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Issurin Principles and Basics of Advanced Athletic Training PDF
Issurin Principles and Basics of Advanced Athletic Training PDF
Advanced Athletic
Training
By
Vladimir Issurin, Ph.D.
By
Vladimir Issurin, Ph.D.
Published by:
Ultimate Athlete Concepts
Michigan USA
2008
For information and to order copies: www.ultimateathleteconcepts.com
Issurin, Vladimir B.
ISBN : 978-0-9817180-4-0
All rights reserved, especially the right to copy and distribute. No part of this work may be reproduced
– including the photocopy, microfilm or any other means – processed, stored electronically, copied or
distributed in any form whatsoever without the written permission of the publisher.
Alexander Shatilov- finalist of Beijing Olympic Games in artistic gymnastics, Israel (also page 1)
Oxana Grishuk and Evgeny Platov- two-time Olympic champions in Ice Dancing, Figure Skating,
Russia (also page 44)
Gal Friedman - Olympic champion and Olympic Bronze medal winner in windsurfing, Sailing, Israel
(also page 84)
Gyorgy Kolonicz (deceased)- two-time Olympic champion and two-time Olympic Bronze medal
winner, many-time world and European champion in canoe,Hungary (also page 120)
Olga Brusnikina (right) and Maria Kiseleva (left) - Three-time Olympic champions in synchronized
swimming, Russia (also page 188)
Gennadi Touretski (Russia, Switzerland) and his athlete many times Olympic and World champion in
swimming Alexander Popov (Russia)
Contents
Dedication………………………………………………………………...v
Preface…………………………………………………………………...vi
Acknowledgements………………………………………………………x
i
Chapter 2 Training effects…………………………………………….45
2.1. Training effects: General overview………………………………………….45
2.2. Acute training effect………………………………………………………….47
2.2.1. Acute training effect assessed by sport-specific indicators…………………..48
2.2.2. Acute training effect assessed by psycho-physiological variables…………...51
2.2.3. Programming of acute training effects……………………………………….53
2.3. The immediate training effect………………………………………………..55
2.3.1. Indicators of the immediate training effect…………………………………..55
2.3.2. Monitoring the immediate training effect……………………………………58
2.4. The cumulative training effect……………………………………………….60
2.4.1. Improvement rate in physiological variables…………………………….......60
2.4.2. Improvement of motor abilities……………………………………………...63
2.4.3. Improvement in athletic performance………………………………………..65
2.5. Delayed training effect………………………………………………………68
2.6. Residual training effect………………………………………………………72
2.6.1. Basic concepts and types of residual training effects. ……………………….72
2.6.2. Factors affecting short-term residual training effects………………………..76
Summary……………………………………………………………………………..79
Chapter 3 Trainability………………………………………………...85
3.1. Heredity related determinations of trainability………………………………85
3.1.1. Outstanding sports families………………………………………………….86
3.1.2. Genetic determination of somatic and physiological traits………………….89
3.2.3. Genetic determination of the cumulative training effect. ……………………92
3.2. Trainability and performance level…………………………………………..94
3.2.1. Long-term trend of trainability……………………………………………….95
3.2.2. High and low responders……………………………………………………..97
3.3. Trainability and gender differentiation………………………………………99
3.3.1. Gender differences in maximal athletic performances……………………….99
3.3.2. Gender differences in physiological determinants of motor fitness………...101
3.3.3. Gender differences in training response…………………………………….108
Summary……………………………………………………………………………114
ii
Chapter 4 Designing the training programs……………………….121
4.1 Basics of training periodization…………………………………………….121
4.1.1 Scope of traditional periodization…………………………………………..122
4.1.2 Main limitations of traditional periodization………………………………..128
4.1.3 Block periodization as an alternative training concept……………………..131
4.2 Characteristics and design of the workout………………………………….134
4.2.1 Workout typology according to load level………………………………….134
4.2.2 Training sessions with highly concentrated workloads-- key-workouts……137
4.2.3 Workload concentration within the workout-- key-exercise (task)…………139
4.2.4 Compatibility of different workloads……………………………………….140
4.3 Designing microcycle programs…………………………………………….144
4.3.1. Types and particulars of different microcycles……………………………..144
4.3.2. One- two- and three-peak designs………………………………………….146
4.3.3. Microcycles directed at different training modalities………………………148
4.3.4 General approach to structuring a microcycle program…………………….155
4.4 Designing mesocycle programs……………………………………………..157
4.4.1 Accumulation mesocycle…………………………………………………...157
4.4.2. Transmutation mesocycle…………………………………………………..160
4.4.3. Realization mesocycle………………………………………………………163
4.5 Designing the annual cycle………………………………………………….167
4.5.1 Basics of the annual plan……………………………………………………167
4.5.2 Sample plan of annual preparation………………………………………….169
4.6 Final stage preparation for targeted competition……………………………172
4.6.1 Factors affecting FSP effectiveness………………………………………...173
4.6.2 Content and particulars of FSP……………………………………………..176
Summary……………………………………………………………………………180
iii
Chapter 5 Modeling in planning, evaluating and guiding training.189
5.1. Generalized model of the athlete’s preparation……………………………..189
5.2. The top-performance model………………………………………………...192
5.2.1. Individual sports…………………………………………………………….192
5.2.2. Team sports…………………………………………………………………196
5.3. Model of sport-specific abilities…………………………………………….198
5.3.1. Generalized factors of sport-specific abilities………………………………198
5.3.2. Bodybuild and body composition…………………………………………..200
5.3.3. Physiological capabilities…………………………………………………...204
5.3.4. Sport-specific motor abilities……………………………………………….205
5.4. Models of training programs………………………………………………..208
5.4.1. Structural models……………………………………………………………209
5.4.2. Models of training content. ………………………………………………...211
5.4.3. Model characteristics of training workloads………………………………..212
Summary……………………………………………………………………………215
Glossary……………………………………………………………….219
About the author……………………………………………………...223
iv
Dedication
To the three most important women in my life: my mother Sofia (may her memory be
blessed), my wife Irena and my daughter Elena. Thanks to them for everything.
v
Preface
Inquisitive readers know that training theory and methodology, like the sport sciences
as a whole, are constantly evolving. This has been especially true during the past five
decades. However, even the first training guidelines, which were intended to serve as
general positions, can be considered basic principles. Most of these basic positions
retain their relevance to this day, although how they are interpreted in contemporary
times differs from how they were initially comprehended. Several positions now seem
obsolete, whereas others are viewed as highly productive in the modern understanding
of the training of athletes.
vi
As a scientist who works systematically with a large number of coaches, I feel
the necessity to refresh the interpretation of basic terms and concepts which affect the
general view of training. In addition, several training characteristics such as volume,
intensity and exercise novelty become more meaningful and productive when viewed
in the light of the theory of adaptation. More precisely, creative interpretation of
human adaptation principles enlarges and deepens our understanding of the essence of
sport training.
The effects produced by systematic training are definitely the focus of every
coach and athlete. However, an unequivocal understanding of training effects requires
special clarification which the author intends to provide. Indeed, practical needs
dictate making a distinction between short-term and long-term responses in athletes.
Also, relatively new concepts and delayed and residual training effects have great
importance both as scientific background and in practice, for designing training
programs.
Designing training programs is routine work for some coaches and a challenge
for others. In all cases, they try to exhibit creativity and aspire to success in the
profession. Traditional training periodization, which was promulgated more than five
decades ago, offers generally approved and globally used approaches to program
design. However, as time passed, many of the basic positions have come into conflict
with the demands of contemporary sport.
In the present book, inquisitive readers will find both familiar and unfamiliar
thoughts and concepts about block periodized training. More specifically, aspects of
peaking that are extremely important in competitive sport are considered in light of
block periodization and the successful experiences of top-level athletes. The modeling
approaches, which are presented in the final chapter of the book, can be very
productive in terms of firmly establishing training targets and individual and
collective norms of sport-specific abilities and training workloads. The ideas of
modeling are in tune with the total concept of block periodization.
The book has five chapters, which taken as a whole, are devoted to fulfilling
the purposes set out at the beginning of this book. Chapter 1 presents basic terms,
methods and principles of sport training, that clarify the comprehensive mechanism of
physical preparation and the particulars of training design. The chapter also elucidates
the sport-specific principles of adaptation formulated by Zatsiorsky (1995), which are
still not very familiar to the professional audience.
As with all books, this one also has several limitations. The basic positions of
training theory and methodology have been elaborated on for the most part using
examples and material from individual sports. Individual sports lend themselves to
easier measurements and are more accessible for quantitative analysis. But, team
sports are very popular around the world. Thus, in these sports several of the
positions proposed in this book are only applicable to preparation for team sports. For
instance, peaking in individual sports can be resolved by considering a relatively
small number of peak-performances while in team sports, athletes must manifest
peak-performances each week over relatively long periods of time. Therefore,
adapting general rules and training approaches to certain sports requires additional
effort and creativity.
Another limitation concerns the format of this book. Many aspects of training
such as enhancement of motor abilities, movement technique, tactics etc. are not
addressed. Likewise, specific factors pertaining to several sports are left out of the
discussion. Despite these limitations, I suggest that this book will lead to two
outcomes: the acquisition of new and refreshing knowledge, and stimulation of
curiosity that will result in new questions on how to enhance sport training. I believe
that this will lead coaches, athletes and researchers to work more consciously,
creatively and successfully.
ix
Acknowledgements
This book summarizes the results of my extensive work during the course of
which I have enjoyed the cooperation of many people. This includes highly
professional coaches, prominent athletes and sport scientists. Their experiences,
thoughts and comments have greatly influenced my views, analyses and the concepts
I developed, which are presented here for your perusal. It is not possible to list all of
these individuals, but the contributions of some of them are so valuable that it is an
honor to express my gratitude to them by name.
x
A number of practical examples that illustrate scientific positions were
provided by the world famous swimming coach and my life-long friend Gennadi
Touretski (Russia and Switzerland) and prominent soccer coach Mark Tunis (Israel). I
also used the data presented to me by Gennadi Hiskia (Israel). Their cooperation is
very much appreciated.
I am very grateful to the great athletes and coaches, who generously gave me
their photographs for inclusion in this book. This included Gal Friedman and
Alexander Shatilov (Israel); Evgeny Platov (USA, Russia); Gennadi Touretski
(Russia, Switzerland); Igor Kartashov (Russia) for the photograph of Olga Brusnikina
and Maria Kiseleva; and the Canoe-Kayak Federation of Hungary for the photograph
of Gyorgy Kolonicz.
Mr. Mike Garmise expended considerable effort in doing the first edit of the
text. His valuable assistance can not be underestimated.
I would also like to thank Dr. Michael Yessis for his invaluable expertise in
doing the final edit of this book. His highly professional efforts greatly assisted to
make this book more easily understood in English.
Several chapters of this book were reviewed by my life-long mentor and friend
Prof. Vladimir Zatsiorsky (Penn State University, USA). I am very grateful for his
valuable comments on an earlier version of this text and his constant readiness to
cooperate.
Finally I would like to thank the many coaches and athletes who put into
practice the methodology presented in this book.
xi
xii
Chapter 1
Alexander Shatilov
Israel
1
Chapter 1
Basic terms and principles of
sports training
Most of the basic terms and general concepts of sport training used today were
introduced in early 1960s, when sport became an indispensable part of social, cultural
and political life. Of course, as in all areas of human endeavor, some common terms
remain in dispute and their meanings are ambiguous. This chapter presents and
considers the basic terms and concepts in order to prevent misunderstandings, and to
introduce the basic terms and concepts necessary for further clarification and
explanation.
Sports training in its narrower sense means the application of physical loads
through physical exercise intended to assure successful participation in competition.
Training and competing are closely interrelated. On the one side is training with its
focus on competitive content. On the other side are the competitions themselves,
which are also part of overall preparation; they serve to prepare athletes for what are
called the main or target competitions. High-performance athletes usually have one-
2
two target competitions a year and 8-12 other competitions incorporated in their
annual program.
3
Table 1.1
The essential parts of athletic preparation
4
- the basics of competition: rules, program, equipment, athletes' rights and
obligations, standards of “fair play “;
- the basics of training methodology: training objectives, means and methods,
information about loads and recovery, knowledge of the human body and self-
control.
From the above it follows that physical exercises are used to solve physical,
technical, tactical and, in part, psychological preparation tasks. Particularly valuable
are exercises that combine work on motor ability and technical skill, technical skill
and tactics, and tactics and psychological stability in the face of emotional stress.
Such drills, called conjugated effect exercises, are used extensively in sports training.
The diagram in Figure 1.1 displays the content and unity of the components and
essential parts of athletic preparation. In the upper part of the diagram, training and
competitions determine the essence of athletic preparation and form its content. In the
lower part, the main content (training and competitive activities) is realized through
the essential parts of athletic preparation: physical preparation, technical preparation
etc.
5
TRAINING COMPETITIONS RESTORATION
ATHLETIC PREPARATION
PHYSICAL PREPARATION
TECHNICAL PREPARATION
TACTICAL PREPARATION
PSYCHOLOGICAL PREPARATION
INTELLECTUAL PREPARATION
Figure 1.1. Content (upper part) and essential parts (bottom part) of athletic
preparation.
One more remark is in order concerning the relation between “training” and
“preparation”. Very often training is used to mean preparation. This use emphasizes
the importance of training as the main component of athletic preparation.
6
recorded, this can be expressed as a specific result towards which athletes work; in
other sports it can be the position attained in world rankings, etc..
General objective
Excellence in the
selected sport
Psychological
Sport-specific
development
knowledge
reliability
Technical
mastery
Physical
Rational
tactics
Health
Aims
Training
1 2 3 4 5 6 … n
targets Several motor abilities, motor skills, technical
elements, techno-tactic combinations, active
restoration,rules learning etc.
7
from doing the bench press with sub-maximal load is maximal strength of the upper
body. In other words, training targets are the simplest and clearest goals affecting the
content and load magnitude of specific workouts. Training targets relate to several
motor abilities (strength, endurance, quickness, agility), technical skills or elements,
tactical ability, and/or cognitive matters. Usually not more than two-three training
targets are selected for a single workout.
Setting training targets is an obligatory part of each workout plan. Usually the
setting of training targets rarely creates obstacles; difficulties usually begin with
structuring an appropriate program.
The basic terms used in training methodology have historically been formed in
response to practical demands. There are training goals, training content, training
means and training methods. Table 2 considers these terms by first asking what
questions these terms bring up and then their answers.
8
The list of terms begins with “training goals”, which have already been
discussed. The next basic term is “training content”. All of the activities usually
carried out in training have to be systematized according to long-term, medium-term,
and short-term plans. These plans prescribe all substantial details of the forthcoming
training and, in fact, thoroughly characterize training content, which includes
participation in competitions and trials, dominant training modalities in different time
periods, volume, intensity and repertory of exercises, training camps, testing and
exams.
“Training means” refers to all drills and exercises involved in the program.
They are subdivided into competitive and general fitness exercises. Competitive
exercises have a close affinity and similarity to the main technical skills and key
components of the competitive program. They are performed under competitive
conditions (standard equipment, adherence to competitive rules etc.). Sport-specific
(special) exercises are those in which competitive conditions are modified in order to
accentuate several aspects such as increased or reduced resistance, technique
simplification or transformation, internal or external stimulation, involvement of
additional devices or tools, etc.
9
Table 1.2
Basic terms of athletic training with brief explanations
10
1.1.3. Training methods
Table 1.3
Methodical principles and characteristics of training methods
11
This method as originally proposed was for training runners and had the
athletes periodically perform several spurts of speed to change the lead runner.
Usually this exercise was performed on uneven surfaces and the speed bouts were
combined with ascents or descents in the terrain. When this method was first
employed, exercise content was not strictly prescribed. Somewhat later, the
alternating acceleration and low intensity phases became precisely programmed. This
is not the truly original fartlek but the term remains for describing a wide spectrum of
non-uniform exercises.
The short-interval method is usually utilized for workloads ranging from high
to maximum intensity. The rest duration differs depending on various factors and
lasts from 15 s. to 3 min. The medium-interval method refers to work intervals
ranging from 1.5-6 min at relatively reduced intensity and rest intervals of about 1-4
minutes. The long-interval method refers to work intervals ranging from 6-20 min
with intensity reduced to medium level and rest lasting about 2-6 minutes.
Consequently, the net time of all workloads performed using these methods in a single
workout varies from 3 min (a sprinter's workout) to 3 hours (a marathon runner's
workout).
12
Table 1.4
Interval method modifications (adapted from Harre, 1982)
The game method employs traditional methods where the main loading factor
is the game scenario, which may vary greatly from the classic rules of the sport. Mini
games and exercises utilizing game activities are very popular in almost all sports for
both junior and senior athletes. Of course, the load level of such workouts can vary
widely and has fewer predetermined elements. Nevertheless, the load level can be
effectively regulated by using specific motor tasks and the game itself.
13
The stimulus Specificity Accommodation
magnitude
(overload)
Transfer of
Training Training training Increase of the
load load results work
volume intensity
potential
Novelty of Decrease of
Technical Motor
exercises reaction on
skills abilities
constant load
Training workload creates the athlete’s responses and serves as the stimulus
for their adaptation. Stimulus magnitude can be regulated by three factors: load
volume, load intensity, and novelty of exercises. It is important to note that
improvements in fitness can be attained only when the stimulus magnitude is
sufficient. The overload principle postulates that fitness gains require a load
(stimulus) magnitude that exceeds the accustomed to level.
14
Table 1.5
Characterization of the load magnitude
Training load volume. Historically, the simplest way to increase load magnitude was
to enlarge training volume. For elite athletes in many sports, the number of workouts
started at two-three per week in the 1930s, increased to 6-8 in the 1960s, and reached
9-14 in the 1980s. Workout frequency has remained at the same level since then. For
a long time, the desire to increase training volume was considered to be limited by
both physiological and social factors. Physiologically it was thought that the upper
limits of human reserves had been reached. Socially, concerns were voiced about
athletes’ needs in terms of education, profession, privacy, etc.
Despite this, training volume tended to increase in world sports until the end
of the 1980s. It is only in the last two decades or so that total training volume has
15
been stabilized and even reduced (see 4.2.). In any case, increasing training load
volume is a highly visible measure of personal progress for athletes in any sport. The
evaluation of load volume is a routine operation in endurance sports where exercise
mileage is traditionally calculated. However, this can be a difficult task in team or
combat sports, where the quantity of sport specific actions is not easy to summarize.
Training load intensity. Training load intensity is looked at from two sides:
- as a measure of the effort expended in relation to the maximum (sometimes in
relation to the level of competitive effort);
- as a part of the total training volume, performed with increased (higher than usual)
effort.
In recent years, intensity zones (IZ) have become widely used in many sports
both for planning and for post-exercise evaluation (Viru, 1995). In this approach the
whole intensity range is subdivided into a number of IZ (usually five). Each IZ is
described by a number of relevant indicators, each of which provides a range of
values considered appropriate for this zone. Usually blood lactate, heart rate, velocity
(or performance time, or power), and movement rate are employed in characterizing a
specific intensity zone. Substantial progress in this approach has been achieved in the
last decade with the development of new sports technologies like heart rate monitors,
portable blood lactate analyzers, and chrono-electronic measurement systems.
16
working out more attractive. The effect of these innovations is seen in a more
pronounced physiological response.
Example. Igor Koshkin (USSR), one of the world's most famous swimming
experts, coached three-time Olympic champion Vladimir Salnikov. He told other
coaches: “If you start to use standing on the head as an exercise for your
swimmers, the initial effect will be remarkable and positive due to its novelty. But
its effect will be very short term because this exercise doesn’t touch on your
athletes' swimming-specific abilities”.
This remark emphasizes the complexity of the exercise novelty problem. Indeed, it is
not difficult to find an exercise that athletes are not familiar with, but it is difficult to
find an unfamiliar exercise that corresponds to sport-specific physiological,
biomechanical and psychological demands. That is why training specificity, which
will be considered below, is an indispensable adaptation factor in sports training.
17
- both are very dependent on athletes’ qualifications. Low- and medium-
level athletes are more sensitive to any kind of exercise, including non-
specific ones, while training transfer among high-performance athletes is
strongly limited to the specificity of auxiliary exercises.
Let us consider the transfer of motor abilities and technical skills separately.
Transfer of motor abilities. This transfer mode forms the base for the use of general
and specific fitness exercises in any sport. Motor ability transfer is much higher in
lower level athletes, who are much more sensitive to any kind of physical exercise.
The higher the athletes’ level, the lower is their sensitivity to non-specific exercises.
Moreover, some exercises can have a negative effect on athletes' sport-specific
preparedness. This is what makes the assessment of motor ability transfer so
important.
Training transfer can be assessed by comparing the gains achieved in the main
and auxiliary exercises. The precise quantitative method of this comparison is
described by Zatsiorsky (1995). Table 1.5 presents the qualitative approach to
identifying different types of training transfer based on the relationship between the
main and auxiliary exercises.
18
Table 1.5
Several types of training transfer with reference to motor ability transfer
19
example of positive motor ability transfer can be taken from the practice of top-level
Danish soccer players.
Case study. Three groups of soccer players performed various types of strength
training three times a week during three off-season months. The first group
performed quadriceps exercises with high resistance and low speed (HR-group);
the second group performed the same exercises with low resistance and higher
speed (LR-group); the third group performed soccer-specific kicking exercises
with resistance on a pulley machine (Kick-group). Basic strength of the
quadriceps muscles was evaluated in high resistance movement while specific
strength was evaluated by measuring ball velocity after a kick.
20
30
HR-group
Gain of the basic strength,%
25 LR-group
Kick-group
20
15
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Gain of the ball velocity,%
Figure 1.4. Strength gains after three months of fitness training for soccer
players: Y axis - basic quadriceps strength,
X axis -soccer- specific strength evaluated by ball velocity
after the kick (adapted from Bangsbo, 1994)
Transfer of technical skills. The principal factor limiting technical skill transfer is the
neuro-muscular specificity of each sport-specific technique. To maximize positive
skill transfer, the exercise should be closely matched to sport-specific coordination
demands. This is why a relatively small circle of exercises provides positive transfer
(i.e. positive effects) for movement technique improvement. Table 1.6 presents
generalized situations in which positive and negative skill transfer occurs.
21
Table 1.6
Several types of skill transfer in regard to exercising
22
intended to stimulate specific motor abilities within a sport-specific coordination
structure. Usually the problem is to get the desirable effect without diminishing the
movement technique.
For example, weighting the javelin allows athletes to obtain higher force but
can destroy movement technique if the javelin weight is excessive. On the other hand,
positive skill transfer is achieved by any kind of movement facilitators that artificially
simplify, but do not distort technique. The rowing training machine “Concept”, for
instance, allows athletes to develop sport specific muscle endurance when the motor
task is substantially simplified (no interaction with water, standard work conditions)
with the same coordination.
1.2.3 Accommodation
23
The increase in work potential can be characterized by sport-specific
indicators like the results of all-out performance, speed at anaerobic threshold in
endurance sports, etc. A constant physical load can be attained by examining athletes
on an ergometer or by testing them at a predetermined level of speed or power. Both
situations can be shown in the example of a one-season follow-up of world-class
kayakers.
Case study. A group of nine qualified kayakers was followed up over a one
season preparation. An incremental test on the water (4 times 1000-m) was
performed to determine the anaerobic threshold velocity. In addition, they
performed a standard 1000-m paddling test at a predetermined speed
corresponding to medium intensity (the speed was programmed by the lead
motorboat). Blood samples were taken after the test. Graphs of the results
show a considerable increase in anaerobic threshold velocity in all athletes and
a similar decrease in blood lactate accumulation from paddling at a constant
velocity (Figure 1.5).
9. 0.
3 7
.8 .0
3 6
7. 0.
3 5
6. 0.
3 4
.5 .0
3 3
October December February April June
Figure 1.5. The annual trend of anaerobic threshold velocity (solid line) and
blood lactate accumulation after a 1000-m performance at a
predetermined velocity (dash line) in qualified kayakers.
24
This example demonstrates that the accommodation process can be monitored
by means of tests for athletes at both maximal and standard efforts. This approach can
also be utilized in non-measurable sports, such as team sports, where the standard
load can be programmed by a specific combination of sport-specific elements at a
fixed frequency and range of motion.
For a long time, both the theory and practice of sports training has sought a
comprehensive, consistent explanation of how athletes' fitness and preparedness
improve. In other words, the principal question was how sports training elicits gains
in athletes' work capability. One of the first scientifically based answers to this
question was offered in the mid 1950s by Soviet professor of biochemistry Yakovlev
25
(1977), who reported on the cycle of supercompensation after a single workout. This
phenomenon was enthusiastically embraced by sport theorists who tried to explain
medium- and long-term training effects based on the supercompensation cycle.
Further investigations and especially practical experience from high-performance
training, revealed many limitations in applying this principle to high-performance
training. Despite this, the principle of supercompensation has again gained respect in
interpreting and understanding training.
26
Load
Phases
Fatigue
27
Supercompensation phases
A
Fitness
Load level
Recovery
Fatigue
B Supercompensation phases
Fitness
level
Fitness
level
When these training load summations were first published, the guidelines for
coaching seemed very simple and comprehensive: workouts should be planned
exclusively according to the supercompensation phases and fitness improvement
would be guaranteed. However, it did not take long before coaches and scientists
noted serious contradictions between the proposed “optimal” design and actual
practice in high-performance training. The problem was in the duration of the
supercompensation cycle.
28
It was found that the fatigue and recovery phases effect following a big
workload last two-three days. Thus, following the last supercompensation cycle two,
or a maximum of three workouts a week could be planned. This workout frequency is
acceptable for novices and medium-level athletes but not in high-performance training
where athletes perform 6-12 workouts weekly. Some coaches tried to modify their
training plans according to the theoretically favorable model, but were quickly
disappointed by the results of their attempts.
Of course, the necessity to wait for full recovery after each workout limited
opportunities to attain desirable load levels and reduced coaches' trust in the
theoretical model. Several critical statements indicated that high-performance athletes
are accustomed to many loads and no single workout, even if very intense, will
provide sufficient stimulus to achieve the desirable response. For this, a workout
series with fatigue accumulation should be planned. Consequently, a modified
scheme of the training load summation was offered (Figure 1.8).
Supercompensation
phase
nd
re
st
es
tn
Fi
Time
29
The modified scheme of the training load summation proposes the
accumulation of fatigue induced by several workouts. Full recovery is done when the
total load achieves a certain level of stimulation. This renewed concept corresponds in
general to high-performance sport practice and seems reasonable enough. The main
consequence of the proposed training design is that a number of workouts can be
performed while the athlete is still fatigued.
Let’s summarize the above and see how it can be applied in practice.
• The supercompensation principle is basic to sports training, although it can
not always be realized with regard to each individual workout.
• A training design with low workout frequency, as with novices and medium-
level athletes, can produce the supercompensation phase after a single
workout or a short workout series (two-three sessions).
• For high-performance athletes, a typical load summation requires a long
workout series. Consequently, the total time that high-performance athletes
are in the supercompensation phase is relatively short and the period in which
they are not completely rested is relatively long.
• The supercompensation phase is a desirable state for achieving peak-
performance. Proper training design is necessary to select and prepare for the
times when this state is attained.
• Several competitions can be executed “below optimal load" when athletes do
not reach the supercompensation phase. Consequently, the top performance in
these competitions is usually not attainable.
30
1.4. Specialized principles of sports training
For a long time, sports experts, coaches and experienced athletes have sought
general rules to help them build effective athletic preparation programs. To this end,
basic specialized principles of sports training should highlight the most relevant
aspects and features of coaching and training. During the long period of sports
evolution such principles were proposed and shared first in Eastern Europe
(Matveyev, 1964; Harre, 1973) and later on the West (Dick, 1980; Bompa, 1984;
Yessis, 1987). Since this period, major changes in sports have occurred. Nevertheless,
consistent and comprehensive specialized principles of sports training are necessary
for rational practice. The following principles are presented in an up-to-date author’s
version, namely: specialization, individualization, variety, load interaction, and
cyclical training design.
1.4.1. Specialization
31
The wide variety of sports available allows individuals to select the one in
which their individual interests and ambitions correspond most favorably to their
personal, physical and mental predilections. Unlike common physical education and
recreation, where amateurs engage in different sports for multilateral training,
competitive, and particularly high-performance sport requires concentration on
limited, highly specialized activities.
1.4.2. Individualization
32
• Find the appropriate event, discipline or individual style in which the
athlete's specific plus and minus combination will allow him/her to achieve
the best results.
Table 1.7
Characteristics affecting the athlete’s individual characteristics
(table compiled with Dr. Boris Blumenshtein)
33
The personal characteristics considered in the above table are relevant for any
sport. The first two items touch on an athlete's general psycho-physiological potential.
The differentiation between “high responder – low responder” dramatically affects the
athlete's personality; usually low responders don’t succeed in their preparation and
can not reach the high-performance sports level. Tolerance for high workloads varies
greatly even among top-level athletes; the best athletes do not always have the highest
level of tolerance for physical stress. In any case, this feature greatly affects the
athlete’s personality and preparation.
1.4.3. Variety
34
of training effect, i.e., the particulars of transfer of motor abilities and technical skills.
Therefore, while variety in an athletes’ preparation is desirable and important, it
should be attained within the accepted continuum of means, forms and training
methods.
Table 1.8
Sources of and approaches to enriching the variety of athletes’ preparation
35
As was already mentioned, exercise innovation is strongly restricted by the
demands of specificity. Nevertheless, force, velocity and endurance requirements can
be purposefully emphasized by means of appropriate measures. For example,
lightening and simplifying an exercise facilitates higher speed, the use of additional
resistance demands the application of greater force, etc. Similarly, modification of
training methods makes it possible to both concentrate on a specific motor ability and
prevent excessive accommodation to familiar exercises. For this purpose all load
components can be varied and modified. This includes intensity (velocity), number of
repetitions, duration and rest intervals within and between series.
36
It is important to note that applying the variety principle can differ according
to the situation. The factors affecting its application are sport specificity, the athlete’s
age, gender and experience, team or club finances and other considerations. Risk and
safety factors should also be taken into account.
Both are determined by the athlete’s sensitivity to the workloads that he performs.
The fact to be emphasized regarding systematic training is that no single workout has
a separate effect on the athlete since it always interacts with preceding workloads.
Consequently, the present specialized principle of sport training postulates that each
load, which is performed in a series with other loads, interacts with them. Its effect
depends on the influence of the preceding workouts and conditions the influence of
succeeding workouts. This load interaction is of great importance both for planning
training and training analysis. The possible types of load interaction are considered in
Table 1.9.
37
Table 1.9
Different types and examples of training load interaction
38
load interactions are very complicated. Nevertheless, in general, this factor can and
should be taken into account.
This principle concerns the periodic cycles in athletes’ training. Over a long
period, many components of long-term training repeat and return periodically. This
order of structuring a training program is called periodization. At least four major
factors determine the periodic changes in the character and content of training:
39
tactical skills, may be enormous in terms of magnitude and numbers.
Obviously, all these tasks should be systematized and shared in time.
All of the above shows that periodic training units or so-called training cycles
should form the basis for planning and analysis. Consequently, cyclical training
design is one of the specialized principles of athletic training. The periodic training
units were defined and utilized some time ago. One of the first systematic
presentations of training cycles was done in the mid-1960s by Prof. Matveyev of the
USSR (Matveyev, 1964, 1981). The basic principles laid out then remain relevant and
useful to this day. Despite the variety of different sports, disciplines and events,
periodic training units are used everywhere, even though several terms have been
confused and used in conflicting manners. Up-to-date specifications of periodic
training units are presented in Table 1.10.
40
Table 1.10
Hierarchy and duration of periodic training units
It is worth noting that all of the training units relate directly to appropriate
parts of the planning, where the training program, as the final product of this process,
is structured on the basis of the cyclic principle of training design.
Summary
41
These three load components are particularly important in light of the overload
principle, which postulates that fitness gains require that the stimulus magnitude
exceed the accustomed to level.
42
References for Chapter 1
43
Chapter 2
Russia
44
Chapter 2
Training effects
The outcomes of training sessions are known as training effects, which are the
athlete’s short-term and long-term responses to training loads. The effects are the
focus of special interest among coaches and athletes, who should know the desired
effects from a given workout, training cycle, or more prolonged periods of training.
This chapter is intended to summarize the concepts of training effects and to consider
them for a better understanding and more conscious planning and control of training.
45
Table 2.1
The training effects (based on Zatsiorsky, 1995)
Training effects are characterized by (a) the athlete’s responses to workloads, (b)
changes in the athlete’s condition induced by training (work capacity, economization
of body response, etc.), and (c) gains in sport-specific indicators (performance
results, personal achievements) caused by training. The relationships between
different types of training effects are presented in Figure 2.1. The main relationships
are as follows:
1) The acute effects from several exercises form the immediate training
effect of a single workout or training day;
2) The immediate training effects from a series of workouts join together to
produce a cumulative training effect;
46
3) The cumulative training effect determines the athlete’s preparedness
and athletic performance. In addition, there are two specific subtypes:
4) Delayed training effects, which occur because of delayed transformation
of the training stimuli into the performance; and
5) Residual training effects which refer to the period during which increased
physical ability remains close to the level attained immediately after
cessation of specific training.
Acute effect of
the exercise Summation of a number of acute
effects within the workout
Immediate
training effect Summation and interaction of
the several immediate effects
within training cycle
Cumulative
training effect
Temporal delay of the cumulative
effect transformation
Delayed
training effect Retention of the achieved
cumulative effect beyond
certain time period
Residual
training effect
In this chapter, the interactions between training effects are addressed. Later
in the text there will be a more detailed discussion of each individual effect.
47
2) By physiological variables that characterize the athlete’s response to the
workloads such as blood lactate (BL) levels, heart rate (HR), blood pressure,
galvanic skin response (GSR), rate of perceived exertion (RPE) e.g. according
to the Borg scale (Borg, 1973), change in body temperature, sweating
intensity, and/or oxygen uptake (in lab conditions).
The first group of measurements has been used widely over the years, especially
in sports that lend themselves to measurement, although they have also been favored
in non-measurable sports as well. The second group of indicators needs appropriate
instruments (e.g. Polar watch, BL monitors etc.) which have become increasingly
popular among practitioners of many sports. On-line monitoring of the athlete’s
condition offers coaches more accurate control of acute training effects. These
advanced technologies facilitate regulation of physical load levels based on HR and
BL, and emotional stress by means of GSR and RPE.
Case study. A team of experienced soccer players performed typical exercises for
maximum speed improvement: ten repetitions of 20-m dribbling with five ball-
touches performed at maximum speed, with inter-bout rest intervals at 1.5 min. The
best average performance was achieved on the third repetition; near peak-
performance level was maintained until the 7th repetition (Figure 2.2). Other bouts
were slower by more than 0.4 s (10 % range). This means that the planned amount
for the whole team was excessive. The individual dosage should vary between six
and eight repetitions based on the performance results. (Mark Tunis, 2005, personal
communication).
48
excessive dose
3.8
optimal dose
3.7
Performance time, s
3.6
3.5
3.4
3.3
3.2
3.1
3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Repetition number
49
Table 2.3
Acute training effect assessed by speed and movement rate (MR) during an
endurance workout
50
movement frequency and often by technique changes. Usually this phase leads to a
dramatic activation of anaerobic metabolism as well as to blood lactate accumulation.
Its duration usually varies from 30-60 s. This phase is not desirable in aerobic
endurance workouts because it activates anaerobic metabolism and has a detremental
effect on the preceding aerobic work. However, this phase can be exploited in
aerobic-anaerobic exercises, where the terminal blood lactate increase can be
desirable and planned.
The fourth phase indicates the athlete's inability to sustain his previous speed
despite extreme efforts. A MR increase indicates a further attempt to prevent the
speed decrease. In addition, a MR reduction indicates failure at such an attempt. This
phase of excessive fatigue should be prevented and, as a rule, excluded from training
and competitive practice.
51
Work Rest Work Rest Work Rest
12
200
Blood Lactate, mM
10
180
La
8
HR
140
6
120
4
5 10 15 20 25 30
Time, min
Case study. GSR values were measured in highly qualified basketball players
during a stressful workout. Emotional tension increased progressively during
warm-up and the performance of techno-tactical drills as reflected in a decrease of
GSR (Figure 2.3). The training game (1st half) elicited maximal emotional tension
that decreased during the break and increased again at the beginning of the 2nd
52
half. However, this high level of emotional excitation was not maintained until
completion of the game since GSR increases indicated pronounced emotional
fatigue. The cooling down period caused a further decrease in emotional tension
that reached ordinary levels at the end of the workout. It can be hypothesized that
the acute training effect of such a workout could have been higher if the coach had
been able to maintain emotional excitation near maximum (for this game level) for
a more prolonged period (Dr. Boris Blumenshtein, personal communication,
2004).
GSR
Low
emotional High
tension values
Ordinary
state
Medium
Medium
emotional
values
tension
High
emotional Low
tension values
Break
Are acute training effects really manageable? In other words, are athletes’
responses to a workout predictable and controllable? The answer is – not always and
not completely. The question that follows is, how can we make athletes’ responses
53
more predictable? It is obvious that complete control in each workout is presently
unobtainable, but some progress in this direction is desirable and possible. Very often
coaches think that experienced athletes do not need special task clarification prior to
performance or in post-exercise evaluation. Athletes do not always receive brief but
clear hints during exercise that can stimulate their motor output. However,
formulating the goals and the systematic exchange of information with the athlete (a
‘programming algorithm’) facilitate the attainment of desirable acute training effects.
An example of such programming is presented in Table 2.4.
Table 2.4
Programming the acute training effect
54
(athletes can not control more than two demands), which are of special priority for
certain athletes.
For instance, an athlete can be asked to keep in mind some important technical
detail (i.e. effective take-off, or relaxation in the recovery phase), a special tactical
task (i.e. accentuated start, uniform performance) or other sport-specific demand. By
using appropriate instruments (HR monitor, MR indicator, stopper) to monitor the
current performance, coaches can correct the athlete’s behavior and eliminate
mistakes. Timely remarks assist in keeping motivation high for better performance.
Post-exercise self-reports can improve cooperation between the coach and athlete and
encourage the latter’s self-control. The final evaluation should be specific and limited
to one-two sentences. It is likely that this conclusion will have a positive emotional
impact.
As defined above (Table 2.1), the immediate training effect is the change in
body state induced by a single workout and/or by a single training day. The
immediate training effect arises as a result of the summation of acute training effects
from several exercises. As a rule, a single workout and a single work day with high-
performance athletes include one or two dominant training modalities. The reason for
this is that athletes cannot respond to many stimuli acting simultaneously on many
targets. However, training sessions with low-level and medium-level athletes can
include more diverse exercises. Consequently, the immediate training effect can be
more selective when a workout is concentrated on a specific ability, or more complex
and combined if the workloads are aimed in many different directions.
55
Table 2.5
Indicators of the immediate training effect
Characteristics Indicators
Total amount (‘volume’) Total mileage, mileage of intense exercises, number of lifts,
of training load per throws, stunts, net-time of playing in team sports, etc.
session/day
The athlete’s subjective Sleep, appetite, general activity, muscle soreness, level of
response fatigue, willingness to train, etc.
Objectively measuring Resting HR after awakening in the morning, results of
the athlete’s response biochemical analyses, (blood urea and CPK in the morning
after a work day), changes in test results (grip force, standing
vertical jump etc.), body weight etc.
The coach’s pedagogical How the executed work corresponded to that training
estimation program: completely corresponds, mostly corresponds, far
from complete, failure of daily program.
Let’s consider the data presented in table 2.5. Sport-specific indicators of the
workloads performed give primary objective information. All measures of the
athlete’s responses have value as feedback on training stimuli. Very often the total
amount of exercises performed (total mileage, number of lifts, throws etc.) gives the
ultimate indication whether the athlete completed the planned workload.
56
resting HR, blood urea and CPK. Resting HR is one of the simplest and most practical
of the accepted modes of monitoring athletes. Base HR level should be obtained from
a well rested athlete in bed immediately after a night's sleep. When HR corresponds to
the base level or increases less than 6 bpm (beats per minute) this indicates good
recovery but when HR increases more than 6 but less than 10 bpm – it usually reflects
sufficient adaptation but considerable fatigue. A HR increase of 11-16 bpm indicates
a high level of fatigue; and an increase of more than 16 bpm shows excessive fatigue
and should serve as an alarm signal.
Blood urea and creatine phosphokinase (CPK) are usually measured in blood
samples taken from athletes before breakfast and after 12 hours of fasting. Blood urea
is used to estimate metabolic fatigue and metabolic recovery. It serves as an indicator
of protein metabolism and increases particularly after long-duration endurance
exercises or highly intense strength workloads (Viru & Viru, 2001).
For a long time, especially in endurance sports, this indicator was used, to
prevent overtraining. CPK as a blood enzyme reflects the level of muscle tissue
breakdown, which is particularly suitable for combat sports and explosive strength
exercises such as throws and jumps. On the other hand, the considerable damage of
muscle fibers that occurs during marathon running, also causes an increase in CPK
level (Wilmore & Costill, 1993). Compared with other indicators, CPK is extremely
variable and its levels after highly intense or combat exercises, can reach three to four
times the base values.
The coach’s pedagogical estimation is the last but not the least important for
evaluating the immediate training effect.
57
2.3.2. Monitoring the immediate training effect
Table 2.6
Four-component scale for monitoring immediate training effects
Case study. The immediate training effect was monitored during a 20-day training
camp of high-level athletes (canoe-kayak paddlers). It was estimated each day by
means of the four-component scale. Every morning the athletes measured their
resting HR in bed after the night's sleep, then, in the hotel lobby they completed the
self-estimation forms, in which they were asked to evaluate their “fatigue-
restoration state” and “willingness to train”. The coach also gave his integrative
estimation of the previous day's work.
58
The entire four-component evaluation scale provided a total estimate of the previous
training day. After preliminary instructions the evaluation procedure took one-two
minutes for each athlete. Individual data were plotted on the day-by-day graph. The
graphs of two selected athletes show deviations in their current state in response to
the previous day's work (Figure 2.5). When the total score decreased to the critical
level (indicated by triangles) individual training programs were corrected. The
training camp was followed by an international competition in which all the
participants attained their best performance.
15
14 G.P.
Y.M.
13
Total score, points
12
11
10
9
8
6
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Days of training camp
Figure 2.5. Monitoring the immediate training effects of two athletes (G.P. and
Y.M) during the training camp. Triangles indicate training program
corrections following a drop in total score.
59
2.4. The cumulative training effect
60
Unlike aerobic ability, anaerobic metabolism can be improved to a lesser
extent. This applies to anaerobic enzymes and particularly to peak blood lactate,
whose increase is relatively small even when training is very intense.
Creatinphosphate storage, as an important factor in maximum speed, improves
slightly as a result of endurance training (about 12%) and can be increased greatly by
means of sprint training (up to 42%).
Anaerobic enzymes
Peak blood lactate
Creatinphosphate storage
Rate of fat metabolism
Maximum oxygen uptake
Muscle capillaries
Myoglobin
Hemoglobin
Blood volume
Maximum heart rate
Maximum cardiac output
Maximum stroke volume
Aerobic enzymes
Number of mitochondria
Glycogen storage
Muscle fiber size
Relative muscle mass
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Improvement, %
61
Pronounced changes also occur in the musculoskeletal system, as muscle mass
increases by 10-40%. Large gender differences exist with regard to this matter (see
3.3.). Muscle fiber size can be increased in a similar proportion, however, the
enlargement of fast and slow fibers is different, with fast fibers having greater
hypertrophy than slow ones (Thorstensson, 1988).
The above data characterize the long-term cumulative training effects of many
years of training. The improvement in physiological variables varies depending on the
age and qualification of athletes. Table 2.7 presents data summarizing seasonal
changes in various indicators. Top-level soccer players and runners do not register
any progress in their physiological capabilities despite very serious professional
preparation. At the same time younger athletes with less previous experience
considerably improve their physiological functions and record more favorable
cumulative training effects.
62
Table 2.7
63
The opposite situation exists with regard to muscle endurance, where progress is
due to pronounced changes in aerobic metabolism and in the musculoskeletal
system. Thus, 15-16 years schoolboys can double their performance in pull-ups
after two months of systematic training. The improvement rate in typical aerobic
exercises can be also very impressive thanks to huge increases in aerobic
enzymes, myoglobin mass, number of mitochondria and muscle capillarization. In
addition, large improvements are associated with higher movement economy due
to better energy utilization and better sports technique.
64
Hand mov. frequency
Maximal
Running 100m speed
1RM - squat
Maximal
strength
1RM - arm curl
Sit-ups Muscle
endurance
Pull-ups
Figure 2.7. Cumulative training effect over an entire athletic career evaluated by
widely used fitness measures. The data relate to the time period in
which the athletes participated in official competitions (based on
Meinel & Schnabel, 1976; Lidor & Lustig, 1996).
65
of performance gains over given time periods. Examples of annual performance gains
for different sports and ages are presented in Table 2.8.
Table 2.8
Despite the specificity of different sports noted in Table 2.8, the average
performance gains of elite adult athletes are within a very narrow range -- 1-1.07%
(The data of elite senior canoe-kayak paddlers exceed this range but this is
conditioned by production of improved boats and paddles). In fact, each adult athlete
66
during a long-term sports career, approaches his/her biological limit when further
progress becomes impossible. But, this does not mean that these athletes discontinue
their preparation.
Thus we can see that the athletic performance improvement rate provides
extremely important and valuable information for evaluating the cumulative training
effect. However, sports in which performance cannot be objectively evaluated and in
adult athletes approaching their biological limits, this evaluation has serious
limitations. For these athletes monitoring of physiological variables and motor fitness
is of particular importance.
Concluding remarks
67
athletes preparation emphasizes the importance of recovery phases, which should be
specially planned for as part of the weekly, monthly and annual preparation.
Usually we expect that the training effect achieved is synchronized with the
end phase of the training cycle. Indeed, acquisition of a new technical skill follows
great improvement in movement technique and considerable enhancement of athletic
performance. However, when the training program causes pronounced morphological
and physiological changes, athletes need a period of time for the long-lasting
biological adaptations to occur. After this the athletes attain a new qualitative level.
Therefore, the training performed during a given period does not always
produce an effect that is synchronized with the workloads. Moreover, athletes
frequently need a period of recovery after highly intense workloads. In these cases,
the performance gains occur after some delay, a period of delayed transformation.
When this temporal delay is relatively short (several days) we call it a usual
68
cumulative effect. However, when the delayed transformation requires a more
prolonged period of time lasting a week or more, this outcome qualifies as a delayed
training effect. This differentiation can be important for planning and comprehension.
One of the researchers who conceptualized the delayed training effect was
Verhkoshansky (1988) who found this phenomenon with regard to peak power
performance. In general, the delayed training effect is conditioned by the sequencing
of two training phases: the loading phase that provides athletes with massive
exhaustive workloads, and the realization phase that creates favorable conditions for
restoration and, possibly, achieving a state of supercompensation (Table 2.9).
Table 2.9
General characteristics determining the delayed training effect.
The delayed training effect is particularly relevant for motor abilities, which
are more sensitive to fatigue accumulation and where maximum performances
demand highly precise neuro-muscular movement patterns. This category includes
maximal speed, explosive strength events and maximum strength performances like
lifting 1RM.
69
Case study. An eight-week training period of high-level swimmers was studied.
During the initial six weeks, swimmers executed an extensive swimming program
(7-10 km per day) and three-four fitness workouts per week devoted to swim-
specific strength endurance and swim-specific stroke power. The logic of this
combination was based on the fact that extensive swim training and strength
endurance exercises suppress peak power while dry-land power exercises prevent
an unfavorable decline in explosive strength. In fact, explosive strength slightly
increased at the first mid-exam and significantly decreased at the second one
(Figure 2.8). At the same time, swimmers’ strength endurance was enhanced
considerably.
During the last two weeks prior to the competition the program was changed: the
swimming volume was reduced to 4-6 km per day; the strength endurance and
explosive strength fitness programs were replaced by calisthenics, flexibility and
relaxation routines. The final test revealed retention or a slight reduction in
strength endurance while explosive strength improved dramatically. Therefore, the
delayed training effect occurred with regard to explosive strength and not strength
endurance. (Issurin, 1986; unpublished data)
70
240 170
SE
230
Explosive strength, N
160
220
210
150
200
190
140
180 ES
170 130
Pre Post 1 Post 2 Post 3
Realization
Loading phase
phase
Figure 2.8. Changes in explosive strength (ES) and strength endurance (SE)
during the 8-week training period in elite swimmers (Issurin, 1986;
unpublished data).
The major factor determining the delayed training effect is the contrast of load
magnitude and the fatigue-restoration ratio in the two sequenced phases. Simply
stated, fatigue accumulation is the reason why the cumulative training effect was not
obtained when the loading phase was completed. The drastic workload reduction in
the realization phase activates recovery processes and the athlete’s body receives a
71
sufficient energy supply to complete the adaptation process is an important condition
for improvement during the realization phase.
Special attention should be paid to the duration of the temporal delay before
the training effect is attained. This duration is conditioned by two major factors: (1)
the period desirable for full recovery after a prolonged loading phase; and (2) the time
span necessary to complete the biological adaptation following heavy workloads in
the preceding phase. Taking into account both of these factors, the temporal delay is
usually in a range of 1-4 weeks. Some coaches and researchers have reported longer
delays. It is highly probably that these delays can be attributed to the superimposition
of a delayed effect with the cumulative effect of the later training.
The concept of the residual training effect is relatively new and less known
than other types of training outcomes. This section summarizes the most recent
information about this topic.
72
Example. Imagine a person who was a qualified weightlifter ten years ago. Can you
recognize that he was a weightlifter? Very likely. The morphological adjustments
induced by many years of weightlifting training are retained long after his sports
career has ended. Moreover, some of these changes (skeletal transformation, for
instance) are not reversible and remain throughout life.
Both cases are examples of residual training effects, but the first relates to long-term
training residuals, while the second, to short-term training residuals. Both examples
are based on changes in material substances but the nature and attribution of these
alterations are very different. Correspondingly, the timing of these processes also
differs.
73
Table 2.10
Types of training residuals (Issurin, 2003)
While a training program prescribes hard work for a given period to develop a
specific motor ability, the duration of training residuals determines the period during
which this ability still remains at the desired level. After training program cessation
74
the developed motor abilities decrease and their rate of loss should be taken into
account. Many factors affect short-term training residuals.
Case study. Highly qualified soccer players performed four weeks of fitness
training that included large amounts of intense exercises for muscular strength and
strength endurance. As a result, the athletes exhibited tremendous improvement in
the appropriate fitness measures, e.g. a more than six-fold gain in repetitions of
abdominal curl-ups (Figure 2.9). However, this performance began to decrease
immediately after the fitness program ceased. After two weeks of detraining the
strength endurance measurement was still two-fold higher than at the pre-training
level. It can be assumed that training residuals, after a highly concentrated
strength endurance training program in soccer players, last approximately two
weeks and after that, drop dramatically (based on Bangsbo, 1994).
700
600
Gain from pre-training level,%
500
400
300
200
100
0
4 weeks 1 week 2 weeks 3 weeks 4 weeks
training detraining detraining detraining detraining
Figure 2.9. Gain in strength endurance in abdominal curl-ups after four weeks
of fitness training by qualified soccer players and its subsequent
decrease after the fitness program ended (based on Bangsbo, 1994).
75
2.6.2. Factors affecting short-term residual training effects
Five factors that affect the duration of short-term training residuals are
considered below (Table 2.11).
Table 2.11
Factors affecting the duration of short-term training residuals
(based on Hettinger, 1966; Counsilman & Counsilman, 1991; Zatsiorsky, 1995)
No Factors Influence
1. Duration of training before Longer training causes longer residuals
cessation
2. Load concentration level of the Highly concentrated training, as compared
training before cessation to complex multi-component training,
causes shorter residuals.
3. Age and length of sports career Older and more experienced athletes have
longer residuals
4. Character of preparation after Use of appropriate stimulatory loads allows
cessation of concentrated training for prolonging residuals and prevents fast
detraining.
5. Targeted abilities. Abilities associated with pronounced
morphological and biochemical changes
have longer residuals.
The first factor, training duration, also relates to the long-term adaptation
process. Low and medium-level athletes have relatively low levels of motor abilities
and can improve them faster. But they do not acquire sufficient levels of biochemical
and morphological adaptation. Hence, they lose short-term training effects faster than
more experienced athletes, who retain these training outcomes longer.
The second factor, load concentration, is more relevant for qualified athletes
whose training cycles entail highly concentrated workloads directed towards a limited
number of motor abilities. Such a design provides more pronounced training stimuli
and a higher improvement rate (see Chapter 4). However, cessation of such a training
program leads to a decline in the previously developed abilities. Hence, training
residuals after highly concentrated training are shorter than after complex training that
has a lower rate of motor ability development.
76
The third factor relates to long-term adaptation. Older and more experienced
athletes are more accustomed to any kind of training stimuli; consequently, their
response is less pronounced and their improvement rate is lower. However, the higher
long-term adaptation level determines the slower rate of ability loss. As a result, older
and experienced athletes have longer training residuals, which allow them to perform
a smaller training volume. This is consistent with the real sports world, where training
volumes for elite older athletes are 20-25% less than for their younger counterparts.
77
Similar to aerobic abilities, maximum strength training produces relatively
long residuals. Indeed, peak maximal strength is provided for by improved
neuromuscular regulation and greater muscle mass. Both factors are retained for a
long time and determine the slow loss of maximal strength. Conversely, strength
endurance drops much faster after training cessation (Figure 2.9). Performance in
relatively short-time strength exercises, which relies on lactic acid tolerance, remains
at a sufficient level during the first two-three weeks and afterwards declines quickly.
Sophisticated changes are noted with regard to peak speed ability. On the one
hand, this ability is little improved by training and drops less during detraining. On
the other hand, peak-level maximum speed, typical for sprint events, is attained by
very delicate and highly precise neuro-muscular interactions. These interactions are
relatively unstable and can be maintained only by means of purposeful and intense
training stimulation.
78
Summary
These effects draw special attention from coaches and athletes particularly
when performances are not sufficiently successful. The changes in an athlete’s body
state that characterize the cumulative training effect can be analyzed by appropriate
physiological indicators, and/or with sport-specific fitness measurements including
performance gains. There are special cases in which training effect and performance
gains occur not in the final phase of the training program, but after some temporal
delay necessary for morphological and physiological changes to occur. This process is
called delayed transformation and this particular type of adaptation in athletes is
called the delayed training effect.
One type of cumulative training effect relates to when an athlete stops training.
The ability being trained then begins to decrease. However, for a given period, the
ability can remain near the acquired level. Retention of developed sports abilities after
training cessation beyond a given time period, is called the residual training effect.
Changes in body state that are retained over a given period are called training
residuals. There are different types of training residuals: long-term training residuals,
which are induced by many years of training and remain for a number of years;
medium-term training residuals, which remain for a number of months, and short-
term training residuals, which reflect changes in body state caused by the preceding
training (Table 2.10).
79
Implementation of these concepts in coaching practice is essential for block
periodization, which is intended to make athletic preparation more efficient and
training effects more manageable and predictable.
80
References for Chapter 2.
Fox, L.E., Bowers, R.W., Foss, M.L. (1993). The physiological basis for exercises
and sport. Madison: Brown & Benchmark Publishers.
Helgerud, J., Engen, L.C., Wisloff, U. et al. (2001). Aerobic endurance training
improves soccer performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 33:1925-31.
Hettinger T. (1966). Isometrisches Muskeltraining. Stuttgart: Georg Thieme Verlag.
Issurin V., Timofeev V., and Zemliakov D.V. (1989). Acute training effect of the
basic kayak exercises. In: Issurin V.and Morzhevikov N.(Eds.), Modern
state of the athletes’ preparation in canoeing, kayaking and rowing.
Leningrad: LNIIFK, p. 28-37.
Issurin V. (1994). The longstanding dynamics of motor and technical abilities in elite
athletes. In: Osinski W. and Starosta W. (Eds.), Proceedings of the 3rd
International Conference “Sport Kinetics `93”, Poznan: .Academy of
Physical Education, p.137-144.
Issurin, V. (2003). Aspekte der kurzfristigen Planung im Konzept der Blockstruktur
des Trainings. Leistungsport. 33: 41-44.
Klausen, K. (1991). Strength and weight-training. In: Reilly T, Secher N., Snell P.
and Williams C. (Eds.), Physiology of sports. London: E.&F.N.Spon, p.41-
70.
Legaz Arreze, A., Serrano Ostariz, E., Jcasajus Mallen, J. et al., (2005). The changes
in running performance and maximal oxygen uptake after long-term training
in elite athletes. J.Sports Med Phys Fitness, 45:435-440.
Lidor, R., Lustig,G. (1996). How to identify young talents in sport? Theoretical and
practical aspects. Netanya: Wingate Institute for Physical Education and
Sport (in Hebrew)
81
McArdle,W.D., Katch,F., Katch,V. (1991). Exercise physiology. Philadelphia/
London: Lea & Febiger
Meinel, K., Schnabel, G. (1976). Bewegungslehre. Berlin: Volk und Wissen.
Mujika, I. & Padilla, S. (2001). Cardiorespiratory and metabolic characteristics of
detraining in humans. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 33:413-421.
82
Wilmore, J. H., & Costill, D. L. (1993). Training for sport and activity. The
physiological basis of the conditioning process. Champaign, IL: Human
Kinetics.
Zatsiorsky, V. (1995). Science and practice of strength training. Champaign, IL:
Human Kinetics.
83
Chapter 3
Gal Friedman
Olympic champion and Olympic Bronze medal winner
in windsurfing, Sailing,
Israel
84
Chapter 3
Trainability of athletes
85
- Does heredity really contribute to great sport successes?
- How does genetics condition the main somatic and functional traits?
- To what extent is the response to training stimuli (cumulative training effect)
genetically dependent?
The above questions belong mostly to the area of sports genetics, where studies on the
contribution of heredity to physical activity and athletic performance are quite
extensive. The specific genetic investigations, which can be applied to sports, are twin
studies, family investigations and experimental studies on trainability.
Family studies are not frequently used in genetic investigations. Somatic and
physiological traits of parents and their offspring have been evaluated (review by
Malina and Bouchard, 1986, Bouchard et al.,1997) in different populations of Europe
and North America. Their results show great differentiation, both in respect to type of
relation and to the population under study.
86
Table 3.1
Examples of World and Olympic champions and medal winner families
(Sources – Kamper, 1983; Shvarts, Khrushchov,1984, Matthews, 1997).
87
Father – Ice hockey, European and Daughter – Figure skating. Olympic
Anissin World Champion in Anissina champion 2002,
Viacheslav, 1973, 1974, and 1975 Marina, Olympic bronze medal,
USSR France in 1998, World
champion, 2000, silver
medals, 1998, 1999 and
2001, European
champion, 2000 and
2002
Father – Bure Swimming. Silver and Son – Bure Ice hockey. Olympic
Vladimir, two bronze Olympic Pavel, silver medal in 1998;
USSR medals 1972, bronze Russia, USA Olympic bronze medal
Olympic medal in 1968, in 2002; Awards:
European champion, Maurice Richard –goals
1970 leader (2), NHL All-star
team (6)
Son – Bure Ice hockey. Olympic
Valery, silver medal in 1998;
Russia, USA Olympic bronze medal
in 2002; NHL All-star
team (1)
Father – Fencing. Olympic Son - Olympic champion and
Montano champion, 1972; silver Montano silver Olympic medal in
Mario Aldo, Olympic medal in 1976 Aldo - Italy 2004
Italy and 1980
Father – Kayaking. World Daughter – Kayaking. World
Janics Milan, champion in 1978, 1979 Janics champion in 2002-2007;
Yugoslavia and 1982; silver Olympic Natasha, two-fold Olympic
medal in 1984 Hungary champion in 2004 and
Olympic champion in
2008
It appears that very often the family education of the great athlete’s children
was oriented to sport ambitions from the early childhood. It is also possible that their
training conditions were more favorable than among the average population. The
influence of this factor can not be ignored. However, and there is no doubt about this,
the outstanding parents had to be genetically predisposed to a certain sports activity,
and these heredity related benefits were partly transmitted to the offspring. Hence, the
probability to succeed in high-level sport is much higher in children of champions.
88
Sergijenko (2000) was of the opinion that offspring of an outstanding athlete
have a 50% probability to inherit excellent athletic abilities. This probability reaches
75% in offspring of parents consisting of two outstanding athletes (this occurred once
in our list – family of Andrea Gyarmati). Ignoring doubts about the accuracy of this
suggestion, the above cases are very impressive.
Despite the obvious difficulties, the twins studies form an extensive and very
informative branch of sports science that presents valuable knowledge related to
heritability of morphological traits and fitness qualities.
It is well known that different sports have certain specific demands in regard
to bodybuild of successful athletes. The genetic determination of the most important
somatic traits was thoroughly investigated and several findings of these studies are
summarized below (Table 3.2.).
89
Important meaning is given to body height. Body width can be also important as a
factor affecting suitability for certain disciplines despite less inheritance. Total body
fat is to a small degree, genetically controlled. Hence, the athlete’s bodybuild can be
successfully corrected in the training processes (excluding linear dimensions).
Table 3.2.
Levels of inheritance of the main somatic traits (based on Kovař 1980, Shvarts
and Khrushtchov 1984; Szopa et al. 1985 and 1999; Bouchard et al. 1997)
90
Table 3.3
Hereditary characteristics of several motor abilities
(based on Kovař 1980; Mleczko 1992 ; Klissouras 1997; Bouchard et al. 1997 ;
Szopa et al. 1999)
This table includes only the main functional abilities that are most important in
many sports. As can be seen, they are under much less genetic control than somatic
traits. The functional traits are more trainable than the majority of somatic ones. It is
necessary to emphasize that in previous publications, estimated values of hereditary
characteristics were much higher than in new, more correct investigations.
91
orientation, intelligence, etc. The rest of the functional abilities demonstrate a medium
or low inheritance and at the same time – great trainability.
In the light of the inheritance of various somatic traits, the general situation in
each event indicates that specific trainability is more understandable. For instance,
athletes who have relatively low inherited levels of anaerobic productivity will be
very limited in the sprint disciplines where these demands are high. A similar
situation exists in other sports demanding a high level of maximum speed. The
situation in strength and endurance disciplines and particularly in high coordination
type events is much more optimistic. Heredity-related factors in these sports are not so
limiting.
There were several studies where inheritance of the training response was
investigated. These studies only pertained to relatively long-term training and their
results can be considered as cumulative training effects.
92
Case study. Two identical twin sisters, were studied to determine maximal
aerobic power in treadmill running and swimming in a flume (Holmer & Astrand,
1972). Both sisters were swimmers but at this time one of them was a member of
the National team and the second one stopped her high-performance career a few
years before but still had a diversified fitness program as a physical education
student. Despite the drastic differences in their swimming-specific levels and
aerobic power as measured in the swimming flume, the maximum aerobic power
that was attained by both twins in running was on the same level. Hence, hard
swimming training allowed the more successful sister to join the National sport
elite, but it didn’t affect her maximal aerobic power, which remained on the
previous level.
Table 3.4 summarizes data from several studies. Interestingly, heredity related
responses to training are very event-specific. The training induced responses of
maximum strength and maximum speed are independent (or slightly dependent) on
heredity. The cumulative effect of training for anaerobic glycolitic endurance, and
particularly for maximum aerobic power is largely dependent on genetic factors.
Table 3.4
Inheritance of cumulative effects following different modalities of training
Modality Study design Outcomes Source
of training
Strength 10-week isokinetic The results suggest that the Thibault,
training strength training by training effect was independent of Simoneau et
five pairs of heredity al, 1986
monozygotic twins
Aerobic 20-weeks of The changes in maximum aerobic Prud’homme
training endurance training power are 75-80% heredity et al.,1984
by 10 pairs of dependent; the anaerobic
monozygotic twins threshold response is heredity
dependent by about 50%.
Anaerobic 15-weeks of high- The response of alactic capacity Simoneau et
training intensity assessed by a 10 s test is heredity al, 1986
intermittent independent. The response of
training by 14 pairs glycolitic endurance, assessed by
of monozygotic a 90 s test is about 65% heredity
twins dependent
93
Special remarks should be made regarding inheritance of motor learning and
perfection of technical skills. Extensive studies, which have been conducted in this
area, relate to elementary motor tasks and do not address athletic skills (see review of
Bouchard et al., 1997). Nevertheless, the results suggest that sensitivity to motor
learning is quite variable between age groups, sexes and among several tasks. In
general, the acquisition and perfection of non-athletic and relatively simple motor
skills is not dependent or only slightly dependent on heredity. It can therefore be
assumed that genetic determination of highly coordinated athletic skills is low to
moderate.
It is commonly known that low level athletes improve their performance very
fast even if they do not train as hard and as systematically as their more experienced
counterparts. Obviously, their response to training stimuli is more pronounced and
therefore, their trainability is better. This corresponds to training related principles of
adaptation, which were considered in a previous chapter (1.2). However, even among
novices of the same age and similar preliminary preparation, the training response is
very different. These particular aspects of trainability are considered below.
94
3.2.1. Long-term trend of trainability
Usual training volumes and performance gains in sports such as track and
field, swimming, speed skating, cycling etc. are well documented. Coaches know the
volume of exercises performed over given period and the progress attained. The
normal situation is one in which training workloads increase continually, but
improvement rate, unfortunately, decreases. This typical situation is shown in the
preparation of young swimmers in the graph in Figure 3.1.
2500 7
6
Annual swimming volume, km
2000
5
Performance gain, %
1500
4
3
1000
2
500 Performance gain
Annual swimming 1
volume
0 0
12-13
5 13-14
4 14-15
3 15-16
2 16-17
1
Age
Figure 3.1. The long-term changes in training volume and gains in performance
among young male swimmers (average data of the boarding-school for
gifted athletes in GDR).
The above graph shows that from ages 12-17, the annual training volume
increased from 665 to 1950 km while rate of performance gain decreased from 6.2 to
1.8%. This natural reduction of improvement rate was determined by many factors but
first and foremost, by biological adaptation to active training stimuli. This general
tendency can be schematically presented as a funnel (Figure 3.2). Low-level athletes
95
are very sensitive to any kind of workloads because of the high positive transfer of
motor abilities from specific and non-specific exercises to competitive performance.
In other words, the targeted area of many exercises is very large and they produce a
pronounced positive effect.
T a rg et ed
a re as
Elite
Adult
Junior high-
Young high- performance
Novices athletes performance athletes
athletes
Figure 3.2. Reduction of the targeted areas accessible to training stimuli with
an increase in the athlete’s performance level (funnel effect).
96
The main outcomes from the above factors can be expressed as follows:
Imagine that a number of similarly qualified athletes perform the same training
program. After a certain period, several of these athletes achieve remarkable fitness
gains. As a result, their reaction to this training can be considered a high response.
Some members of the group attain medium improvement; they show a medium
response. The remaining athletes exhibit small or negligible improvement which is
evidence of a low response. Following this categorization, all athletes can be
subdivided into three different groups:
- low responders,
- medium responders, and
- high responders (Figure 3.3.).
97
0.5
Sensetivity to workloads,
referral units 0.4
0.3
High responders
Medium
0.2 responders
Low responders
0.1
0
Low Medium High Elite
Qualification level
As we already know from section 3.1, elite athletes attain their performance
level thanks to high trainability and as a result, definitely belong to the category of
“high responders”. However, according to the graph in Figure 3.3, high responders
can be found even at the low qualification level. This diagnosis requires an evaluation
of improvement rate in sport-specific abilities following appropriate training
programs.
98
coaches and administrators. For practical purposes the problem of gifted athlete
identification has still not been resolved. Nevertheless, using the differentiation of
“high-low responders” may assist in finding a practical resolution.
Much data exists comparing the maximal muscular efforts of men and women.
The majority of these comparisons have been done regarding untrained or not equally
trained subjects. However, the outstanding achievements of elite athletes have drawn
the attention of sport experts since early in the last century. Perhaps the pioneer of
such studies was Nobel Prize winner A.V. Hill (1928), who plotted the world records
of men and women in the running events and analyzed the marked differences.
99
14 5km
12 10 km
Difference,%
10 1500m
400m Marathon
8
6
4
100 km
2
0
100 1000 10000 100000
Distance,m
100
35
30
Difference,% 25
20
15
10
0
High Jump Long Jump Triple Jump Pole Vault Clean&Jerk Snatch
Figure 3.5. World record gender differences in explosive and maximum strength
disciplines. The world records are from official site of track and field
(IAAF) and weightlifting (IWF) international federations, valid for
January 1.2006- (Issurin & Lustig, 2006).
101
Table 3.5
The major physiological factors affecting top-performance and trainability
(Issurin & Lustig, 2006)
The data in Table 3.6 refute the wide spread opinion of male superiority in
functional capabilities for strenuous physical efforts. In fact, female athletes have the
same muscle quality as males, more favorable fatigue resistance in low and moderate
intensity exercises, better fat utilization during prolonged exercise, and faster
recovery. The male benefits are mostly predisposed by anthropometric factors and the
102
various consequences of higher concentrations of the male sex hormone testosterone,
i.e., the anabolic effect affecting muscle hypertrophy. There is also greater production
and depletion of muscle glycogen, more pronounced hypertrophy of the left ventricle
induced by training. In light of the above, the GD in motor abilities and athletic
performances can be more easily understood and explained. Let’s continue this
consideration with regards to GD in the athlete’s motor abilities (Table 3.6).
103
Table 3.6
Gender differences in athletes’ motor abilities (Issurin & Lustig, 2006)
Motor Gender differences Reasons Source
ability
Strength Maximum strength of Anabolic effect of Issurin &
trained females 30-40% testosterone determines the Sharobajko,
less; normalizing the larger muscle mass in 1985
strength-to-muscle mass men-- by about 35% more
decreases the gap to 5% than in females.
Explosive Men have remarkable Hypertrophy of fast twitch Drinkwater,
strength advantages particularly fibers is greater in males; 1988
in upper body exercises no benefits in muscle
contractility and neural
output
Maximum Male and female athletes There are no difference in Maud &
speed attain a similar peak and phosphagen stores and Schultz,1986;
mean power relative to anaerobic alactic Weber et
lower body muscle mass metabolism between men al.,2006
and women
Anaerobic Glycolitic capacity Muscle glycogen depletion Kots, 1986
glycolitic relative to body mass is and production is strongly Brooks et al.,
endurance about 32% less in trained stimulated by the 1996
(capacity) females than in males testosterone level.
Aerobic Aerobic power of trained Lower oxygen delivery in Drinkwater,
power females is 10-25% less females is due to less 1988;
than in males; this gap is hemoglobin mass, lower Astrand et
reduced to 10% when cardiac output and stroke al., 2003
related to lean body mass volume
Aerobic Men have a relatively Men have beneficial Drinkwater,
long- small advantage that oxygen delivery and 1988;
duration decreases with an glycogen metabolism, but Tarnopolsky
endurance increase in work women are superior in et al., 1995
duration. fatigue resistance and fat
oxidation.
Flexibility Superiority of females in High elasticity of tendons, Kibler et al.,
total-body flexibility ligaments and connective 1989
evaluated by many tests tissues; favorable bone
structure of joints.
Coordination From age 18 Females have better spatial Tittel, 1988
coordination capabilities orientation and fine motor
of women are 10% better ability; they also have
than in men better balance due to lower
center of gravity.
104
The usual explanation for GD is that absolute values of maximum strength are
much higher in males. It is worthwhile to note that hypertrophy of fast twitch fibers
and, correspondingly, their cross-sectional area (CSA), is much more pronounced in
males in comparison to females. The area of these fast twitch fibers is 40% larger in
trained men compared to untrained men, while trained females have only 15%
superiority over the untrained women (Drinkwater, 1988). Consequently, male
athletes have a considerable advantage in explosive strength and power exercises.
However, this superiority is not as striking as in maximum strength, because female
muscles have similar contractile velocity as in males (Trappe et al., 2003). In both
maximum and explosive strength, the superiority of males diminishes and becomes
relatively small after normalizing the strength indices to muscle mass.
105
females because of smaller cardiac size and less volume and mass of the left ventricle
(Pelliccia et al., 1996). Normalization of maximum oxygen uptake to lean body mass
reduces GD, but it still remains substantial (Astrand et al., 2003; Drinkwater, 1988).
Aerobic endurance for long-duration events has a relatively small GD, and this
can be explained by women’s superiority in fatigue resistance and fat oxidation. This
benefit increases with an increase in work duration. Still, men outperform women
even in the super-marathon 100 km, thanks to anthropometric benefits (longer legs
and, consequently, strides) and more beneficial oxygen delivery.
It is a common assumption that women have greater flexibility than men. The
females’ superiority was proven in an investigation of more than two thousand
athletes participating in various sports using many tests. Female athletes were found
to be significantly more flexible in all measurements (Kibler et al., 1989).
106
Table 3.7
The main physiological determinants of GD in various events and the extent of
male superiority (+ moderate, ++ high, - female superiority, no--no GD)
Issurin & Lustig, 2006.
Event Event Main physiological determinants Male
duration superiority
Running
100 m about 10s Muscles contractility no
Maximal anaerobic alactic power +
400 m 43-48s Glycolitic anaerobic power ++
Maximal anaerobic alactic power +
Muscle contractility no
1500 m 3.5-4 min Glycolitic anaerobic power ++
Glycolitic anaerobic capacity ++
Maximal aerobic power +
5 km 12.6-14.4 Maximal aerobic power ++
min Glycolitic anaerobic capacity ++
10 km 26.3-29.5 Maximal aerobic power, ++
min Aerobic long-duration endurance +
Glycolitic anaerobic capacity ++
Marathon 2.1-2.3 hr Aerobic long-duration endurance +
Fatigue resistance -
Running economy no
100 km 6.2-6.6 hr Aerobic long-duration endurance +
Fatigue resistance -
Running economy no
Jumps a
High 0.18b Muscle contractility no
Long 0.11-0.12b Stretch-Shortening Reflex behavior no
Triple 0.10-0.12 b CSA of fast muscle fibers ++
Relative mass of the muscles ++
Weightlifting a
Clean & Clean – Muscle contractility no
c
Jerk 0.9-1.2 CSA of fast muscle fibers ++
Jerk – Relative mass of the muscles ++
c
0.8-1.1
Snatch 1.06-1.15c
a
–the event duration is presented as the time of force application(s)
b-
takeoff duration; adopted from Zatsiorsky, 1995;
c
– duration of the active phase of barbell lifting; recorded by G. Hiskia during the
World Weightlifting Championships– personal communication
107
The biomechanical and anthropometric factors that strongly affect GD, have
been closely analyzed by researchers (review of Cheuvront et al., 2005). Nevertheless,
by focusing on major physiological determinants, we can point out that minimal GD
occur in disciplines where males’ benefits are smaller (100m) and several female
benefits partly compensate for the other disadvantages (100 km). The maximal GD
that is significant for the 5 km distance, where both major metabolic contributors,
aerobic power and glycolitic anaerobic capacity, enable this male superiority.
108
It is worthwhile to note that the strength increase in female athletes was not
accompanied by a large gain in muscle bulk. Therefore this gain was mostly
determined by enhancement of the neural mechanism of the muscular contraction. It
should also be noted that these findings were obtained in a study with low-level
amateur athletes. Perhaps the training response of top-level athletes would be
different. This assumption can be examined in the following study.
109
12
10
Average gain,%
8
6
4
2
0
MM SumF SumF/MM W-4min
Figure 3.6. Relative gain in muscle mass (MM), sum of maximum force
measurements (SumF), maximum forces related to muscle mass
(SumF/MM) and average power in 4-minute stroke simulation (W-
4min) induced by training of top-level female kayakers (adapted from
Issurin & Sharobajko, 1985, published by Issurin & Lustig, 2006).
However, it should be noted that the effect of hormones is determined not only
by their concentration, but also by the affinity of the target organ receptors. In female
muscles, the receptive affinity to anabolic hormones is two times higher than that in
males (Kreig et al., 1980; Viru, 1995). Hence, a remarkable anabolic effect can be
achieved in the female body due to exercise-induced stimulation of testosterone
excretion, and a higher sensitivity of the targeted receptors to anabolic hormones.
Presumably, this pathway for compensating for a low concentration of anabolic
hormones in the female organism is formed in high-level athletes as a result of long-
term adaptation.
110
The GD in training responses to maximum speed and explosive strength
exercises are equivocal. On the one hand, male athletes have a big benefit in greater
hypertrophy of the fast twitch fibers (Drinkwater, 1988), hence the training response
to power exercises become more pronounced. On the other hand, there is no GD in
muscle contractility and neural adaptation induced by speed training (O’Tool, 2000).
Case study. Nine women and 14 men, elite kayakers aged 19-29 yrs, were studied
during three months of early season preparation. The training program was devoted
mostly to developing aerobic abilities and sport-specific strength. The weekly
schedule consisted of nine-ten workouts with total time expended in training about
24-27 hours. The cumulative training effect was evaluated by an incremental step
test of 4×500m with measurment of blood lactate and average velocity in each
stage, as well as determination of lactate anaerobic threshold (AnT) and maximal
111
performance (MaxP). Both, male and female paddlers significantly improved their
aerobic abilities, i.e., velocity of AnT increased by 8.4 and 7.8% and velocity of
MaxP by 4.5 and 4.1%, respectively (Figure 3.7). Thus, no gender-specific effects
were seen (Issurin, Lustig, 2006).
9
Females
8
Males
7
Average gain, %
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
AnT MaxP
Males are superior in motor tasks demanding great force or power. The high-
performance level coaches noted that male athletes had more initiative in acquisition
and mastery of new motor skills and tools while female athletes were more consistent
112
and sensitive to technical details. In general, high-performance athletes are similarly
trainable for high coordination type exercises and technical skills, irrespective of
gender.
Table 3.8
Summary of gender specific trainability in regard to different motor abilities
113
The above data allow positive conclusions to be drawn relative to the
trainability of female athletes in regard to different motor abilities (Table 3.8).
Summary
It is also believed that trainability varies with athletic progress. The general
tendency is towards a reduction in trainability as the athletic level increases. In other
words, more qualified and experienced athletes are less sensitive to training stimuli
than their younger, less qualified counterparts. Two practical consequences emerge
from this: the quantity of effective exercises is reduced with an increase in athletic
level (funnel effect) and the level of event-specific expertise in developmental
exercises should increase as the level of athletic mastery rises. Depending on the
individual improvement rate of their sport-specific abilities, athletes can be
114
differentiated as high-, medium-, and low- responders. Apparently, high-responders
are persons capable of extraordinary trainability, and this distinctiveness is extremely
important for identification of gifted athletes.
Despite the inferiority of females in several motor abilities, they can achieve
favorable training responses, very often similar to those attainable by males, by using
gender-specific mechanisms of adaptation to maximum strength, aerobic, and high-
coordination type workloads. Female athletes choose their own pathway to technical
mastery. They are more consistent and sensitive to technical details and adapt better
to technical skills demanding high flexibility, balance, and medium force application.
115
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Chapter 4
Gyorgy Kolonicz
Two-time Olympic champion and two-time Olympic Bronze medal
winner, many-time world and European champion in canoe,
Hungary
120
Chapter 4
Designing the training programs
121
first serious fundamental book was published much later (Matveyev, 1964). Since its
publication the traditional concept of periodization has been disseminated in Eastern
Europe (Ozolin, 1971; Harre, 1973; Zheliazkov, 1981) and later in Western countries
(Dick, 1980; Martin, 1980; Bompa, 1984, Yessis 1987). Let’s first consider the basics
of the traditional periodization concept.
Table 4.1
In competitive sports, the planning focuses first of all on annual cycles, where
the number of macrocycles usually varies from one to three. Correspondingly, the
duration of several periods (preparatory and competitive) can vary from 1.5 - 5
122
months while the transitional period is usually planned after the season and lasts about
one-two months. The most generally accepted characteristics of training content in the
different periods are presented in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2
Basic training particulars in different periods
Ratio between general and specific preparation was the subject of intense
debate three to four decades ago. Proponents of “multilateral diversified training”
declared that only programs structured in keeping with this general concept could
ensure harmony between general health and event-specific progress. Opponents of
this approach cited examples of several world-class stars who attained outstanding
achievements thanks to highly specialized training from the early stages of their long-
term preparation. The prevailing belief, even today, is that preparation of novices and
low-level athletes should be more multilateral and diversified whereas preparation of
123
high-performance athletes should be much more specialized. The basic proportions of
general fitness training and sport-specific exercises are presented in Figure 4.1.
1000
900
Hours
expenses, Hours
800
700
expenditure,
600
500
Sport-specific
time
400
time
preparation
Annual
300
Annual
200
100
General fitness preparation
0
Preliminary Initial Advanced Sporting
preparation specialization specialization perfection
124
Example. The head-coach of a successful canoe-kayak team decided to make
radical reforms in the training program, in the direction of greater specialization.
The newly modified program excluded all non-specific exercises. In addition,
the sport-specific program was strictly oriented to competitive regimes, pace-
race modeling and competitive efforts. This training transformation was based
on the assumption that only event-specific exercises provide training stimuli for
athletic progress; the other exercises simply waste athletes’ time and energy.
This “revolutionary” concept was applied in the annual program of a team of
male kayakers while female kayakers and canoeists continued to train according
to the traditional plan. The experiment yielded dramatic results. After seven
months of preparation, none of the male kayakers came near their previous
results. At the same time, the two other groups attained their expected levels of
preparedness. The coaches and athletes were forced to admit that such extremely
specialized training was a failure.
The above example illustrates the fact that general fitness preparation is an
indispensable part of the whole training program, although its contribution may vary
greatly depending on qualification level, sport specificity and the athlete’s individual
particulars. In any case, the general rule is that the contribution of general
conditioning exercises in the program of low-level and junior athletes should be much
higher than for top-level athletes. Experiences from many sports shows that excessive
specialized training in youth elicits earlier mobilization of resources for their
biological adaptation and results in a higher improvement rate during the initial stages
of preparation. But there is stagnation in further stages.
125
b) A training program with a relatively high contribution of exercises performed
at maximal intensity, i.e., maximum speed (power) exercises;
c) A training program in which a number of the exercises performed during the
workout is greater than usual for a given sport and the intervals between them
are shorter (a characteristic also called motor density).
Disagreement about the definitions has been particularly strong in the individual
sports. Intensified training proponents cite the amazing achievements of a number of
top athletes while opponents counter this argument with data about overtraining
among other athletes. Data from several top athletes who attained high achievements
using relatively extensive programs were considered as well. In fact, traditional
periodization does not offer an optimal solution to the problem of “volume vs.
intensity” and this is one of the reasons why alternative approaches have been
suggested. Nevertheless, a number of general approaches can be noted (Table 4.3).
Table 4.3
General characteristics of training, volume and intensity during periods of
preparation and competition
126
As can be seen in the above table, dominant targets of the preparatory period,
such as cardio-respiratory fitness, basic endurance and general coordination, demand
high volume diversified exercises, which definitely can not be executed at high
intensity. The opposite situation occurs in the period of competition, where attainment
of sport-specific fitness approaches the level of competition efforts. Usually this
entails performing exercises at increased intensity. Similarly, execution of exercises
with maximum effort are much more typical of pre-competitive training than of pre-
season preparation.
127
remarked, “While the other athletes trained, we had to wait for
supercompensation”. This failure taught the coach a hard lesson. During his
career, which lasted more than three decades, he demanded tough workloads and
some of his athletes achieved outstanding results.
How can the optimal sequence of loading workouts and admissible fatigue
accumulation be found? Many generations of successful coaches have sought the
solution to this problem based on their experience, intuition and common sense.
However, the most creative representatives of the coaching population broke routine
and proposed alternative models of periodization.
128
1) The inability to provide multi-peak performances in many competitions;
2) The disadvantages of long lasting mixed (multi ability) training programs;
3) The negative interaction of non- (or restricted) compatible workloads
during the traditional mixed (multi-target) training;
4) The insufficiency of training stimuli produced by mixed training for
progress in certain abilities among highly qualified athletes (Issurin, 2008).
2) Long lasting mixed training induces relatively high improvement rates at the
beginning of the program, much lower rates after three-four weeks, and
stagnation in further preparation (Zemliakov, 1991; Lehman et al., 1993);
129
Negative interaction of non- (or restricted) compatible workloads. The
experiences and outcomes of researchers showed conflicting responses produced by
mixed, multi-targeted training. In these cases, the loads of certain training modalities
inhibit or even have a deleterious effect on workloads directed to other targets. For
example, prolonged exhaustive mixed training suppresses maximum strength in elite
skiers (Koutedakis et al., 1992), elite fencers (Koutedakis et al., 1993), elite rowers
(Hagerman and Staron, 1983), elite male kayakers (Zemliakov, 1991), and elite
basketball players (Hoffman et al., 1991). Likewise, it was reported that high-volume
mixed training suppressed maximal speed in swimmers (Fitts et al., 1991) and elite
kayakers (Zemliakov, 1991).
130
cyclists (Sjogard, 1984) and elite long-distance runners (Svedenhag , Sjodin, 1985)
did not enhance maximum aerobic power which is decisive for these sports. As world
known physiologist Stegeman (1981) said, “Mixed training produces mixed results”.
Such mixed results can satisfy relatively low level athletes but they disappoint more
qualified sportsmen.
In reality, traditional periodization does not ignore – and even requires – wave-
shaped fluctuations of workloads within the single day, micro- and mesocycles. It
also doesn’t restrict the amplitude of these variations. This inconsistency of the
proposed concept was noted by Stone (2001), who reasonably declared that, “The
terms linear and undulating are misleading”. I completely agree with this position and
assume this to be the case when non-traditional terms are used to discuss the
traditional training approaches.
Real attempts to modify the training systems were applied first by prominent
creative coaches who realized, even if intuitively, the limitations of commonly used
schemes. The term “training block” became widely used among coaches more than
two decades ago and was usually understood as the training cycle of highly
131
concentrated specialized workloads. This tendency to create training blocks appeared
as an alternative to the prolonged administration of mixed, multi-targeted programs.
The first methodological descriptions of Block Periodized training were published in
the mid 1980s (Issurin & Kaverin, 1985; Bondarchuk, 1986). Readers interested in
more detailed information are referred to Issurin (2008b). This section summarizes the
basic positions of Block Periodization (BP), namely, general principles, taxonomy of
mesocycle-blocks, and general guidelines for training design.
Table 4.4
The general principles of Block Periodized training
(adapted from Issurin, 2008a)
Principles Comments
High concentration of It assumes that a high concentration of workloads
appropriate training workloads provides sufficient stimuli to enhance targeted
abilities in high-performance athletes.
Minimal number of target Usually not more than two physical abilities and
abilities within a single block. one technique or techno-tactical component can be
developed within a training block.
Consecutive development of In most sports, the number of needed abilities
targeted abilities. exceeds the number of targeted abilities that can
be developed simultaneously.
Structure and use of specialized The optimal time span in which desired changes in
mesocycles- blocks the athlete’s state can be attained corresponds to a
training mesocycle.
132
Table 4.5
Taxonomy of mesocycles employed for Block Periodized planning
(adapted from Issurin, 2007a)
More detailed information about the content and particulars of the three
mesocycles appears below (section 4.4).
133
morphological and biochemical changes are desired, and shorter when the calendar of
events demand more frequent attainment of peak-performance.
Therefore, the total number of training stages in an annual cycle can vary from
four to seven, depending on the duration of each single stage, frequency of important
competitions, and the particulars of different sports. A more specific description of an
annual program compilation is presented in section 4.5.
The Block Periodization (BP) approach affects each component of the training
system including, of course, the single workout. Specifically, three principal
methodological elements should be highlighted in relation to BP:
– workout typology according to load level;
– workload concentration that provides sufficient training stimuli; and
– compatibility of different workloads to prevent conflicting training responses.
These elements, which are relevant for practical coaching, are considered below.
134
enumerate three general functions of workouts: development, retention and
restoration. Apparently, each training plan is a specific combination of these workout
types. Some of them concentrate training loads to develop selected motor and/or
technical abilities, others are necessary to retain certain capabilities at the previously
attained level while special sessions are planned for restoration.
Example. Imagine that a coach found that one of his athletes had insufficient
strength and had a loss in muscle mass. Following the BP approach he has to
decide how many developmental strength workouts the athlete should execute to
compensate for these deficiencies. Certainly, these workouts can not be
sequenced one after the other. Thus, he plans retention workouts for other
abilities and restoration workouts to prevent excessive fatigue between
development sessions. Afterwards he can calculate the time span of this highly
concentrated strength training and check to make sure this block does not
undermine the other purposes of the program.
135
5
2
Retention
1
Restoration
Types of workout
136
In summarizing the above data the following practical consequences should be
highlighted:
- Subdividing workouts into three types, i.e., development, retention, and
restoration, facilitates a better load level differentiation between various training
sessions and a more deliberate selection of appropriate workloads;
- The load level of each workout can be quantified and expressed numerically; this
provides additional planning benefits particularly in non-measurable sports (team
sports, gymnastics etc.) and makes it possible to place stronger emphasis on
specially selected workouts;
- Athletes are capable of rapidly learning the different types of workouts which
assists them in becoming more conscious and prepared for the training and its
realization.
For a long time, leading coaches selected and emphasized several workouts
which form the peak-points in corresponding training cycles and concentrate the most
important tasks and workloads. Such peak sessions, recently renamed “key-
workouts”, also require athletes to concentrate mentally and emotionally and to be
ready to work harder than usual. The major demands for structuring key-workouts in
terms of methodological, organizational and psychological aspects are very definite.
137
In terms of training methodology, the following items are of primary
importance:
Target determination - the most relevant abilities that dominate in the current
training cycle. Usually it is one-two targets related to motor fitness, and one to
technique or tactics;
Location within the microcycle (timing) – target should be planned for the
most favorable time-- a moment when athletes have adjusted to preceding loads but
are still not overly fatigued;
138
4.2.3 Workload concentration within the workout--key-exercise (task)
Depending on sport specificity, the single workout can contain a large number
of exercises (as in track and field, swimming or gymnastics) or just one task (such as
a match in team sports). Prominent coaches in different sports have long strived to
compile workouts by selecting and emphasizing the most important exercise or task.
The coaches termed this “the meaningful exercise”, “the chief link of the workout”,
“the main task”, “the highlight of the program” etc.
Major Particulars
characteristics
Target Corresponds to the main target of a given workout
Motivation Requires maximum self-motivation and appropriate moral support
from the coach
Timing The best “prime-time” is assigned, when athletes are in the most
favorable conditions
Organization Performance details like interaction of partners, equipment, access
to information etc. should be properly provided
Monitoring The most relevant performance variables are recorded by the coach
or his/her assistant
139
Despite the variety and specificity of various sports, accentuating key-
exercises (tasks) can generate many benefits:
- Workout compilation becomes more comprehensive, logical and easier. The
exercises preceding key-exercises have to prepare athletes for the main task and
the subsequent exercises should not disrupt the effect of key-elements in the
program;
- Physiological responses become easier to determine and predict, thanks to
strictly structured workloads;
- Monitoring of the training can be effectively done with the help of sport-
specific variables recorded during key-exercises (tasks);
- Mental concentration should increase, gradually attaining peak level in the
crucial phase of the workout;
- Attractiveness – emphasizing the most meaningful training task increases the
athlete’s emotional motivation and readiness to work harder.
140
compatible combinations of workloads directed at targeted abilities with training
modalities for additional targets are presented below (Table 4.7).
Table 4.7
Compatible and non-compatible training modalities combined
with different targeted abilities
141
have a significant reduction of workload after the key-workout. The alternative
approach of planning two consecutive key-workouts, provides for very high load
concentrations which can be excessive for less prepared athletes. An example of the
negative interaction of two successive workouts is given below.
Example. Workouts for muscle hypertrophy impose very special demands when
planning consecutive sessions within the period of restoration. Use of high
workloads during this period adversely affects the anabolic phase of muscle
restoration and eliminates the hypertrophy process. Thus, to obtain the anabolic
effect it is necessary to substantially reduce workloads for at least 20 hours and to
utilize appropriate means of restoration.
Table 4.8
Location of exercises of different training modalities within the workout
Part of workout Training modalities Comments
Initial part Maximum speed, maximum These exercises demand that
(after warm-up) strength (neural mechanism), the CNS be in an optimal
explosive strength, learning new state with full energy
techno-tactical skills resources
Middle part Anaerobic glycolitic power and These exercises can be
capacity, maximum aerobic effectively performed when
power, maximum strength slightly or moderately
(hypertrophy), fatigued
technique perfection
Concluding part Aerobic endurance, strength These tasks assume the
endurance, fatigue tolerance of athlete can sustain
technical skills increasing fatigue
142
As can be noted from the above table, several targeted abilities can be
successfully developed when the athlete is well rested or slightly fatigued. These
include motor tasks, whose performance requires the central nervous system (CNS) to
be in an optimal state. Exercises for maximum speed, explosive strength, acquisition
of new technical skills, and exercises to improve the neural mechanisms of maximum
strength (1-3 RM) require appropriate excitatory neural output that is not available in
fatigued athletes. Moreover, fatigued athletes can not respond effectively to these
workloads due to inhibitory output from the CNS.
The acute effect of aerobic power workloads depends on the total duration of
exercises performed close to the maximum oxygen uptake level. Moderately fatigued
athletes can still sustain this metabolic level and, therefore, such dosages can be
recommended. Similarly, the acute effect of hypertrophy strength exercises depends
on the total amount of degraded muscle protein (rate of catabolism) and the
magnitude of mechanical work performed (Zatsiorsky, 1995). Hence, a large amount
of high resistance effort is required and, obviously, the last part of these workloads is
performed when athletes are fatigued (but not exhausted).
143
exhausting workloads. For instance, fatigue tolerance of motor skill, movement
economy and technique stability in unfavorable fatigue conditions can be enhanced
only in the appropriate state, which should be programmed intentionally. Hence,
some part of technique perfection can be performed by fatigued athletes. Similarly,
stretching exercises are recommended for use in any part of the workout. They can be
used at the beginning as a part of warm-up, in the middle as active restoration and for
improving flexibility, and at the end as a component of cool-down.
144
Very Impact
high
Low Restoration
Types of microcycles
As can be seen from Figure 4.3, microcycles differ in load level and are
obviously intended to fulfill different objectives. The adjustment microcycle is
intended for initial adaptation to appropriate loads and is characterized by a gradual
increase in training demands. At the beginning of the season it usually lasts a whole
week. In the middle of the season this microcycle can be planned for the beginning of
a new stage or to start the training camp. In both cases, its duration can be shorter (3-5
days), depending on proper preparatory circumstances. The gradual increase in load
level relates not only to physiological demands (i.e., magnitude of training stimuli)
but also to the mental load component. This can be particularly important in the
training camp, where new cognitive and emotional demands are made simultaneously
on athletes.
145
separately in the next section. What is important to note is that this type of microcycle
assumes the majority position in training for any sport.
The load variation within a microcycle is a matter of the coach’s creativity and
depends on many factors such as the athlete’s qualification, total volume of planned
workloads, frequency of workouts, proximity of forthcoming competition, and the
146
specificity of a given sport. In general, load level should vary within a microcycle and
phases of hard work should be punctuated with phases of easier efforts. Attempts to
design series of exhaustive workloads executed on the same level in many sports has
usually resulted in staleness and overtraining (Stone et al.,1991; Lehman et al.,1997
and many anecdotal reports). Practical evidence indicates that there are three valid
options for load variations: one-, two-, and three-peak designs (Table 4.9).
Table 4.9
Load variations within a training microcycle
The main factors determining load variations are load summation, (which
causes fatigue accumulation), and restoration, (which is affected by the use of reduced
load level workouts and other restorative means). Three- and two-peak designs are
used most widely because they allow athletes to perform relatively large amounts of
weekly workloads with a relatively reduced risk of excessive fatigue accumulation.
The load reductions facilitate the athlete’s recovery and stimulate their readiness to
effectively perform subsequent high demand workouts. Key-workouts concentrate on
the most important workloads of dominant training modalities.
147
The one-peak design is employed to concentrate a number of development
workouts in order to attain a more profound training response. It can be used as
preparation for further medium- and low-level workouts in which several technical
and/or tactical tasks can be executed in combination with gradual recovery.
Concentration of one-peak development workouts can definitely be offered to
sufficiently prepared high-performance athletes but not to novices and less prepared
athletes. Execution of short-term training camps on weekends, which is typical of
sailing, skiing and team sports, broadens the practice of one-peak design utilization.
When this occurs in the preparation of junior or less prepared athletes, appropriate
precautions are recommended to prevent excessive fatigue accumulation.
The demands and specificity of various sports determine the variety and
particulars of the microcycle content. Nevertheless, the basics of BP affect microcycle
design in terms of the selection and sequencing of workloads for different training
modalities. More specifically, microcycle design leads to several basic situations that
regulate the compilation of compatible combinations and prevent negative
interactions between the workloads employed (Table 4.10)
148
Table 4.10
149
Study. One group of male and female athletes trained one leg for strength and the
other one, using concurrent workloads, for strength and endurance. A second
matched group trained one leg for endurance and the other one for strength and
endurance concurrently. The study findings indicated that the combined strength-
aerobic training elicits a similar strength increase as in separate strength training,
and almost the same gains in endurance as the separate endurance training. The
conclusion reached is that strength and endurance can be effectively developed
concurrently (Sale et al., 1990).
150
power and aerobic-anaerobic interactions. These workouts are prevalent in early and
mid-season.
The salient features of the anaerobic microcycle are fatigue accumulation and
insufficient restoration. Fatigue accumulation over an entire microcycle is inevitable.
To reduce the negative consequences of insufficient restoration the following
methodological guidelines are proposed:
151
- The sequencing of development workouts should be closely examined from the
viewpoint of expected fatigue accumulation;
- Restorative workouts are compulsory elements of a training plan and should be
distributed wisely;
- The inclusion of restorative methods like stretching, breathing and relaxation
exercises, low intensity drills, massage, physiotherapy, and nutritional
supplements is strongly recommended;
- Monitoring the athlete’s training responses is of particular importance here.
152
2) Maximum strength exercises, which play an important supporting role
in event-specific power sports and in an athlete’s general state, are
added to the program in special separate workouts and/or in the second
part of event-specific sessions.
3) Maximum speed exercises are combined with event-specific exercises
and are included in separate additional workouts prior to a maximum
strength series of exercises.
4) Restorative workouts and exercises (playing basketball, swimming,
stretching, jogging etc.) round out the program and provide recovery to
maintain optimal neuro-muscular conditions during the entire
microcycle.
153
Contribution of training components
Volume of
sport-specific
Increased
simulative
tasks Volume of
maximal speed
exercises
Workout
frequency
Total volume
Decreased
of intensive
exercises
Total
workload
volume
154
the preferred solution is to maintain the usual daily schedule for these athletes. In
qualified athletes, particularly during the pre-competitive training camp, this means
performing eight-ten workouts per week.
Special attention should be given to the proper timing of workouts with regard
to the expected schedule of competitions. In general, the daily biological rhythms
should be adjusted to the schedule of the forthcoming competition, i.e., the most
important workouts should be planned for the time of competitive peak-performances.
155
Determination of dominant and secondary
training modalities
Figure 4.5. The sequence of operations for structuring the training microcycle.
156
5) Monitoring the training. The data from key-workouts provide the best
indication of the athlete’s current state. This includes his current achievements,
technical variables performed at the required level, the athlete’s responses, i.e., heart
rate, blood lactate concentration, rate of perceived exertion, etc.
The BP concept proposes three types of mesocycles (Table 4.7). As was stated
previously (Chapter 4), their general assessment and interpretation differ considerably
from traditional training theory. The mesocycle-blocks form the essence of the
alternative approach. Thus, accumulation, transmutation and realization mesocycles
are considered below.
157
Table 4.11
General characteristics and particulars of the accumulation mesocycle
Duration. It has already been noted that the basic motor abilities developed in
most sports are aerobic endurance and maximum muscle strength. Progress in both of
these abilities demands profound morphological and even organic changes. Because
of this the athlete’s need sufficient time for physiological adaptation. However, with
qualified athletes at high levels of general fitness, relatively short periods of
accentuated workloads provide substantial improvement in these abilities. Thus, it is
important to determine the optimal duration of the mesocycle-block that will be
sufficient to attain desired changes but not so long that the next mesocycle can not
start on time. Therefore, the accumulation mesocycle can be longer (up to six weeks)
when training is intended to elicit more profound physiological changes, or shorter
(three weeks or less) when training is intended to stimulate basic abilities and refresh
general responses.
The time limits imposed by the competitive schedule have a strong impact on
mesocycle planning. Early in the season, athletes are usually less dependent on
calendar events. In these cases mesocycle duration can be based exclusively on
coaching concepts. At mid-season, the timing of important competitions dictates the
158
sequence and duration of training stages. Consequently, the accumulation mesocycle
can be shortened to three-four weeks and at the end of season, important competitions
can come at relatively short intervals and the length of the accumulation mesocycle
can be reduced to 10-14 days.
From this viewpoint, indicators like total mileage per week, the number of
sport-specific repetitions per week etc. are of particular interest when comparing
similar mesocycles in different seasons. Similarly, comparison of the results in test
trials provides valuable information for coaches and analysts. Employing advanced
sports technologies allows for rational monitoring of training that requires appropriate
equipment and qualified experts and technicians.
159
In addition, the serious strength training that affects muscle hypertrophy
causes an increase in muscle mass and perhaps body weight while the accentuated
aerobic endurance training can reduce the fat component. Therefore, the athlete’s
anthropometric changes are measurable outcomes when evaluating mesocycle
training. In sports where changes in body mass are undesirable (gymnastics and
sports with weight categories) this information is of special interest and is given much
attention.
1) The targeted abilities are more specialized and key-exercises are closely
connected with competitive activity;
2) The intensity of development workloads is relatively higher and the partial
volume of exercises with increased intensity is higher as well;
3) It is the most fatiguing mesocycle. Consequently, employment of restorative
means and stress monitoring are of paramount importance.
160
Table 4.12
General characteristics and particulars of the transmutation mesocycle
On the one hand, basic motor ability potential (aerobic endurance, maximum
muscle strength) decreases and approaches the critical level over three-four weeks.
Consequently, if the transmutation mesocycle and subsequent realization mesocycle
last six weeks, the athletes will come to competition with attenuated aerobic and
strength potential. On the other hand, many sport disciplines require that a large
amount of anaerobic glycolitic workloads be managed over a more prolonged period.
This methodic contradiction can be surmounted by including a short-term aerobic
mini-block within a prolonged anaerobic mesocycle (see “Block Periodization:
Breakthrough in Sports Training”).
161
Content. As can be seen in Table 4.12, the transmutation mesocycle is
intended to develop sport-specific abilities using the most exhaustive specialized
workloads. It is composed mostly of loading microcycles and the impact microcycle
can be moderate as well. Inclusion of some competition can vary the program. Often
the competitive workload is lower than in the usual training routine, so athletes
consider this event to be one of load reduction. In addition athletes are aware that
nobody expects their personal best in such events. Because of this the competitive
diversifies the hard training work.
162
Case study. Preparation of 10 elite junior rowers was studied for five weeks prior
to a world championship. The monitoring program included a broad hormonal
spectrum, CPK, blood lactate as well as a Recovery-Stress-Questionnaire, time
trials and thorough examination of accumulated time and mileage of performed
exercises. The researchers found that exhaustive intensified training of about three
hours per day for three weeks approached the critical border line of overtraining.
They emphasized that multi-level monitoring of stress and recovery is an
important contributor to the rational preparation of top athletes for competition
like the world championships (Steinacker et al., 2000a).
163
Table 4.13
164
Simulation and enhancement of techno-tactical competitive behavior is an
obligatory component of the realization mesocycle program in many sports. Despite
the striking specificity of various sports, the general idea of techno-tactical simulation
is very similar – adjusting the athletes to planned or expected competitive behavior.
Consequently, techno-tactical simulation programs should meet the following
demands: (1) the competitive situation (race pattern, tactical combination, techno-
tactical task etc.) should be as closely reproduced as possible, (2) the level of
athletes’ concentration should approximate the competitive level and; (3) the number
of simulation performances should be sufficient to attain stable and reliable techno-
tactical skills. The typical techno-tactical tasks and their dosage in the realization
mesocycle for qualified kayakers are presented below (Table 4.14)
Table 4.14
165
- Athletes learn about their individual responses in order to better adjust to more
stressful situations as the target competition approaches;
- Methods of self-regulation, mental training and body mass reduction (if
necessary) can be done in advance and adjusted individually.
One more remark is needed with regard to the use of strength exercises during
the taper. It is widely held that high-resistance exercises prior to competition suppress
precise neuro-muscular coordination and negatively affect fine sport-specific feelings.
Many athletes reduce or even exclude such exercises from their pre-competitive
program. However, and this has also been noted by prominent coaches, the exercises
for maximum and/or explosive strength allow athletes to maintain the level of force
application in sport-specific technical skills. Moreover, the exercises producing an
anabolic effect prevent reduction of muscle mass induced by stress hormones
associated with emotional tension.
Example. The world famous swimmer Alexander Popov, who earned five
Olympic gold medals, systematically used dry-land maximum strength exercises
for upper body muscles within his tapering program. These exercises were
followed by low intensity technical drills that didn’t reduce his sensitivity and fine
technical skill. According to Gennadi Touretski, the athlete’s personal coach,
these exercises served to maintain the contractile abilities of the muscles and
prevent suppression of the immune system. The latter is very important because
long-lasting emotional stress combined with highly intense workloads can
provoke various health disorders (Gennadi Touretski, personal communication)
It is worth noting that emotional factors such as moral support, team spirit,
partnership and self-confidence are of particular importance especially in the
realization mesocycles. They can lead to outstanding performances or to regrettable
failure.
166
4.5 Designing the annual cycle
As was previously emphasized (see 4.1.3), the annual plan demonstrates the
most apparent and salient implementation of the BP concept in practice. The typical
features of a block periodized plan are sequenced stages consisting of three
mesocycles-blocks. The major particulars of such planning are presented below.
The annual strategy assumes first of all, determination of the main goal of
preparation. Of course, this goal should be somewhat ambitious but also quite
realistic. It should also be expressed in concrete results or achievements such as
performance time, rank in the target competition, attainment of desired position in
team roster etc. Correspondingly, the targeted competition should be specified. The
mandatory competitions, which strongly affect the structure of preparation and
sometimes the rank of an athlete or team for the whole year, should be marked as
well.
The temporal structure of the annual plan is formed mainly by the chronology
of training stages. These stages are determined by the schedule of mandatory and
targeted competitions and by the duration of several mesocycle-blocks. Generally
speaking, training stage duration varies from three months (usually in the early
season) to 25 days (usually in the late season depending on the frequency of
mandatory competitions). Based on the general demands of the training stage
chronology, additional competitions can be selected or initiated. Thus, training camps
and when they occur are finalized based on the methodological requirements and the
finances of the organization (club, team, national squad, etc.). Finally, times for
167
medical (or complex medical and sport-specific) exams should be planned as follow-
ups throughout the annual preparation.
Level Operations
The analytical part includes two important components. The first one is
calculation of the integrative workload characteristics per month (sometimes per
mesocycle or training stage), and for the whole year. These characteristics encompass
total mileage of cyclical exercises (running, swimming, rowing, skiing etc.), total
number of workouts, lifts, jumps, time-trials, competitive and quasi-competitive
performances etc. These numerical indicators make it possible to control further
preparation and evaluate each stage and annual cycle as a whole in comparison to
previous years and to the data of other athletes. This evaluation process gives coaches
up-to-date objective information for analysis of “plan-execution-response”.
168
Sometimes the coach can discover insufficient execution, and sometimes mistakes in
planning are uncovered.
Let’s illustrate the process of structuring the annual plan with the example of
preparing high-performance canoe-kayak paddlers (Figure 4.7). The initial action is to
set the annual goal. For a team of high-level athletes the goal can be to attain
respectable positions in world ranking, i.e., in the world championships. This means
two places in the final “A” level (ranks 1-9) and two places in the final “B” level
(ranks 10-18). As such, the targeted competition for this group is the world
championship. The mandatory competitions, which shape and determine athletes’
readiness for the target event also serve as the most integrative sport-specific means
of evaluation. This includes the official regattas of the World Cup series and the
Continental Championship.
The timing of these events determines the chronology of training stages in late
season, where athletes should implement the most important and strenuous part of the
annual plan. Based on this, the coach should determine the placement and duration of
training stages in early and mid season. To do this the coach must take obligatory
National federation events into account.
169
Coach: X Y
Annual Training Plan
Version from ______
Advisor: Y X
Canoe-Kayak Team of ________
World
Continental Championship
Main
Championship
Competitions World Cup Series
Domestic Winter National 1 st 2nd
International National National
Competitions trials Cup Cup Selection Ch-p
National
Competitions
Tests & Small
Competitions
Months 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Weeks 48 47 46 45 44 43 42 41 40 39 38 37 36 35 34 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Competition
Taper
Transmutation
Mesocycle
Accumulation
Mesocycle
Active Rest
Stages
Training
Camps 1 2 3 4
Medical
Check-Ups General
examination Current exam Current exam
It is highly desirable that each training stage be concluded with a more or less
serious competition, which helps to break the monotony of early season preparation
and create a more jovial atmosphere. If the National calendar does not include an
appropriate match, the coach should hold time-trials at the end of the appropriate
stages. Because the competitive program is more variable early in the season rather
than later, races of two or even four thousand meters, which are never used in official
competitions, can be employed in early- and even mid- season. Competitive programs
can also be diversified by including fitness exams.
170
these events are to be held and the demands for the forthcoming preparations can help
to determine when and where training camps should be scheduled. The first priority is
the training camp prior to the target competition. Additional camps, whose frequency
depends on the budget available for the entire preparation, are planned for the time
intervals where the most important work should be done (for instance, prior to a
Continental championship or for execution of the most stressful exhaustive
programs). Afterwards medical exams can be scheduled. Usually they are planned for
early season, to evaluate the athlete’s initial state of health and functional reserves,
and in mid season to monitor the changes and evaluate readiness for crucial phases of
the annual plan.
When the time table for all annual events is given, the coach can predict and
calculate the characteristics of planned workloads. This is relatively easier in
measurable sports and more difficult in non-measurable sports like team sports or
sailing. More specifically, the following details can be calculated and proposed for
execution per month and for the whole year:
171
When calculating the above characteristics, the coach must take into account
previous data about the group or individuals, visualize the forthcoming season and
predict athletes’ training responses. In fact, the coach faces a dilemma at this time
since a liberal “easy” plan will not lead to success while a strenuous, ambitious
program can bring on excessive fatigue and be followed by failure. Viewed this way,
the block periodized design has obvious benefits.
Because of the similarity of sequential stages, the coach can finalize the plan
of subsequent blocks based on the feedback from the previous stage of training. The
phases of the most stressful work, i.e., the transmutation mesocycles, can be
shortened, lengthened or modified after changes in the athlete’s responses. In getting
ready for a targeted competition, the coach can review the taper program two-three
times and approve the most favorable version.
The period that immediately precedes the targeted competition for the season,
is called the final stage preparation (FSP). It is traditionally the focus of attention of
both coaches and athletes. The purpose and challenge of FSP is to attain maximal
peak-performance, i.e., peaking – attaining the best athletic results in a particular
event. Traditionally, peaking was linked to pre-event tapering (Fleck &
Kraemer,1996; Bompa,1999) and as a result, the time period of pre-competitive
preparation ranged from 8 - 30 days (Kubukeli et al.,2002; Mujika et al., 2004). In
terms of the BP concept, this approach is incorrect because success or failure in a
targeted competition is determined not only by changes occurring in the pre-
competitive mesocycle (realization in BP terms), but in the entire preparation
preceding the entire final stage. This section deals with factors affecting the
effectiveness of FSP and with its proper content.
172
4.6.1 Factors affecting FSP effectiveness
173
The expectation that purposeful pre-competitive preparation should lead to
enhanced performance is typical of sport administrators, the media, coaches and
athletes themselves. The fact that the majority of elite competitors representing
leading sports nations declined in their Olympic performances is the most unexpected
outcome of the above study; this was never before noted as a common tendency.
Several possible reasons can be offered to explain this performance impairment: (a)
anxiety and emotional strain throughout the FSP period and competitions, (b)
hormonal and metabolic changes associated with emotional and physical stress, and
(c) training deficiencies during the FSP. Let’s consider each of these factors.
World renowned psychologist Yuri Hanin (1997) has shown that each athlete
performs better when his/her level of anxiety falls within the "individual zone of
optimal functioning." For instance, in a group of elite female distance runners only
30% reported high level anxiety prior to their best performances (Morgan et al.,
1987). The fact that a majority of elite competitors are not accustomed to coping with
high level emotional stress is consistent with the study results of the Athens Olympic
swimming competition.
The second factor that may impair performance is hormonal changes, that
have a metabolic effect on pre-Olympic training. Stress hormones such as testosterone
(T), cortisol (C), and catecholamines are of special interest with regard to peak-
performance attainment. The T/C ratio is traditionally considered an indicator of
physical and emotional stress (Adlercreutz et al., 1986; Viru, 1995). The model
174
offered by Mehis and Atko Viru (2000) elucidates the hormonal changes induced by
different workloads during the preparatory season. This model assumes a T level
decline in mid-season with a subsequent increase prior to competition, accompanied
with reverse dynamics for C. Correspondingly, the T/C ratio, as a stress marker, is
lower during heavy training and increases in the taper-phase. It is known that
increased anxiety suppresses secretion of T during post-exercise recovery (Diamard et
al., 1989), while the C level increases due to psychological stressors (Mujika et al.,
2004). It is likely that the increased T/C ratio indicates that the high level of physical
stress in mid-season, is replaced by emotional stress prior to competition (Figure 4.8).
T/C ratio
100%
80%
Emotional
stress
60%
Figure 4.8 Annual trend of the Testosterone/Cortisol ratio: solid line – the model
of hormonal changes proposed by M. and A. Viru (2000); dash line –
decline of T/C ratio induced by pre-competitive emotional stress.
175
adrenocortical stimulation has a particular effect on the anaerobic pathways of energy
production since anaerobic glycogenolysis is strongly determined by the capacity and
rate of adrenaline output (Viru, 1995). The long lasting emotional strain prior to
targeted competitions causes increased catecholamine secretion, which reinforces
anaerobic metabolism and modifies the aerobic/anaerobic interaction. This metabolic
shift can considerably disrupt the acute effect of many exercises.
176
numerous successful performances (Tschiene, 1999; Steinacker et al., 2000b). A
similar approach to designing pre-competitive programs was carried out during the
preparation of elite canoe-kayak paddlers (Silajev, 1981).
Case study. In the early 1970s the head coach of the USSR canoe-kayak national
team, Alexander Silajev, who personally coached a number of world and Olympic
champions, developed an FSP program consisting of different length microcycles
lasting a total of 41-45 days (Figure 4.9). The initial microcycle was completely
devoted to active recovery and the execution of paddling exercises was not
obligatory. The first load microcycle was comprised of high volumes of extensive
aerobic exercises, which decreased in the next microcycle while the contribution
of highly intense exercises increased considerably. The fourth microcycle
preceded the control competition. Therefore the level of total workloads was
somewhat reduced. The fifth microcycle included participation in competition
where all paddlers competed in their own disciplines following their own race
pattern.
Because the load level prior to this competition was only slightly reduced, the
athletes improved their race-pace model but didn’t attain real peak-performance.
The microcycle after competition consisted of gradually increased workloads with
race-pace simulation drills in the final part. The last two microcycles were
designed as a typical taper adapted to the athletes’ individual particulars. This FSP
model was implemented before a number of world championships and Olympic
Games. The achievements attained (in terms of number of medals, average rank in
all disciplines) were compared with the outcomes of other championships where
traditional pre-competitive preparation was practiced. The superiority of the FSP
model was proven statistically (Silajev, 1981).
177
% TC
100
80 CC
60
40
20
3-5 5 7 3 4 7 5 5
Figure 4.9 The FSP model used in the preparation of elite canoe-kayak paddlers.
Solid line – total volume of paddling exercises;
TC – targeted competition;
In light of the BP concept, the FSP is built in a fashion similar to the other
training stages and consists of three consecutive mesocycle-blocks. The difference is
that the FSP should be initiated with a restoration microcycle (in the usual stages this
condition is not compulsory), and the middle part includes a competitive (or quasi-
competitive) microcycle to simulate forthcoming targeted performances. Sometimes
the total duration of FSP is restricted by other obligatory competitions like national
selection or continental championships. In these cases the FSP program can be
properly modified although the accumulation-transmutation-realization sequence
should be maintained. A general description of FSP content can be expressed as a
sequence of meso- and microcycles of different load levels and durations.
178
Table 4.15
179
It is obvious that each sport, and even each season in certain sports, dictates
specific external (calendar of international events, geographic location of targeted
competition, jet lag etc.) and internal conditions (psycho-physiological capabilities of
athletes, budget for training camps and competitions etc.). Nevertheless, the general
principles of the FSP make it possible to structure the proper combination of
microcycles for loading and recovery that will facilitate maximum realization of the
athlete’s sport-specific potential. The favorable positioning of residual training effects
of the accumulative and transmutation mesocycles makes it possible to get the optimal
combination of basic, special and event-specific abilities when needed at the moment
of competition. The BP concept gives sufficient freedom to coaches to use their
initiative and creativity in finding the appropriate model for pre-competitive
preparation.
Summary
The most generalized training theory dealing with program design is training
periodization, which is definitely one of the most practical branches of the coaching
sciences. Traditional training periodization proposes subdividing the entire
preparation into structured training cycles and units. Non-traditional models of
periodization offered by creative coaches strive to modify annual training charts in
keeping with the demands of contemporary sport practice.
180
key-exercise. In several sports like team sports and combat sports, where the key-
function frequently belongs not to a given exercise but to a sport-specific task
(training match, training fight etc.), the most important workload is the key-task.
Compatible combinations of different training modalities within single workouts are
of special importance and are summarized in Table 4.7.
Microcycles are training cycles lasting a number of days, often one week. It is
necessary to differentiate the three principal types of microcycles: loading, competing
and recovery. The loading microcycles differ according to load level and direction.
For example, adjustment –is intended to help athletes adapt to increasing workloads,
load –serves to develop athletic abilities, and impact – to employ extreme training
stimuli. The second type contains the pre-competitive microcycle which prepares the
athlete for the forthcoming competitions, and the competitive microcycle, in which the
athlete takes part in competition. The third type is represented by the special
restoration microcycle.
The Final Stage Preparation (FSP) for targeted competition is considered with
respect to basic factors affecting its effectiveness and content. Among the possible
181
reasons for worse athletic performance in FSP are factors such as (a) anxiety and
emotional strain during the FSP period and competitions, (b) hormonal and metabolic
changes associated with emotional and physical stress, and (c) insufficiency of
training. A general approach is proposed for structuring the FSP as a sequence of
microcycles for loading, recovery and competition (Table 4.15).
182
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Chapter 5
188
Chapter 5
Modeling in planning, evaluating
and guiding training
Almost four decades ago a young sports scientist from Moscow, Vladimir
Zatsiorsky, published the book "Cybernetics, Mathematics, Sport" that introduced
new ideas for control over the training and elucidated their practical implementation
(Zatsiorsky, 1969). Since that time modeling as a term and concept has been adopted
in the theory of sports training and has successfully served many practical needs. At
present, modeling is generally understood as a way (method) of simulating an athlete's
state, athletic performance and training using formalized descriptions, logistical
schemes, computer programs and even practical tasks. The intention of this chapter is
to present and consider the most comprehensive and practical modeling approaches
that are in use to help enhance the preparation of athletes.
The entire process of preparing athletes over a given time span can be
presented in a simplified three-level model (Figure 5.1).
189
Model of top-performance
Target-result; model characteristics of tactics,
technique, competitive behavior etc.
This three-level model can be structured and specified for specific sub-groups
of athletes with similar preparedness, for instance, a national team of middle-distance
runners. Another application can be the compilation of an individual model for a
specific athlete taking into account his/her personal particulars and event-specific
demands. In both cases, the upper level of the model describes top-level performance
and includes the targeted result (in record sports), detailed characteristics of an
optimal performance, quantitative model characteristics of tactics, technical variables,
and competitive behavior. An individual model should include personal equipment,
pre-event warm up, protocol behavior prior to and following performance (cooling
down etc.).
190
level model also includes mental skills and required knowledge of the rules, training
methods, competitive conditions etc.
The bottom level in Figure 5.1 contains a model of training programs that
summarizes, first of all, the most relevant characteristics of preparation, i.e., total and
partial annual training volumes, number of competitive and quasi-competitive
performances, patterns of meso- and microcycles and even single workouts. The
programs of active restoration like mental relaxation, nutritional supplements,
massage and other recovery means should be also taken into account.
In the mid-1980s the idea of modeling became very popular among serious
coaches. The general logic of the modeling approach can be expressed by the
following schematic (Figure 5.2).
Initial state
Model
Preparation
Evaluation
The initial state of an athlete, group or team is evaluated and analyzed with
regard to the required level, limiting factors and available reserves. The model is
developed on the basis of this analysis. A so-called “ideal” model may be proposed
without specifying definite terms of realization, but normally the model is oriented
towards a given period of preparation, usually for each annual cycle. “Preparation”
means realizing the various aspects of the proposed model, where intermediate
examinations are used to correct the program following marked deviations.
Evaluation, as the concluding operation, serves to compare the state and level of
191
preparedness attained with the proposed model. Realistically, such a comparison may
yield one of three possibilities:
1) The attained state fully corresponds to the proposed model. Such situations are
extremely rare and if attained, the coach is worthy of compliments and
congratulations;
2) The athlete's state corresponds in general to the proposed model but the
expected result (rank in competition, medal etc.) is not attained. In this case the
model should be revised radically taking new facts into consideration.
Correspondingly, the preparatory program should also be corrected;
3) The athletes state is inferior to the proposed model. In this case the preparatory
program and in particular its implementation, should be critically re-examined.
Usually appropriate corrections are necessary in both the program and its
realization.
192
impair performance and at best, it can be highly useful for mental and physical
preparation. The general approach to top-performance modeling is presented in Table
5.1.
Table 5.1
Components and content of a top-performance model: a general approach
It has already been noted that experienced athletes know their behavioral
program during the competition very well. But the influence of emotional strain,
particularly in highly important competitions, can not be underestimated. Sometimes,
under emotional strain, several details may slip the athlete’s attention, something that
would not happen in a usual, comfortable situation.
193
opponents during performance (like swimming, rowing, figure skating etc.), the
model can be strictly prescribed. Let us illustrate this with an example of flatwater
canoe racing.
Table 5.2
Top-performance model of a world-ranked kayaker for the single-kayak
1000 m event
194
150
World Championship-02
Pre-Olympic regatta-03
140
Olympic Games-04
120
110
100
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Distance, m
Figure 5.3 Top-performance model and its realization in the Pre-Olympic regatta
(Issurin, 2005a). Stroke Rate patterns of world-class kayaker in the 1000m
distance and how it corresponded to the model.
Example. Since 1994, all semi-final and final races in every top-level
swimming competition, such as the World Championship, Olympic Games
and European Championships, were videotaped and analyzed with respect to
the most meaningful performance characteristics: time of start and turn
segments, average speed, Stroke Rate and Stroke Length on each segment of
the distance etc. (Haljand, 1997). After the competition the participants
received a full report. By using the data of winners they can compile an ideal
performance model to which they can compare their own data to reveal hidden
reserves and then direct further preparation.
195
5.2.2 Team sports
It is worth noting that in team sports, where group and individual interactions
are of particular importance, models of pre-event warm-up and proper pre-
competitive behavior can contribute greatly to successful performance. The example
of a modeled pre-match warm-up in football (soccer) is presented below (Table 5.3).
Table 5.3
196
In high coordination aesthetic sports similarly modeled warm-up and pre-
event behaviors increase performance stability and reduce emotional tension. Team
performances in aesthetic sports (rhythmic gymnastics, synchronized swimming,
figure skating) are characterized by very high complexity and a high risk for mistakes.
However, unlike team ball sports, these sports are strictly programmed. Therefore,
top-performance modeling is a compulsory part of the preparation process in these
sports. A general schematic of top-performance modeling in the aesthetic sports is
presented using an example from synchronized swimming in Table 5.4.
Table 5.4.
General algorithm of top-performance modeling in an aesthetic team sport: duet
and group events in synchronized swimming
(based on Issurin, 2005b)
197
There can be no doubt that modeling top-performances in team sports is very
complicated and problematic. Nevertheless, the possible variants of the opponent’s
tactics are predictable. Therefore, typical situations can be described and adequate
tactical models can be compiled and prepared. It is proposed that such modeled
techno-tactical training will contribute to successful performance.
198
Table 5.5
Modeling of sport-specific abilities: general factors and characteristics
The impact of the factors mentioned above differs in various sports and their
interrelationships are also sport-specific. For instance, it is generally accepted that a
specific bodybuild predisposes one to a given sport. Similarly, appropriate
physiological preconditions help elicit more or less favorable training responses and
progress in specific sports. Therefore, the generalized models of “ideal athletes” can
help to better evaluate several candidates. Individual models, which are usually
prepared for high-level athletes, can assist in monitoring the training and guiding the
preparation.
199
5.3.2 Bodybuild and body composition
200
205
Height/Arm Span,cm
200
195
190
185
Height
180
Arm Span
175
Canoe/Kayak Open rowers LW rowers
70 95
Sum 8 Skinfolds. mm
65 90
Body Mass,kg
60 85
55 80
50 Body Mass 75
45 Sum 8 Skinfolds 70
40 65
Canoe/Kayak Open rowers LW rowers
Even a brief glance at the above data makes it possible to recognize the
characteristics of world-ranked rowers and canoe/kayak paddlers. They are tall,
robust persons with long extremities and a low fat component. As was already stated
(see 3.1) body characteristics such as body length are strongly dependent on heredity.
It is known that bodybuild can be changed slightly with athletic preparation (Wilmore
& Costill, 1993). Therefore, appropriate bodybuild models can be proposed for lower
level and junior athletes. Based on such models, tall teenagers with long arms and a
low fat component can easily be recognized as suitable candidates for prospective
rowing and kayaking groups. Likewise, the appropriate bodybuild models in various
sports can help in the preliminary selection of gifted children and potentially
successful team members.
201
Unlike bodybuild, body composition can be substantially changed with
training and appropriate diet. Generally speaking, two major elements determine body
composition: the fat component and lean body mass, that is body mass without fat
(bones, muscles, internal organs, skin etc.). It has already been noted that the
monitoring of training can be greatly enhanced by controlling the body mass and fat
components. Research findings and practical observations indicate that substantial
alterations of body composition occur under various circumstances. Following are the
most typical cases:
202
mass increased and the fat component decreased, body mass remained stable,
but skinfold sums decreased. Correspondingly, the BM/SSk ratio rose and this
was typical of the culmination of the training stage just prior to the competition
(Table 5.6). These individual variations were analyzed by the personal coach of
both swimmers, Gennadi Touretski, who immediately corrected the program
following marked deviations. Therefore, individuals using this index try to have
their values correspond to those of top-performance athletes (by courtesy of
Gennadi Touretski, personal communication).
Table 5.6
Individual variations of Body Mass/Skinfold Sum ratio in
world class swimmers***
Summarizing the data, it can be stated that bodybuild models have primary
importance for orientation and for the preliminary selection of athletes in certain
sports and events. The body composition model can optimize the monitoring and
provide individual diagnoses of high-performance athletes.
203
5.3.3 Physiological capabilities
55
50
45
VO 2,ml/kg/min
40
35
30
25
20
Basketball Volleyball Handball Soccer
VO2max 50.8 49.9 51.2 54
AT 34.2 34.3 38 41.1
204
Study and example. Four groups of qualified players (40 male athletes in each)
from different team sports were examined with respect to various physiological
functions. The highest values of maximum oxygen consumption and anaerobic
threshold were found in soccer players. Handball players had somewhat lower
values but they were superior to basketball and volleyball players (Figure 5.5).
The highest anaerobic alactic abilities were found in soccer and volleyball
players while the highest anaerobic glycolitic power and capacity were obtained
in basketball players. Thus, sport-specific physiological demands determine the
general development of certain physiological abilities. This should be taken into
consideration when structuring corresponding models of physiological
capabilities (based on Jaruzhnyj, 1993).
Example. The Russian gymnastics national team, one of the most successful in
the world, actively utilized modeling for both technical and physical
preparation. Over a number of decades, sport-specific motor fitness has been
evaluated by a test battery that contains a number of carefully selected exams.
The model of sport-specific motor abilities proposed for the national team gives
presents characteristics, which serve as norms for all team members and
potential newcomers (Table 5.7). The importance of this model can not be
underestimated. An additional benefit of this model is that each high-
performance gymnast can independently estimate his/her own physical fitness
against the national team level (Arkajev & Suchilin, 2004).
205
Table 5.7
Model of sport-specific motor abilities in high-level male gymnasts
(by Arkajev & Suchilin, 2004)
206
qualified athletes but they are particularly suited for helping ambitious young
individuals made progress. We can see this approach in action through the example of
a junior high-performance kayaker.
It is logical that individual models for relatively young and developing athletes
should be reviewed every year to follow their progress while the models for adult
athletes should reflect a stable state of sport-specific motor abilities.
207
Model 70 70 28 120 10:40 300
100
90
80
Performance, %
70
60 Model
Initial exams
Intermediate exams
50
Final exams
40
Bench pull,40kg Bench Pull ups Sit ups Run 3000m, Strokes
press,50kg min,s simulation, watt
There are many ways to apply the modeling approach to the planning and
designing of training programs. Nevertheless three basic categories of training models
are widely used and can be recommended as being practically oriented. They are
structural models, models of training content and model characteristics of training
workloads. Let us consider each of them separately.
208
5.4.1 Structural models
For the most part, the practical modeling approach comprises various
structural schematics and descriptive models of training. A modeled presentation of
209
training can be found in almost every textbook. The descriptive model below is
intended to display the hierarchy and main structural components of an annual
training cycle according to the Block Periodization concept (Figure 5.7). The upper
level displays competitions, which are categorized with regard to their importance.
The second level presents training stages, each of which consists of three mesocycle-
blocks which are placed on the third level. The fourth level presents several
microcycles and the fifth, and lowest level, lists medical and other examinations, and
training camps.
This structural schematic does not add much knowledge to the Block
Periodization concept but it can assist in better understanding its essence. Besides
providing concrete details and terms, this model can easily be transformed into a
visual presentation of an annual training plan.
Targeted
Competitions
International
National
Domestic
Stages
Exams, Microcycles Mesocycles
tr. camps
Medical examinations
Training camps
Months Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug
Figure 5.7 Modeled presentation of the annual training plan designed according
to the Block Periodization concept
210
5.4.2 Models of training content
Usually models of training content present the principal and most essential
characteristics of several training cycles. There are two popular approaches to training
content modeling. The first uses specialized computer programs that make it possible
to compile the content of appropriate training cycles or units. The second gives
descriptive presentations of modeled training programs. The first approach has been
utilized in several sports. One such example is presented below.
The second approach can be illustrated by the descriptive model of the final
stage preparation of the very successful Russian men’s gymnastics team. During this
period the athletes usually perform 17 workouts per week with one day off. During
this period the most important component of this preparation was event simulation,
i.e., the performance of competitive combinations on each apparatus such as the
parallel bars, rings, horse etc. The original model assumes the performance of 10-40
competitive combinations on five pieces of equipment per week. This load
distribution follows the specific demands of pre-competitive preparation (Table 5.8).
211
Table 5.8
Model of the final stage preparation of the Russian men’s gymnastics national
team prior to the World Championships (by Arkajev & Suchilin, 2004)*
212
annual training workloads for highly qualified athletes from several types of
endurance sports (Table 5.9).
Table 5.9
Tentative version of model characteristics of annual training workloads used by
highly qualified male athletes in several endurance sports
(based on Giliazova et al., 1987; author’s own modification)
This suggests that the total volume of sport-specific exercises is more or less
equivalent, taking into account differences in speed and duration of the competitive
performance (e.g., two minutes for swimming 200 m vs. four hours of road cycling).
However, there are striking differences in the number of competitive performances in
213
various sports, despite the tendency to increase performance in competitions and to
reduce the training routine.
214
Summary
The modeling approach to planning and guiding the athlete’s preparation has
become an efficient tool for enhancing the quality of training. The three-level model
is used to characterize the entire preparation process. The upper level contains the top-
performance model that relates to the targeted result (in record sports), the optimal
performance, and proper tactics, technique and competitive behavior. The middle
level embraces sport-specific abilities, which are necessary to attain the planned
(modeled) performance. This level relates to anthropometric status, motor and
technical abilities, mental skills and effective knowledge.
The bottom level presents the model of training programs, i.e., the most
relevant characteristics of preparation such as total and partial training volumes,
number of competitions, patterns of mesocycles-blocks etc. In actual practice, the
collective models for groups of specific athletes are more popular although each high-
performance athlete can and should have an individual model.
215
individual models that include the most valid physiological capabilities and sport-
specific motor abilities make it possible to monitor training properly and to motivate
athletes to show more initiative and be more aware of their work.
Models of training programs are intended to help enhance the planning, design
and guidance of training. They can be subdivided into three basic categories:
structural models, models of training content and model characteristics of training
workloads. Training structure modeling has been used in a number of research
projects, and for more practical needs, various descriptive structural models of
training have been proposed. Similarly, training content models can be compiled
using computer technologies and schematic descriptions of the most essential
components and details. Integrative model characteristics of training workloads,
which reflect the most important training requirements, can serve as the ultimate
result of planning and make it possible to enhance the quality of preparation.
216
References for Chapter 5
Arkajev, L., Suchilin, N. (2004). How to prepare champions. Theory and technology
of preparation the highly qualified gymnasts. Moscow: Fizkultura i sport.
van den Auweele,Y., Nys, K., Rzewnicki, R. et al. (2001). Personality and athlete. In:
Singer R., Hausenblas H. and Janette S.C. (Eds.). Handbook of Sport
Psychology. 2nd edition. N.Y.: Wiley & Sons, Inc., p.239-268.
217
Hirata, K., Kaku, K. (1968). The evaluating method for physique and physical fitness
and its practical application. Taliyosha Printing Co.
Issurin, V., Kaufman, L.,Tenenbaum, G. (2001). Modeling of velocity regimens for
anaerobic and aerobic power exercises in high-performance swimmers. Journ.
Sports Medicine and Phys. Fitness,.41, 433-440.
Issurin,V. (2005a). Results’ summarization and preparation process in kajakers. In:
Lustig G. and Khlebovsky E. (Eds.). Summarization, analysis and results of
the 2004 Athens Olympic Games. Nethanya: Elite Sport Department of Israel,
p.187-204 (in Hebrew).
Issurin, V. (2005b). The quadrennial plan for coaching synchronized swimming. In:
FINA Worldwide Synchronized Swimming Seminar for Coaches and Judges.
Bangkok, part 4, p.1-17.
Jaruzhnyj, N.V. (1993). Structure and control of physical work capacity in sport team
sports. Thesis of Doctor of Science Dissertation. Moscow: State Sport
University.
Kuznetsov, V.V., Novikov, A.A., and Shustin, B. (1976). On compilation of modeled
characteristics for elite athletes. In: Kuznetsov V., Novikov, A., and Ratov I.
(Eds.).Proceedings of Annual Scientific Conference. Moscow: All-Union
Research Institute, p. 85-87.
Mujika,I., Busso, T., Lacoste,L. et al. (1996). Modeled responses to training and taper
in competitive swimmers. Med Sci Sports Exercises, 28, 251-258.
Weinberg, R., Gould, D.(2003) Foundations of sport and exercise psychology.
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics,
Wilmore,J.H., Costill, D.L. (1993). Training for sport and activity. The physiological
basis of the conditioning process. Champaign, IL : Human Kinetics.
Zatsiorsky, V.M. (1969). Cybernetics, mathematics, sport. Moscow: Fizkultura i
Sport.
Zatsiorsky, V.M.(1995). Science and practice of strength training. Champaign, IL:
Human Kinetics.
218
Glossary
219
Galvanic Skin Response (GSR) – Psycho-physiological indicator of emotional
excitation
glycogen – Carbohydrate storage in muscles and liver.
heritability - Characteristics of the degree of genetic determination of several traits.
hypoxia – Reduced availability of oxygen to the athlete’s tissues.
key-exercise (or key-task) - The main meaningful element (drill, fight or match) of a
single workout.
key-workout - The most important development workout, which is focused on the
current main training aim.
maximum anaerobic glycolitic power – Maximal amount of work per minute attained
in an exercise where energy is predominantly supplied with anaerobic glycolitic
reactions.
maximum oxygen consumption (maximal aerobic power) - The maximum amount
of oxygen that an individual can consume in a defined period of time.
mesocycles-blocks:
accumulation mesocycle – Employed to develop basic motor and technical abilities
and to enlarge the motor potential of athlete.
transmutation mesocycle – Employed to transmute the increased general motor
abilities into event-specific athletic preparedness.
realization mesocycle – Conducted for attainment of full restoration and event-
specific readiness for the forthcoming trial or competition.
microcycles:
adjustment – Devoted to initial adaptation to appropriate workloads.
loading – Devoted to fitness development. It is the most widely used type of
microcycle.
impact – Microcycle utilizing extreme training stimuli.
pre-competitive – Devoted to immediate preparation for the forthcoming
competition.
competitive – Microcycle where the athlete takes part in competition.
restoration – Devoted to active recovery of the athlete.
modeling - The method used to simulate the athlete's state, athletic performance and
training in formalized descriptions, logistical schematics, computer programs
and adequate practical tasks.
220
muscle buffering capacity – The ability of muscles to tolerate the acid that
accumulates in them during anaerobic workloads.
overload principle - Postulates that fitness gains require a load (stimulus) magnitude
that exceeds the accustomed level.
responders (high, medium, and low) – The athletes, who have a high, medium, or
low response to training stimuli.
somatotype - Characteristics of linear, circular and fatness dimensions of a human
body.
sport giftedness - Predisposition to and higher trainability in a certain athletic activity.
This is referred to as a genetically transmitted property of the individual.
sports talent – Optimal combination of psycho-physiological, anthropometric and
mental properties of an individual that allow him/her to attain sports excellence.
stretch-shortening cycle – Muscle action consisting of eccentric (stretch) and
concentric (shortening) phases.
supercompensation cycle – Sequence of physiological reactions to a single or a series
of workloads leading to attainment of a higher than pre-load level of fitness.
targeted ability – The ability (physical or technical) upon which training workload has
an effect.
testosterone – The predominant male sex hormone.
trainability – An athlete’s ability to react positively to training stimuli
training cycles:
microcycle – Small training cycle embracing a number of training days.
mesocycle – Medium size training cycle comprised of a number of microcycles.
macrocycle – Big training cycle embracing a number of mesocyces.
annual cycle - Big training cycle covering the preparation during one year.
quadrennial (Olympic) cycle – Training cycle comprised of four annual cycles.
training effects – Changes in an athlete’s state induced by training, namely:
acute effect - Changes in body state that occur during the exercise.
immediate effect – Changes in body state resulting from a single workout and/or
single training day.
cumulative effect - Changes in body state and level of motor/technical abilities
resulting from a series of workouts.
delayed effect - Changes in body state and level of motor/technical abilities attained
over a given time interval after a specific training program.
221
residual effect - Retention of changes in body state and motor abilities after the
cessation of training beyond a given time period.
training means - Refers to all instruments, devices and exercises involved in the
program.
training block - A training cycle with highly concentrated specialized workloads.
training periodization - The purposeful sequencing of different training units and
cycles so that the athlete can attain the desired state and the planned results.
transfer of training results – Improved performance achieved in the non-trained
exercise.
222
About the Author
Prof., Dr. Vladimir B. Issurin serves as a scientific and
professional coordinator of the Elite Sport Department of the
Israeli Olympic Committee at the Wingate Institute. He
completed his undergraduate studies in Sport Sciences and his
Ph.D. dissertation on aquatic motor fitness and movement technique of swimmers in
the Leningrad Sport University (1963-1972). His post-doctoral studies on motor/
technical sportsmanship in individual water sports were completed at Moscow Sport
University (1988). He served as a scientific adviser and head of the scientific group
for the USSR Olympic canoe/kayak team during three quadrennial cycles (1978-
1991) and earned two government awards.
Since 1991, professor Issurin has lived in Israel and works as a researcher in
the Sports Science Department (1991-94), is a professional consultant and coordinator
of the Israeli Olympic National teams (since 1992), and lecturer at the Wingate
coaching school and Wingate Physical Education College. He was advisor of 21
Ph.D. dissertations in the theory, physiology and biomechanical branches of sports
training. As a member of the national Olympic delegations he took part in six
Olympic Games; three times as a team leader of Israeli kayak and swimming national
teams (2000 and 2008). He has over 150 scientific articles in national and
international journals and in edited books and given over 50 international
presentations. He has lectured at universities and coaching forums in Athens,
Bangkok, Brussels, Florence, Ghent, Gijon, Göteborg, Grand Rapids (Michigan),
Jyvaskyla, Kiev, Köln, Leuven, Lisbon, Madrid, Magdeburg, Minsk, Moscow, Palma
de Mallorca, Pontevedra, Poznan, Prague, Riga, Rome, St. Petersburg, Sofia,
Tashkent, Tallinn, Vilnius and Volgograd. He has authored or coauthored 10 books.
He has received honorary awards of the Olympic Committees of USSR, Bulgaria and
Lithuania. Dr. Issurin is a member of the International Informatization Academy
associated with UNESCO. He is an Editorial Board member of the Journal of Sports
Medicine and Physical Fitness and reviewer for the scientific journals, Sports
Medicine and European Journal of Sport Sciences. Currently his research is focused
on the methodology of high-performance training and further development of the
original coaching concepts for elite athletes. He is a multi-champion of Israel in
masters swimming competitions.
223
For related information, read the
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Ultimate Athlete Concepts
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Explosive Basketball
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Explosive Golf is the first golf book ever written that fully
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227