Module 3-Nuclear Power Plants

Power Plant Engineering
Module 3- Nuclear Power Plants
by
Dr. Mukesh Sharma
Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Birla institute of Technology Mesra, Ranchi
INTRODUCTION
18-09-2019
Overview
 India has 22 nuclear reactors in operation at seven sites, having an installed
capacity of 6780 MW and producing a total of 30,292.91 GWh of electricity.
 11 more reactors are under construction to generate an additional 8,100 MW.
 Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL) is a government-owned
corporation of India based in Mumbai which is responsible for the generation of
nuclear power for electricity.
 NPCIL is administered by the Department of Atomic Energy, Govt. of India.
Power Plant Engineering Dr.Mukesh Sharma

18-09-2019
PRINCIPLE OF POWER GENERATION
Principle of Power Generation
 There are two fundamental ways to generate nuclear energy.

 One way is to break up a heavy element into two lighter elements
and produce heat, in a process known as nuclear fission.
 The other is to fuse two lighter elements together to form a
heavier element and produce heat, in a process known as nuclear
fusion.
 Commercial nuclear power production makes use nuclear fission.
 Using nuclear fusion to produce commercial energy is still under
research.

18-09-2019
Nuclear Fusion

18-09-2019
Challenges against using nuclear fusion
Incredibly high energy requirement

In order for fusion to occur, it needs a temperature of at least 100,000,000 degrees Celsius.
That’s slightly more than 6 times the temperature of the Sun’s core.
It should be noted that experimental fusion reactors do exist – and work! –
but they consume way more power than they produce, which basically defeats the purpose of
generating power using fusion.
Material requirements

18-09-2019
Nuclear Fission

18-09-2019
Nuclear Fission

18-09-2019
INTRODUCTION
Nuclear Energy
The energy which is coming out of the fission of some of the nuclei like Uranium and Plutonium
and the heat produced is a gain used to convert water into steam, which runs a turbine generator.

18-09-2019
INTRODUCTION
Nuclear Energy

18-09-2019
Nuclear power production cycle
Nuclear Fuels
Nuclear fuel is a substance that is used in nuclear power stations to produce heat to
power turbines.
Heat is created when nuclear fuel undergoes nuclear fission.
 Uranium-233
 Uranium-235
Most common fuel
 Plutonium-238 used in reactors
 Plutonium-239
 Plutonium-241
 Neptunium-237
 Curium-244

18-09-2019
Fuels used in reactors
 Mostly natural uranium is used as a fuel which contains about

0.72% U- 235.
 Most of the reactors in the world which are light water reactors,
they use 2.5% to 5% of Uranium-235.
 While the fast reactors use about 80% to 85% enriched fuel.
 Variety of processes have been developed to increase the
percentage of U-235.

Nuclear Fuel Cycle
 Uranium ore, as it is mined from the ground,
is not directly useable for power generation.
 Therefore processing must be carried out
before uranium can be used efficiently to
generate electricity.
 There are several steps in the nuclear fuel
cycle:
18-09-2019
18-09-2019
Nuclear fuel Cycle
Mining
Depending on the depth and concentration of the uranium source, and the conditions of
the surrounding rock, mining companies will extract uranium ore in many ways like,
open pit mining, underground mining or In situ mining.
Milling
To extract the uranium, the ore is crushed in a mill and ground to a fine slurry. The slurry is
then leached in sulfuric acid, which produces a solution of uranium oxide (U3O8). The
concentrate of this solution is called yellowcake.
Refining
A series of chemical processes separate the uranium from impurities, producing high-
purity uranium oxide (U3O8).

Nuclear fuel Cycle
Conversion
Uranium oxide U3O8 is converted to uranium hexafluoride (UF6) for enrichment, before it
can be used in light water reactors.
Enrichment
Uranium-235 is the uranium isotope that can be used in fission, but it makes up only 0.7%
of naturally occurring uranium, which is not concentrated enough for light water reactors.
So, enrichment processes increase the concentration of U-235 to about 3% – 5%. After
undergoing enrichment, the UF6 is chemically transformed back into UO2 powder.
Fuel manufacturing
Natural or enriched UO2 powder is pressed into small cylindrical pellets, which are then
baked at high temperatures, and finished to precise dimensions.
18-09-2019
18-09-2019
Nuclear fuel Cycle
Electricity generation
Fuel is loaded into a reactor, and nuclear fission generates electricity. After fuel is
consumed, it is removed from the reactor and stored onsite for a number of years while its
radioactivity and heat subside.
Optional chemical reprocessing
After a period of storage, residual uranium or by-product plutonium, both of which are still
useful sources of energy, are recovered from the spent fuel elements and reprocessed.
Disposal
Depending on the design of the disposal facility, the nuclear fuel may be recovered if
needed again, or remain permanently stored. At some point in the future the spent fuel
will be encapsulated in sturdy, leach-resistant containers and permanently placed deep
underground where it originated.
18-09-2019
Nuclear fuel Cycle-Mining

18-09-2019
Nuclear fuel Cycle- Milling

18-09-2019
Nuclear fuel Cycle- Enrichment process
 When the uranium leaves the uranium mill and after refining, it is in the form of uranium oxide (U3O8) or
what is commonly called yellowcake.
 This uranium oxide is not the form of uranium that is used by nuclear reactors (UO2), therefore it has to be
enriched for use.
The enrichment process involves:

 converting the uranium oxide (solid) to uranium
hexafluoride (UF6), a gas,
 the UF6 is then enriched with respect U-235 and
converted to UO2, and
 this process creates depleted uranium (DU) which
has more U-238 and enriched uranium which has
Power Plant Engineering

more U-235 than natural uranium. Dr.Mukesh Sharma
18-09-2019
Diffusion Methods
 Gaseous diffusion forces uranium hexafluoride gas
through a series of semi-permeable membranes.
 Each pass through a membrane separates the two
isotopes from each other; it takes over a thousand
passes to make commercial nuclear fuel (3-5% U-
235).
 The lighter, smaller U-235 moves through the
membrane easier than the larger heavier U-238.
 After the UF6 is enriched by the specified amount,
then it condensed into a liquid and then solidified.

18-09-2019

18-09-2019

18-09-2019
 Gas centrifuges uses centrifugal force (rapidly
rotating cylinders) to separate the two isotopes
from the UF6 gas.
 The heavier U-238 atom moves up and outward,
and the lighter U-235 atom moves toward the center
of the tube.

Major Components of NPP
18-09-2019
Fuel Pin Assembly
Reactor Core, Vessel
Major Components Coolant
Control Rods
Moderator Spent fuel cooling,

Emergency core
Containment cooling system
Steam Generator
18-09-2019
Fuel Pin Assembly

18-09-2019
Fuel Pin Assembly
 Uranium dioxide (UO2)in the form of

pallets are used as a fuel.
 It is inserted inside the tube called as
clad tube.
 Clad tube is arranged such that it forms a
bundle (Depends on the type of reactor).
 The fuel bundle is inserted inside the
reactor core where fission takes place.

18-09-2019
Reactor Core, Vessel  A nuclear reactor core is the portion of a nuclear

reactor containing the nuclear fuel components
where the nuclear reactions take place and the heat
is generated.
 Typically, the fuel will be low-
enriched uranium contained in thousands of
individual fuel pins.
 The core also contains structural components, the
means to both moderate the neutrons and control
the reaction, and the means to transfer
the heat from the fuel to where it is required,
outside the core.

18-09-2019
Reactor Core, Vessel

18-09-2019
Coolant
 A coolant is necessary to absorb and remove the heat produced by nuclear fission
and maintain the temperature of the fuel within acceptable limits.
 If water is used as coolant, the heat produced in the reactor can convert into steam
which can be used to drive a steam turbine to produce electricity.
 Alternatively it can be passed through a water cooled heat exchanger which will
remove the heat and produce the necessary steam.
 Other possible coolants are, heavy water, gases like carbon dioxide or helium, or
molten metals such as sodium or Lead.

18-09-2019
Control Rods
 Control rods are made of materials that
absorb neutron, for example, boron, silver,
indium, cadmium and helium.
 They are introduced into the reactor to
reduce the number of neutrons and thus
stop the fission process when required or,
during operation, to control and regulate the
level and spatial distribution of power in the
reactor.

18-09-2019
Moderators
 The neutrons are born at high energies.

 The probability of a fast neutron being
absorbed is very small.
 So, for a fission chain reaction to be
sustained, it is essential that the fission
neutrons be slowed down.
 This process is called neutron moderator.

18-09-2019
 Light water contains hydrogen which slows down the speed of neutron.
Moderators  (because its mass is identical to that of neutron).
 hydrogen has a relatively high neutron absorption capability
Light water
 its benefits are similar to light water, but since it contains deuterium
atoms, its neutron absorption is much lower.
 high cost of production
Heavy Water
 Low absorption of neutrons.
 Releases beryllium dust, can cause serious lung diseases
Beryllium
 Low absorption.
 Combustible
 Fast neutrons can cause separation of graphite atoms which can
cause combustion.
Graphite

18-09-2019
Containment
 All the components of the reactor are

contained in a solid concrete structure that
guarantees further isolation from external
environment.
 This structure is made of concrete that is
one meter thick and is covered by steel.
 The most recent reactors sometimes contain
two containment structures.

18-09-2019
Steam generators

18-09-2019
Spent fuel cooling,
 The fuel assemblies are taken out of the reactor

vessel after reaching the targeted burn-up and
replaced by new ones (Fuel handling)
 The burnt fuel still has heat production of the
order of few Watts or Kilowatts.
 Hence they need to be cooled when they are
stored outside prior to dispatch for processing .
 This is referred to as spent (Burnt) fuel handling.

18-09-2019
Spent fuel cooling,

18-09-2019
Spent fuel cooling,

18-09-2019
Spent fuel cooling,

18-09-2019
Spent fuel cooling,

18-09-2019
Emergency core cooling system

Classification of Reactors
18-09-2019
Classification of reactors
 In these reactors the fast moving neutrons are slowed down

by passing them through the moderator.
 These slow moving neutrons are then captured by the fuel
material to bring about the fission
Thermal reactors
or Slow reactors
 In such reactors fission is brought about by fast (non moderated)

neutrons.
Fast reactors

Thermal reactors or Slow reactors
18-09-2019
Types of reactors
Reactor Type Fuel Coolant Moderator
Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) Enriched UO2 Water Water
Boiling Water Reactor (BWR) Enriched UO2 Water Water
CANadian Deuterium Uranium (CANDU) Natural UO2 Heavy Water Heavy Water
Gas Cooled Reactor (GCR) Enriched UO2 CO2 Graphite
RBMK Enriched UO2 Water Graphite
(Reaktor Bolshoy Moshchnosti Kanalnyy)
Sodium Cooled Fast Reactor (SFR) PuO2UO2 Sodium Nil

18-09-2019
Pressurized Water Reactor

18-09-2019

18-09-2019

18-09-2019
 The core inside the reactor vessel creates heat.

 Pressurized water in the primary coolant loop carries the heat to the steam generator.
 Inside the steam generator, heat from the primary coolant loop vaporizes the water in
a secondary loop, producing steam.
 The steamline directs the steam to the main turbine, causing it to turn the turbine
generator, which produces electricity.
 The unused steam is exhausted to the condenser, where it is condensed into water.
The resulting water is pumped out of the condenser with a series of pumps, reheated,
and pumped back to the steam generator.
 The reactor's core contains fuel assemblies that are cooled by water circulated using
electrically powered pumps.
 These pumps and other operating systems in the plant receive their power from the
electrical grid.
18-09-2019
Advantages
 PWR turbine cycle loop is separate from the primary loop, so the water in the
secondary loop is not contaminated by radioactive materials.
 PWRs can passively scram the reactor in the event that offsite power is lost to
immediately stop the primary nuclear reaction. The control rods are held by
electromagnets and fall by gravity when current is lost; full insertion safely shuts
down the primary nuclear reaction.

18-09-2019
Disadvantages
o The coolant water must be highly pressurized to remain liquid at high temperatures.
This requires high strength piping and a heavy pressure vessel and hence increases
construction costs. The higher pressure can increase the consequences of a loss-of-
coolant accident.
o Additional high pressure components such as reactor coolant pumps, pressurizer,
steam generators, etc. are also needed. This also increases the capital cost and
complexity of a PWR power plant.
o Natural uranium is only 0.7% uranium-235, the isotope necessary for thermal
reactors. This makes it necessary to enrich the uranium fuel, which significantly
increases the costs of fuel production.

18-09-2019
Boiling Water Reactor

18-09-2019

18-09-2019

18-09-2019

 The core inside the reactor vessel creates heat.
 A steam-water mixture is produced when very pure water (reactor coolant) moves
upward through the core, absorbing heat.
 The steam-water mixture leaves the top of the core and enters the two stages of
moisture separation where water droplets are removed before the steam is allowed
to enter the steamline.
 The steamline directs the steam to the main turbine, causing it to turn the turbine
generator, which produces electricity.
 The unused steam is exhausted to the condenser, where it is condensed into water.
 The resulting water is pumped out of the condenser with a series of pumps, reheated,
and pumped back to the reactor vessel.
 The reactor's core contains fuel assemblies that are cooled by water circulated using
electrically powered pumps.

18-09-2019
Advantages
 The reactor vessel and associated components operate at a substantially lower

pressure of about 70–75 bars (1,020–1,090 psi) compared to about 155 bars
(2,250 psi) in a PWR.
 Operates at a lower nuclear fuel temperature.
 Fewer components due to no steam generators and no pressurizer vessel. This also
makes BWRs simpler to operate.
 Lower risk (probability) of a rupture causing loss of coolant compared to a PWR, and
lower risk of core damage should such a rupture occur. This is due to fewer pipes,
fewer large diameter pipes, fewer welds and no steam generator tubes.

18-09-2019
Disadvantages
o BWRs require more complex calculations for managing consumption of nuclear fuel
during operation due to "two phase (water and steam) fluid flow" in the upper part
of the core. This also requires more instrumentation in the reactor core.
o Larger pressure vessel than for a PWR of similar power, with correspondingly higher
cost.
o Contamination of the turbine by radioactive products. This means that shielding and
access control around the steam turbine are required during normal operations due
to the radiation levels arising from the steam entering directly from the reactor core.

18-09-2019

18-09-2019
Advantages
Pressurized water reactor Boiling water reactor

 The coolant is not permitted to boil in the core  The coolant is permitted to boil in the core of
of the PWR. the BWR.
 In a PWR the heat from the reactor is passed  In a BWR the steam generated in the reactor
through a boiler to generate steam which core is taken straight to the turbine, without the
goes to the turbine that drives the electrical use of an intermediate boiler. This is known a
generator. This is called an indirect cycle. direct cycle.
 The pressure in a pressurized water reactor  The boiling water reactor operates at constant
varies from the primary to the secondary pressure. The primary system operates at
system. The pressure is controlled by a pressure about one-half that of a pressurized
pressurizer. water reactor's primary system while
producing steam of equal quality.

18-09-2019
Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor (CANDU, IPHWR)
Primary Heat Transport

System

18-09-2019
PHTS- Primary Heat Transport system

18-09-2019
Indian Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor

18-09-2019

18-09-2019

18-09-2019
Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor
Working
 The basic operation of the CANDU design is similar to other nuclear reactors.
 Fission reactions in the reactor core heat pressurized water in a primary cooling loop.
 A heat exchanger, also known as a steam generator, transfers the heat to a secondary
cooling loop, which powers a steam turbine with an electric generator attached to it
(for a typical Rankine thermodynamic cycle).
 The exhaust steam from the turbines is then cooled, condensed and returned as
feedwater to the steam generator.
 The final cooling often uses cooling water from a nearby source, such as a lake, river,
or ocean.

18-09-2019
Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor
Design
 In CANDU the fuel bundles are instead contained in much smaller metal tubes about
10 cm diameter.
 The tubes are then contained in a larger vessel containing additional heavy water
acting purely as a moderator.
 This vessel, known as a calandria, is not pressurized and remains at much lower
temperatures, making it much easier to fabricate.
 In order to prevent the heat from the pressure tubes leaking into the surrounding
moderator, each fuel tube is enclosed in a second tube.
 Carbon dioxide gas in the gap between the two tubes acts as an insulator. The
moderator tank also acts as a large heat sink that provides an
additional safety feature.
18-09-2019
Advantages
 The major advantage of this reactor is that the fuel need not be enriched.
 The reactor vessel may be built to withstand low pressure, therefore, the cost of the vessel is
less.
 The moderator can be kept at low temperature which increases its effectiveness in slowing
down neutrons.
 A shorter period is required for the site construction compared with PWR and BWR.
Disadvantages
The cost of heavy water is extremely high (Rs. 300/kg).

The leakage is a major problem as there are two mechanically sealed closures per fuel
channel. Canadian designs generally are based or recovering high proportion of heavy
water leakages as absolute leak-tightness cannot be assured.
Very high standard of design, manufacture inspection and maintenance are required.

18-09-2019

18-09-2019
Gas cooled Reactor

18-09-2019
Gas cooled Reactor

18-09-2019
Gas cooled Reactor
 This is a type of nuclear reactor that uses a gas as the coolant, mostly CO2 is used.
 Graphite blocks are used as moderator, within which channels are made for housing fuel rods.
 Control rods are inserted into the graphite blocks.
 Channels are established between the graphite blocks for the flow of coolant.
 Natural uranium is used as the fuel while cladding is made of a magnesium alloy called magnox.
 The coolant gas is supplied by a gas circulator and enters the core from bottom.
 Gas flows through the coolant channels between the graphite blocks.
 As the gas moves up through the core, it gets heated up and leaves the top of the core at high
temperature.
 This high temperature gas exchanges heat with water in a heat exchanger, resulting in the production of
steam, which runs the turbine.

18-09-2019
Advanced Gas cooled Reactor

18-09-2019
Advanced Gas cooled Reactor
 A major difference between the GCR and AGCR is the location of heat exchangers (2 in
number) within the reactor pressure vessel and the containment in AGCR.
 The other differences are the use of stainless steel fuel cladding and the use of enriched fuel (2.5
– 3.5 % U-235).
 Higher energy per unit mass of the fuel is obtained owing to higher fuel enrichment.
 Due to the integration of heat exchanger inside the reactor vessel and in a pool of hot gas,
higher thermal efficiencies are achieved compared to that in a GCR.

18-09-2019
Advantages
 Higher operating temperatures.
 The efficiency of these reactors are high (40%) as compared to water cooled/moderator.
Disadvantages
Fuel loading is costly.

Due to high critical mass large amount of fuel loading is initially required.
If Helium is used instead of Carbon di –oxide then leakage may occur.
Controlling these reactors is a complicated task.

18-09-2019
RBMK- Pressure tube boiling water reactor

18-09-2019

18-09-2019

18-09-2019

18-09-2019

18-09-2019
Sodium Cooled Fast Reactor

18-09-2019
Breeder Reactors
A breeder reactor is a nuclear reactor that generates more fissile material than
it consumes. These devices achieve this because their neutron economy is high
enough to breed more fissile fuel than they use from fertile material, such
as uranium-238 or thorium-232
Fast Breeder Reactors
Thermal Breeder Reactors

18-09-2019
Fast Breeder Reactors

18-09-2019
Thermal Breeder Reactors

Module 3-Nuclear Power Plants

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Module 3-Nuclear Power Plants

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Power Plant Engineering

Module 3- Nuclear Power Plants

 India has 22 nuclear reactors in operation at seven sites, having an installed

capacity of 6780 MW and producing a total of 30,292.91 GWh of electricity.

 11 more reactors are under construction to generate an additional 8,100 MW.

 Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL) is a government-owned

corporation of India based in Mumbai which is responsible for the generation of

nuclear power for electricity.

 NPCIL is administered by the Department of Atomic Energy, Govt. of India.

Power Plant Engineering Dr.Mukesh Sharma

Principle of Power Generation

 There are two fundamental ways to generate nuclear energy.

Power Plant Engineering Dr.Mukesh Sharma

Power Plant Engineering Dr.Mukesh Sharma

Incredibly high energy requirement

Power Plant Engineering Dr.Mukesh Sharma

Power Plant Engineering Dr.Mukesh Sharma

Power Plant Engineering Dr.Mukesh Sharma

Power Plant Engineering Dr.Mukesh Sharma

Power Plant Engineering Dr.Mukesh Sharma

Power Plant Engineering Dr.Mukesh Sharma

Fuels used in reactors

 Mostly natural uranium is used as a fuel which contains about

Power Plant Engineering Dr.Mukesh Sharma

Nuclear Fuel Cycle

 Uranium ore, as it is mined from the ground,

is not directly useable for power generation.

 Therefore processing must be carried out

before uranium can be used efficiently to

 There are several steps in the nuclear fuel

Power Plant Engineering Dr.Mukesh Sharma

Power Plant Engineering Dr.Mukesh Sharma

Power Plant Engineering Dr.Mukesh Sharma

The enrichment process involves:

Power Plant Engineering

Power Plant Engineering Dr.Mukesh Sharma

Power Plant Engineering Dr.Mukesh Sharma

Power Plant Engineering Dr.Mukesh Sharma

Nuclear fuel Cycle- Enrichment process

 Gas centrifuges uses centrifugal force (rapidly

rotating cylinders) to separate the two isotopes

from the UF6 gas.

 The heavier U-238 atom moves up and outward,

and the lighter U-235 atom moves toward the center

Power Plant Engineering Dr.Mukesh Sharma

Fuel Pin Assembly

Reactor Core, Vessel

Major Components Coolant

Moderator Spent fuel cooling,

Fuel Pin Assembly

Power Plant Engineering Dr.Mukesh Sharma

Fuel Pin Assembly

 Uranium dioxide (UO2)in the form of

Power Plant Engineering Dr.Mukesh Sharma

Reactor Core, Vessel  A nuclear reactor core is the portion of a nuclear

Power Plant Engineering Dr.Mukesh Sharma

Reactor Core, Vessel

Power Plant Engineering Dr.Mukesh Sharma

Power Plant Engineering Dr.Mukesh Sharma

Power Plant Engineering Dr.Mukesh Sharma

 The neutrons are born at high energies.

Power Plant Engineering Dr.Mukesh Sharma

Power Plant Engineering Dr.Mukesh Sharma

 All the components of the reactor are