a signal gets all the way from the inputs to the outputs, with many options
along the way on how to control the sound. Let’s see where the signals go after the mixer.

First, we’ll look at output sends and how we use EQ to shape the overall sound. Then,
we’ll look at systems processors, which have crossovers and protect speakers. And, we’ll
see how an amplifier gives us speaker level signal.
 section 6 - AFTER THE MIXER

Inserting EQ on your outputs will let you have master control over your mix, whether
it’s monitors or FOH. Graphic EQ is a common way to control a monitor send and is
great for helping with feedback.

Graphic EQ can also be used for the main outputs, although I prefer to use para-
metric EQ for my main mix. This is built in to the digital consoles that I use and
gives me broader control over the tone of my mix.

Since we usually want an EQ for almost every output of the console, this can add
up pretty quickly. And, since analog consoles don’t have these built in, you would
need racks full of outboard gear, including gates and compressors for the inputs.

Digital consoles have all of this built in. We talk more about these differences a
little later in this course.
 section 6 - AFTER THE MIXER

Professional audio setups use a system processor as the master control for the
speaker system. The outputs of the console are sent to the processor, which takes
the mix and sends it to the amplifiers. Sometimes the system processing is built
into the amplifier.

This is a little complicated and we go into more detail in our Essential Live Sound
Training. But there are 2 main jobs of the systems processor: crossover and
speaker protection.

A crossover splits the signal into lows, mids and highs. Since all speakers are made
for specific frequency ranges, this lets the right frequencies go to the right speakers.

We also need to protect the speakers to make sure a super hot signal doesn’t de-
stroy them. The processor uses a tool called a limiter to provide a kind of brick wall
to make sure this doesn’t happen.

After the crossover and limiter, we need to get signal to the speakers to make
sound. If you’ve seen our signal levels video, you know that speakers need a really
strong signal. They get this from an amplifier, which takes a line level signal and
boosts it to speaker level.

Self-powered speakers have the processor and amplifiers built into the same
box as the speakers. They still use a crossover, limiter and amplifier, but they take
line-level signal directly from the mixer or other line-level device, like an iPod.
 section 7 - aNALOG AND DIGITAL CONSOLES
Modern technology has made small, digital consoles affordable enough for alomst every
production. They have the same fundamental concepts as analog consoles, but with a bunch of
extra features.

To see the differences, let’s look at a few analog consoles and see how a consistent
format is true regardless of size. Then we’ll do a quick overview of digital consoles and
talk about some pros and cons. Then we’ll see how offline editors can help you learn how
specific digital mixers work.
 section 7 - ANALOG AND DIGITAL CONSOLES

As we know, the console is the main control for an audio system. Our diagrams in
this guide show a typical layout for a small analog console, with 8 input channels, 4
subgroups and a main stereo output. This size is great for many applications, and
sometimes it’s all you need.

But in larger productions the size of the console grows, depending on how many
inputs we need for any particular show. For analog consoles, this can take up a lot
of real estate. Digital consoles have banks of faders so you can have, for example,
24 faders controlling 96 channels by switching between banks.

Plus, the compressors, gates, and FX for analog consoles are outboard, which
means they have to live in separate racks. This can also take up a lot of space and
requires physically patching cables between the console and the racks. This is way
more work than digital mixers and is the biggest drawback to analog setups.

Digital console have all of these built in. Instead of physically patching a cable, you
simply need to hit a button. This keeps the footprint of a digital console relatively
small compared to analog.
 section 7 - ANALOG AND DIGITAL CONSOLES

As audio technology advances, it’s increasingly standard to see digital consoles at

all levels of live music production. They do have pros and cons when compared to
analog, but there’s no question they’ve changed the workflow of live audio.

Very importantly, settings can be saved and recalled later. This allows me to fully
load settings from a previous show or soundcheck, even if I’m in a different venue.
Not at all possible with analog.

There are cons to digital consoles, the biggest being that every one uses different
software and has a different layout. This can make it difficult to learn, especially if
you don’t have a file to start from and you’re pressed for time during a show.

Another is that professional analog consoles just sound better. This gap shortens
as technology gets better, but as of right now there’s no real sonic substitute for a
high-quality analog console.

If you’re interested in seeing how a particular digital console works, take a look to
see if it has an offline editor. This will allow you to run the software on your laptop
or tablet to build files or just play around. Again, every console is different and this
is a good way to get an idea of how each one works.

Ultimately, the best way to learn how any mixer works is by practice. As you spend
time with it, you’ll get comfortable with the functions and be able to get mixes to-
gether really quickly.
 section 8 - GATES AND COMPRESSORs
Here we look at inserts and how they’re used for gates and compressors.

First, we’ll look at where the insert is in the signal chain. Then, we’ll see how gates cut the
quiet parts of a signal. Also, we’ll see how compressors reduce the peaks of a signal.
 section 8 - GATES AND COMPRESSORS

Remember, the channel strip is made up of a signal chain, which is the same for
both analog and digital consoles. We have the preamp, the EQ, pan/mute, and the
fader.

The insert comes at the end of the preamp section, so those settings will affect it.
The gain, pad, polarity, and high pass filter are all pre-insert. It’s best to do these
in order so set your gain and high pass filter before adjusting inserts. Just be aware
of how each of the settings affects the next part of the signal chain.

The insert is mostly used for two powerful audio tools: gates and compressors.
These are types of dynamics processors, which affect the dynamics of a signal.

Dynamics are simply the difference between the loud and soft parts of the sound.
Both gates and compressors operate depending on how loud the signal is at any
given time — they both kick in when the audio signal crosses a threshold.
 section 8 - GATES AND COMPRESSORS

The main setting on a gate is the threshold. Once the signal is below the thresh-
old, the gate closes and cuts the signal. We can also control how quickly the gate
opens and closes, with attack and release settings. By adjusting any of these set-
tings you can dramatically alter how the gate sounds.

Gates are most effective with drums and other percussive instruments. Drum
mics will pick up a ton of unnecessary noise, especially with other loud instruments
on stage. With gates, you’ll have a tighter, punchier sound that won’t have ambient
noise bleeding through the mics.

Compressors are one of the most important tools in building a good mix. They
reduce the peaks of the signal, providing a kind of automatic level control. While
this makes the loudest parts of the signal quieter, once the peaks are under control
you can boost the whole signal. This can really help instruments stand out in a
mix.

Compressors have two main settings, threshold and ratio. When the peaks of a
signal go above the threshold, the compressor kicks in at a certain ratio. The ratio
determines how drastically the peaks are compressed.

For example, a 2:1 ratio will give a pretty moderate amount of compression, and a
4:1 ratio will give you a more drastic effect. The higher the ratio, the more the com-
pression. As a general rule of thumb, 3:1 for instruments and 2:1 for vocals is a good
place to start.

To hear examples of gates and compressors, check out the free video version of
this Mixer course.
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