TERM PAPER ASSIGNMEMT
NAME: AAQIB HUSSAIN
CLASS: BS ENGLISH (M)
SEMESTER: 4th
ROLL NO: BENF18M046
SUBMITTED TO: Prof. Naveed Nawaz
UNIVERSITY OF SARGODHA
Chomsky contribution in Generative Syntax
From the mid of 1950 to until now, a very famous American linguist, Noam Chomsky has appeared as the
most influential and famous linguist of the world. He is also known as “the father of Modern Linguistics.”
He has introduced some of the new school of thoughts in linguistics, particularly in the field of Syntax.
He has presented his syntactic knowledge scientifically with certain rules as like in the subject of
mathematics.
His syntactic theory has became one of the authoritative syntactic theories of the century and praised by
all of the famous linguistic figures. It was due to authenticity in his work in relation to defined principles,
rules and their results, that is why his work is considered as a „standard‟ in syntax.
From the initiation of his theory to until now, there have been massive expansions in his theory. In 1966,
while working on the theory of Transformational Generative Grammar, his work was related enough to
deal with particular field of Transformational Linguistics. In relation to this, many other linguists started
their critical work against his theory, for the purpose of being proved themselves as generative linguists.
Generative Grammar is based on a concept that the language capacity of human is innate. This language
capacity of human develops rules and principles that decides, whether these are “correct” or “incorrect”
sentences. This idea of innate language ability is also known as “Universal Grammar.” He claims that if a
child is brought up under normal conditions, he will surely adopt his native language with certain
principles. It is basically a theory of competence. Grammaticality judgment task is a test to check the
validity of Generative Grammar.
A native child speaker of English is presented with varieties of sentences and asks him about the
grammatical correctness of sentence:
He is a doctor
Doctor is a he
A native speaker would definitely choose the first sentence to be acceptable and second as an incorrect. It
is due to universal grammar that gives innate awareness to a child to select correct grammar.
Many other linguists appreciated some of his grammatical work and admired continuously developmental
models of Chomsky. Some of the very famous works of Chomsky are:
Syntactic Structures (1957)
Standard theory of development from Aspect of the Theory of Syntax (1965)
Principles and Parameters, the theory the theory developing out of Lectures and Government
Binding (1981)
The Minimalist Program (1995)
When his book Syntactic Structures was published in 1957, it was considered at odds against the popular
orthodoxy and regarded it as a revolutionary. Noam Chomsky proposed many of the new concepts in this
regard:
Grammar is an absolute system independent of the study of use of language in certain situations and
also the study of semantics.
Language should be formalized as a system of rules and regulations.
Language as a set of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of finite set of elements.
All languages are only languages in this sense that each language has also finite number of phonemes
and each sentence as a finite sequence of these phonemes.
Only sentences of formalized systems can be considered as a language only.
Chomsky rejected the concept of contemporary orthodoxy that believed that the grammatical description
is only the output of application suitable to the corpus of data. He said that “it is obvious that the set of
grammatical sentences cannot be identified with any particular corpus of utterances obtained by the
linguists in his field work.”
He further explained that “grammatical” cannot be identified with “meaningful” or significant in any
sense.
He proved his proposal by putting a case example that is:
Colorless green ideas sleep furiously
It is a grammatical correct sentence but semantically nonsensical, so his hypothesis is considered as a
successful achievement in linguistics to prove that there are two different school of thoughts that
“semantics” and “syntax”. Both are related to each other but do not lies in same category. Chomsky said
that syntax consist of number of levels that are distinct but in relation to each other . Each of the level has
their specific types and rules. There are two main components in syntactic structural model:
1. Pharase structure component
Phrase structure component consist of a set of phrase structure rules. These rules explain what goes in the
phrase, which are the constituent of phrase and how these constituent are ordered in a phrase.
NP (Det) N (PP) (Adj P)
VP V (NP) (PP) (Adv P)
Adj P (Pre Modifier) Head (Post Modifier)
Adv P (Pre Modifier) Head (Post Modifier)
Prep P Preposition (Complements)
2. Transformational component
Transformation component consist of some rules which perform certain factions:
Rules which are used to make relations within particular sentences i.e. active sentences and their
counterparts passive sentences.
Rules used for morphological operations, such as agreement of numbers between verb and
subject.
Rules used for making complex sentences.
Contradiction between Innateness and Behaviorism
Theory of innatism claims that the language is also develop as like as other biological functions but
behaviorism say that language is learnt as like as other human habits are learnt.
According to Innatism, language learning is a cognitive process while behaviorism claims that second
language learning is also a stimulus response based process.
According to Innatism, language learning process of a child is successful only when he himself is able
to generate infinite grammatically correct sentences but behaviorism say that this process of language
acquisition is complete when child is able to repeat what he has taught.
Innatism claims that there is no need to give basic formal education for language learning but
behaviorism oppose this claim and emphasize on the basic level of education for second language
acquisition.
Innatism theorized that children are born with an innate hard wired language acquisition device
consisting of language learning tools, responsible for language learning but behaviorism claims that
like a blank slate at the time of birth which is also known as Tabula Rasa.
Innatism theory is based on human experiment but behaviorism is based on animal experiments like
pigeon and rat.
Innatism is a result of nature but behaviorism is the result of nurturing.
Innatism is a theory in which knowledge is dynamic but in behaviorism knowledge is constant.
Innatism claims that language learning is a creative process but behaviorism do not believes on
creativity for language learning.
Innatism explains the whole procedure of language of language learning of a child but behaviorism is
unable to define the initiation of child language acquisition.
Tenets of Cognitive Theory
Chomsky claimed that a new born child must be born with some peculiar preordered ability to learn
language. He called this particular biological characteristic of human as the language acquisition device.
Language acquisition device is basically hard-wired (Chomsky‟s principles and parameters approach) into
human brain that helps an infant to learn and understand language rapidly. Children are born with full
understanding of basic rules for language learning he just needs to learn new word and vocabulary.
Chomsky proposed some fundamental evidence to support his claim. He said that language is similar for
all human beings. Every language consists of noun and verb to arrange them for a meaningful
conversation.
Chomsky also claimed that children do not make errors that we expect from their side, during the time of
learning language. Children understand that all grammatically correct sentences have a structure of a
“subject, verb, object” even before speaking full sentences.
Chomsky also said that, before reaching level of fluency in language, children would also notice that
whether their elder around them spoke grammatically incorrect or correct sentences. He also noticed that
children apply grammatical rules to such words which are considered as exception in language. For
example furniture, sheep, fish etc. are the words by with children also use the rules of pluralizing as
„furniture to furnitures‟ ,‟sheep to sheeps‟ and „fish to fishes‟.
Chomsky also called the set of rules used in language acquisition device as a Universal Grammar.
Children possess an innate cognitive ability of “grammar template” or UG that allow them to make
grammar of their own native language. In this way children start constructing grammar with hypothesis
testing. For example, when children came to know about the past tense that is made by the addition of
“ed” with all verbs even (e.g. „go‟ to „goed‟, „hit‟ to „hitted‟) by considering the exception of past tense of
irregular verb. Children follow rules to create sentences rather than by repeating heard sentences.
Cognitive theory is basically concerned with the acquisition of first language but second language
acquisition is also result of Universal Grammar. Second language is also learnt in the same way as the
first language has acquired.
As Chomsky puts it, “Evidently, development of language in the individual must involve three factors:
Genetic Endowment; which sets limits on the attainable languages, thereby making language
acquisition possible.
External data, converted to the experience that selects one or another language within narrow range.
Principles not specific to the faculty of language.”
So, different aspects of Universal Grammar are desirable with reference to particular detail of cognition
because different categorization of events and objects as a separate classes of element in part of human
cognition that directly results in noun and verb. Hence it is evidence that different aspects of Universal
Grammar are basically part of cognition rather than part of language.
Thus, children have certain linguistic abilities by birth that motivates them to learn not only a complex
language but also help to create an immediate sort of linguistic asset for communication. This is very
clear example of second language acquisition.
At the time of colonial establishment, many slaves came from different places having different mother
tongues but they developed a common form of new language known as „pidgin‟, for their communicative
purposes. This pidgin was further updated as a new variety of language called as Creole. The cognitive
forces behind the acquisition of Pidgin and Creole (second language) were basically innate language
acquisition device that was the theory of Chomsky.
Practical Work
Draw tree structures for following sentences and then assign appropriate grammatical functions
and semantic roles to each phrase.
(a)
TP
NP VP
NP
PP
N V D AP P NP
Adj. N
They parted the best of friends.
Semantic Roles:
They (agent) parted (predicator) the best of (modifier) friends (patient).
(b)
TP
NP VP
PP AP
N PP
P NP Adv. V V NP
D N N
In the summer we always go to France
Semantic Role:
In the summer (oblique compliment) we (experiencer) always go (predicator).
(c)
TP
VP
NP
N PP
V P NP
D N
Benny worked in a shoe factory
Semantic Role:
Benny (agent) worked (predicator) in a shoe factory (locative).
(d)
TP
NP VP
N NP AP
D N Adj.
I saw this film several times
Semantic Role:
Last year (adjunct) I(agent) saw this film (patient) several times.
(e)
TP
NP VP
NP
N V NP Adv
N D N
He baked Tom the bread last night
Semantic Role:
He (source) baked (predicator) Tom (benefactor) the bread (patient) last night.
(f)
CP
TP
NP VP
NP
N T V
D N Adj.
That they have completed the course amazing
Semantic Role:
That they (agent) have completed (complement) the course (goal) amazing.
(g)
TP
NP VP
CP
TP
N C NP VP
N V
Everyone hoped that she would sing
Semantic Role:
Everyone (agent) hoped (predicator) that she (goal) would sing.
(h)
TP
NP VP
NP PP
D N V NP
N P D N
The gang robed her of her necklace
Semantic Role:
The gang (agent) robbed (predicator) her (goal) of her necklace (patient).
(i)
TP
NP VP
CP
TP
V NP VP
NP
N N V D N
They helped us edit the script
Semantic Role:
They (source) helped (predicator) us (goal) edit the script (predicative complement).
(j)
TP
NP VP
NP AP
D N V N Adj.
The teacher made student happy
Semantic Role:
The teacher (source) made (predicator) student (goal) happy.
(k)
TP
NP VP
PP
VP NP NP
N V N P D N
We reminded him of the agreement.
Semantic Role:
We (agent) reminded (predicator) him (goal) of the agreement (oblique compliment).
Practical work: Ambiguity (application of skills and knowledge)
Determine whether each sentence has structure in A, B or in both.
(A)
TP
NP VP
N V NP PP
D N
I bought the parrot in the store.
I put the milk in the fridge.
They chased the man with the car.
I mailed the sweater to Marry.
(B)
TP
NP VP
N V NP
D N PP
I knew the man with the brown hair.
They chased the man with the car.
Using Constituency tests, consider the following.
Part1: Paraphrase the two interpretations in your words, since the sentence is ambiguous.
a) Juliet says that Romeos lies to his parents a lot.
Lies to his parent a lot, Juliet says that Romeo does.
a lot is modifying lies according to VP preposing constituency test.
Lies to his parents, Juliet says that Romeo does a lot.
This is pseudo preposing constituency test, in which a lot seems to modify says but it is not true.
Part2: Draw two phrase structure trees for this sentence each corresponding to one of its meanings
you stated in part1.
(1)
TP
NP VP
V CP
TP
NP VP
PP
NP
N C N V P D N Adv
Juliet says that Romeo (lies) to his parents (a lot)
(2)
TP
NP VP
V CP
TP
NP VP
PP
NP
N C N V P D N Adv
Juliet (says) that Romeo lies to his parents (a lot)
Part 3: Recall that VP constituency can be established by using VP preposing.
Sentence (b) shows that eat apples are a VP constituent. A string that can be preposed by VP
preposing qualifies as VP.
b) Eat apples, Julian does every day.
Explain why the VP preposed version of sentences (b) given in (c) is not ambiguous anymore.
c) lie to his parents a lot, Juliet says that Romeo does.
ANSWER:
VP preposing is a type of movement test in which string of words consisting of VP as a constituent (with
its modifier) is completely detached from sentence and place it to the position c commanding the subject.
If we recall non preposed version of (b), then it would be in this way:
Julian eats apples every day.
And its correct VP preposed version would be:
Eat apples every day, does Julian.
Both sentences seems to be the counterpart of each other semantically, but in 1st sentence everyday seems
to be more on the part of Julian and in second sentence everyday seems to be the modifier of eat apples.
But if we preposes this sentence in this way: Eat apples, Julian does every day. Then it would be pseudo
preposing movement. Because in VP PREPOSING, whole VP with its modifier is brought to subject
position of sentence. That‟s why the following sentence:
c) Lie to his parents a lot, Juliet says that Romeo does.
This sentence seems to be true because in that case complete string of VP along with verb modifier is
brought to c-commanding position of subject.
Part 4: Explain why the following VP preposed version of sentence (b) is still ambiguous.
d) Lie to his parents, Juliet says that Romeo does a lot.
This sentence is ambiguous because this VP-preposed sentence contains pseudo gapping. Adverb a lot is
modifying the verb lies, not says. So this ambiguity clears out by placing a lot in preposed verb phrase
