ANIMAL SCIENCE 121

PRINCIPLES TO ANIMAL SCIENCE

Compiled by

DR. ERWIN L. ICALLA

 Module 2
Skeletal and Muscular System

Overview

This module introduces you to the basics of studying anatomy and physiology of the
bones and meat of domestic animals. You will identify the different structures of the
skeletal and muscular systems of the body. The skeletal system serves as framework
where the muscles will attach into. The skeletal system determines the degree of muscling
that the animal may have. The bigger framework, the bigger the body of animal is and
vice versa. Thus, goats and sheep weigh lesser than beef cattle and carabaos.

Intended Learning Outcomes: At the end of the module, you should be able to:

1. Familiarize the basic facts about the skeletal and muscular systems
2. classify the bones in the different regions of the vertebral column and the limbs;
3. describe the features of the different classes of bones; and muscles
4. distinguish the functions of the different composition of a bone,
5. Analyse the functions of bones and muscles ‘

Take off
Bring the class to the laboratory room where mounted skeletal systems of
domestic animals are found. Allow them to see the parts with the labels. If they can
identify the part, allow them to state the function of each part. Point at certain bones,
then try to ask the name and function. Allow each student to identify a part

Learning Contents

Basic facts of the skeletal and muscular systems

I. Basic facts about the skeletal system

II. Basic facts about the muscular system

Basic facts about the skeletal system

The skeletal system provides the framework of the body of an animal. It is made up
of bones and cartilages. True bones are formed by ossification. There are more bones in
younger animals than in mature animals due to fusion of some bones as the animal gets
older. Long bones continue to grow as the animal grows, with the ossification of the
cartilages in its epiphysis. The bones of the animals are arranged along the midline/axis
(axial skeleton) and in the extremities/appendages (appendicular skeleton).

Axial and appendicular skeleton

Axial skeleton includes the bones of the head (skull or cranium), vertebral
column, and the chest (ribs and sternum or breastplate). The appendicular skeleton
includes the bones in the pectoral girdle, forelimbs, pelvic girdle and hindlimbs.
The general structures of the skeletal system is exemplified in the horse.
 Fig. Skeleton of a horse

The vertebral column is generally made up of vertebrae, an irregular bone which

varies slightly in each of the five regions in the body.

1. Cervical vertebrae are in the neck region. The first cervical vertebrae is called “
the ATLAS” and this facilitates the nodding movement of the head to gesture
‘YES”. The second vertebrae is called “ the AXIS “ and this facilitates the
horizontal movement of the head to gesture “NO”.

2. Thoracic vertebrae are in the chest region. cattle and horses have long dorsal
processes where hump muscles are attached.

3. Lumbar vertebrae are found in the abdominal region. In most animals, this have
wide and flat horizontal transverse processes (protrusions) providing the space for
muscles and accommodates riders at the back.

4. Sacral vertebrae are found in the pelvic or hip region. it is a fused bone.

5. Coccygeal or caudal vertebrae are the bones forming the tail. They vary in length
from one animal to another. Its size becomes smaller caudally.

In poultry, the lumbar and sacral vertebrae are fused, called lumbosacral
vertebrae and the coccygeal vertebrae is very short, called pygostyle.

Table 8. Vertebral formula of domestic animals

animal cervical thoracic lumbar sacral caudal

horse 7 18 6 5 15-20
cattle 7 13 6 5 18-20
sheep 7 13 6 4 16-20
goat 7 13 7 4 12
pig 7 14-15 6 4 20-23
dog 7 13 7 3 20-23
man 7 12 5 5 4

chicken 14 7 lumbosacral 14 pygostyle 6

Frandson, et al., 7th ed.

Each animal have different number of vertebrae making up its backbone

Poultry have more cervical vertebrae than livestock animals. However, ostrich who
are known to have longer neck than other birds, have basically the same number of
cervical vertebrae, (14)
Most animals have seven cervical vertebrae, including giraffes who stands 19 feet
tall.
Animals have MORE BONES AT BIRTH than after they finished growing because as
they get older, some of the smaller bones fuse to make bigger bones.

Appendicular skeleton

In Fig. 11, the bones in the front (forelegs or forelimbs) and the back (hindlegs or
hindlimbs) are identified in Table 9. The girdles are fused bones that form the shoulders
and the hips (pelvis).

Table 9. Bones in appendicular skeleton of an animal

PECTORAL GIRDLE/shoulder bone PELVIC GIRDLE/hip bone

Scapula (shoulder blade) Ilium (pin bone)
Clavicle (collar bone or wishbone in poultry) Ischium
Coracoid Pubis (pelvis)
PECTORAL LIMBS /forelimbs PELVIC LIMBS/hindlimbs
Humerus (arm) Femur (thigh)
Radius and ulna (forearms) Tibia and fibula (legs)
Carpus (wrist/knee) Tarsus (hock)
Metacarpus (cannon bones) Metatarsus (cannon bones
Phalanges (digits) Phalanges (digits)

In poultry, the pectoral girdle and limbs are modified into wings. Some bones are
fused and become vestigial.
Dewclaws correspond to the thumb in humans which is found as the first digit in
the dogs and cats and as the second and fifth digits in cattle, sheep and goats
The 3rd and 4th digits are the two principal toes in cattle, sheep and goats. This makes
up the cloven-footed animals’ toes.
The 3rd digit is the principal digit used by horses.
Classification of Bones

1. Long bones – relatively long bones with cylindrical shaft (diaphysis) and two
extremities (epiphysis). It is greater in one direction than any other.
Functions as levers and supports for movements of the body
Examples – humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia, fibula, metacarpus, metatarsus

2. Short bones – bones approximately equal on all sides

Functions to absorb concussions
Examples – carpus and tarsus

3. Flat bones – relatively thin bone expanded in two dimensions

Functions for protection of vital organs such as the brain, heart and lungs
Examples – cranium, scapula, sternum, pelvic bones

4. Sesamoid bones – like sesame seeds, bones developed along the course of tendons
Functions to reduce friction or change the course of tendons
Example – patella or knee cap (largest sesamoid bone)

5. Irregular bones – unpaired bones having irregular shapes

Functions to protect
 Example – vertebrae

6. Pneumatic bones – bones containing air spaces or sinuses that communicate with the
exterior. Found in birds which enable them to fly. Some part of some of the air sacs
grow into some of the bird’s bones. Air sacs involve the bones and are seen in fossils.
MAXILLA is an example of a pneumatic bone fond in horses.

FEMUR -is the longest bone

STAPES or STIRRUP – smallest bone, found in the three bones of the ears.
ENAMEL of the teeth – hardest substance in the bone owing to its big amounts of Ca salts

Functions of the bones

1. Provides the basis of the external structure and appearance of an animal. (framework)
2. Protects the vital organs of the body (central nervous system is protected by the
cranium and the vertebral column, heart and the lungs is protected by the rib cage and
the urogenital system is protected by the pelvic girdle)
3. Acts as levers and supports the muscular activities for locomotion, defense, offense,
grasping and others
4. Serve as dynamic storage area for minerals (Calcium and phosphorous) which are
deposited and withdrawn as needed by the body.
5. Provides a site for blood formation (blood cells are formed in the bone marrow)

Composition of Bones

Bones are living tissues packed with living cells called osteocytes. Each osteocyte is
housed on its own hole or lacuna and are clustered into the called haversian system. In
some parts of each bone, there are special cells called osteoblasts which make new
bone. In other parts, cells called osteoclasts, break up old bones.

A bone has a hard outer covering called periosteum. Beneath it is a compact

bone where food and oxygen move along blood vessels in the Haversian canals. Compact
bone is reinforced by strong rods called osteons. The outer layer, the compact bone is
hard and very strong, but the inner layer, the spongy bone is very light due to the
presence of many thin struts or trabeculae. The innermost is a cavity filled with soft, jelly-
like substance called bone marrow.

In young animals, bone marrow is colored red,

and as the animal gets older, the marrow in some bones becomes yellowish

Bones are made up of organic and inorganic matter.

1. Organic matter – provides toughness, elasticity and resilience

If a bone is heated, it becomes brittle and easily breaks or fractured. This happens
when an animal gets older.

2. Inorganic matter – provides hardness and rigidity

If a bone is soaked in dilute acid, it becomes flexible. This happens when an animal is
deficient with Ca and P.

Long bones have two parts: the epiphysis(extremities) and the diaphysis (shaft).
Bones grow by getting longer at the end -the epiphysial plate.

TENDONS are connective tissues that connects

Ancient Egyptians (3000 years ago) developed the world’s first functional
prosthetic bone (artificial bone that takes the place of missing or injured part).
The Greville Chester toe is now in British museum, dates back 600 BC. The wood
and leather Cairo toe is at the Egyptian museum, dates back between 950 to 710
BC. (Live Science
Learning Activities
Identify the axial and appendicular skeleton and the bones in it. Also, familiarize
yourself on the names of the bones and the muscles. Prepare for a practical test.

Focus on an avian skeleton. Figure out the bones and muscles present in the
Jollibee chicken joy drumstick and breast and in a Mang Inasal’s spicy paa and pecho that
you have tasted in the fast food chain.

Assessment (30 items)

1. Point in the skeleton of cattle the axial skeleton, the appendicular skeleton (2 pts)
2. Identify at least 10 bones and describe its function. (20 pts)
3. Identify the muscle used as site for intramuscular injections (2 pts)
4. The most precious muscle in pigs ( 1 pt)

Self - Reflect

With bones serving as framework of the body and the muscles providing its shape,
can the animal survive with these parts only? Which parts of the body directs their
actions? their movements?
 Module 3
Nervous System

Overview

This module introduces you to appreciate the nervous system, the brain and the
network of nerves and how it works. It will make you aware how the animal responds and
keep abreast to certain stimuli.

Is it not exciting to note that animals can behave intelligently like humans? They
follow instructions. They walk at ease during herding, but they stumble each other when
they are disturbed. What system of the body is responsible for these actions?

The nervous system is well organized so that each part of the body is connected to
this system. It is primarily made up of neurons and is supported with other cell types, the
glia (1). It is exciting to learn how this network links to take actions necessary for the
productivity and survival of animals.

Intended Learning Outcomes At the end of the module, you are expected to:

1. Identify the vital structures of the nervous systems;

2. Relate the functions of the parts of the nervous systems with the survival and
productivity of the animal;
3. Integrate values of appreciation, health and animal welfare in performing the
learning activities; and
4. Observe timeliness in submission of learning activity reports;

Take off

Discussion Activity. Discuss among yourselves and listen to the points of view of at
most five students on these questions.
1. How do drank persons walk?, talk? What do you think is the part of the body that is
disturbed?
2. Why do animals rush to the barn when they see caretakers filling the feed bunks?

Learning Contents

1. General functions of the nervous system systems; and

2. Parts of the nervous system and their basic functions.

General Functions of the Nervous System (1)

1. It controls and coordinates the functioning of the body’s organ system and their
interaction. It is responsible to the animals’ sensations of its external environments and
with conscious and unconscious activities.
2. It controls and coordinates the activities of individual cells up to the complex behaviors
of the whole animal. It is where the animal hears, sees, or feels something, then takes a
course of action.
3. It arouses the animals’ instincts for survival like becoming thirsty, getting hungry,
becoming angry, and showing fear and sexual behaviors
4. It regulates the secretions from the glands.
5. It controls the movement of muscles.

Neuron – the basic functional units of the nervous system. This is a specialized cell,
different from other cells of the body. Once neurons are damaged, they are no longer
replaced. It is elongated having long processes, that brings information towards and away
from each cell body.

Parts of the Neuron

 Dendrites – parts of a neuron whose process receives stimulus from the environment
or the body and pass them towards the cell body.

Axons – also called nerve fibers, occur in bundles called nerves and transmits
impulses/messages away from the cell body to the next neuron.

Synapse – this part connects one neuron to the next neuron or the final destination for
action – muscle cells. The synapse brings the information encoded in the action potential.

Fig. 11
Parts of Neuron

The unique structure of neurons enables the nervous system to do its work – in
transmitting electrical impulses from one part of the body to the other, at high speed. It is
very much faster than the usual flow of nutrients in the blood circulation or the passive
transport between tissues.

Nerves are special, not only because of this unique structure, but nerves also have
the property of excitability (1) . Nerves develop action potentials and relay it until it
reaches where it intends to act. For example, when piglets see the feedbunks filled, action
potentials are sent to the brain and messages are encoded until you find the skeletal
muscles in the limbs moving towards the feedbunks and stimulate the pig to eat. The
series of messages relayed is due to the transmission of sustained action potentials
developed at the sight of the feeds.

View the video on Anatomy of the Nervous System (2) and synthesize how the
network of the nervous system is organized with Figure _.

Composition of the Nervous System

Brain – cerebrum, cerebellum and medulla oblongata

CNS

Spinal cord – dura mater, arachnoidea, pia mater

Sensory – Cranial Nerve # 1,2,8

Cranial nerves Motor – Cranial Nerve # 3,4,6,11,12
PNS Mixed – (S/M) – Cranial Nerve # 5,7,9,10

Afferent (sensory) fibers

Spinal nerves
 Efferent (motor) fibers

Sympathetic nerves (thoraco-lumbar portion)

ANS

Parasympathetic nerves (cranio-sacral portion)

Fig. 12. The composition of the nervous system

As shown in the figure, the nervous system is divided into two, the central nervous
system and the peripheral nervous system. This divides the coverage of the nerves to
work at, CNS on the head and the main skeletal framework while the PNS actually are
found in the peripheries as the name implies. the figure depicts that the PNS contains the
nerves.

Sensory nerves are also known as afferent fibers as it picks up information .

efferent neurons are actually effecting the activity
turns the of the spinal nerves receives the
1. Brain – lies in the cranium, the center of the nervous system (2)
Cerebrum – largest part of the brain
Cerebellum – much smaller than cerebrum
Midbrain/medulla oblongata – lies behind the cerebellum

2. Spinal cord – main trunk for communication with the brain both sensory and motor. It
is protected from injury by spinal column. It is covered by meninges which are filled
with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

Fig 13. Subdivisions of the brain (Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals, 7th ed.)

Functions of Cerebrum
1. The seat of intelligence (memory, creativity, decision-making and reasoning)
2. Processes information from ears and is involved in the sense of hearing.
3. Motor control to skeletal muscles
4. Sense of taste, smell, sight and touch.

Function of Cerebellum
1. The center for sensory and motor coordination such as:
a. Coordination of voluntary movement
b. Regulation of posture
c. Maintenance of equilibrium

Functions of Medulla oblongata

1. Contains the control center for respiration
2. Controls heart rate
3. Controls blood supply
4. Regulation of body heat and some digestive processes

FYI… IN HUMANS
✓ Nine out of the 12 cranial nerves arise from medulla oblongata, care not to damage this
part!
✓ The brain is very well supplied with OXYGEN, short period interruption may
result in DEATH.
✓ Left hemisphere dominance causes a person to be RIGHT-HANDED.
✓ Right hemisphere dominance causes a person to be LEFT-HANDED.
✓ Left side is specialized for MATHEMATICS and LOGIC
✓ Right side is specialized for ARTS and MUSIC

Absence of cerebellum- produces JERKY, UNCOORDINATED movements and

difficulty in maintaining BALANCE

Fig. 14 Cross section of spinal cord ( Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals, 7th ed.)

The spinal cord

It is the continuation of the medulla and extends to the vertebral canal passing
through the holes in the vertebrae.
This is the main trunk of communication with the brain for both sensory and motor
messages.
It is covered by meninges filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) for protection.

Meninges of Brain and Spinal Cord

1. Dura mater – tough fibrous outer covering
2. Arachnoidea – resembles a spider web, at the middle
3. Pia mater – deepest of the meninges

✓ Meningitis – meninges that are infected

✓ Between and around the meninges are CSF which forms a cushion that protects
brain from harm.

Composition of Peripheral Nervous System

1. Cranial nerves –12 pairs emerge from the brain

2. Spinal nerves -has 31 pairs, emerge from the spinal cord.
a. Afferent /sensory fibers – enter the spinal cord
b. Efferent/motor fibers – innervates muscles and glands. Each muscle fiber is
controlled directly by branch from a motor neuron, usually under conscious
control.

Peripheral nerves are nerves outside of the central nervous system. The cranial
nerves arise from the cranium and its 12 nerves (Table 9-3) will receive stimulus (sensory)
or it will effect action (motor) or both. For example:

1. Olfactory nerve will receive sensory information and send them towards the brain
and smell will be identified (sensory)

2. Trochlear nerve will effect movements of the eyes (motor).

3. Trigeminal nerve will receive sensations of the head and face ( sensory) Also, this
nerve effect chewing movements (motor) so this is an example of mixed or both.
Table 09. the cranial nerves

Extracted from Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals 7th ed.

Stimulus and Response

Stimulus refers to any change in the environment that causes the organism to
react (5) and respond. Table __ shows how animals respond to stimuli. Sensory nerves
stimulate motor nerves to act. Examples are:

1. dusty feed sniffed in by the pigs while it eats stimulate the production of l mucous
discharge that traps the dusts to protect the lungs.
2. Objects moving towards the eyes, stimulates the eyelids to blink or close the eyes
3. Unusual sound of a cellphone ringtone inside the layer house cause the release of
adrenaline and holds the eggs from being laid.

Learning Activities
Guide questions:
1. What did the animals do when feeds are served? Or when chanted, whistled or
called?
2. If you did not bring in feeds, will they get near the feeder?
3. In this activity, identify the stimulus and the response
4. How did the nervous system coordinate this movement?

ASSESSMENT
Instruction: Choose the letter of the best answer and write in space before the number.
____ 1. Drank cowboys mumble when they talk and unstable when they walk. Which of
the following is affected with the alcohol taken in?
a.cerebrum b. cerebellum c. spinal cord d. peripheral nerves

____ 2. When native chickens rush to the farmer broadcasting cracked corn grains in his
backyard, which of this act is the stimulus?
a. Chickens rushing to the farmer c. cracked corn grains
b. Farmer broadcasting the feed d. backyard

____ 3. Cows line up to the milking parlor when they hear the compressor. Which act is
the response to the stimulus?
a. Cows lining up b. sound of compressor c. milking parlor d. cows

___ 4. The basic functional unit of the nervous system

a. Axons b. dendrites c. neurons d. synapse

____ 5. Which of this is not a function of the cerebrum?

a. It is responsible for the dog’s ability to sniff illegal drugs.
b. It processes information from ears and is involved in the sense of hearing.
c. It controls the skeletal muscles
d. It keeps the animals to move in the right posture and gait.

____ 6. Which of this is not a function of the cerebellum?

a. It is the control center for respiration
b. It coordinates voluntary movement
c. It regulates posture
d. It maintains equilibrium

III. Discussion:

1.Having learned the anatomy and physiology of the nervous system, what were some of
the most interesting findings you have learned in the response of animals to certain
stimuli (such as feeding animals).

2. Having completed this module, how do you react to the phrase “a neuron lost is a
neuron gone forever?” How can you relate this to many people getting addicted to
abusive drugs? To smoking cigarettes? And to drinking alcohol?

3. Having learned the stimulus and response of animals, how will you incorporate this
knowledge in observing animal welfare.
 Module 4
Cardiovascular System

Overview

This module studies the heart and the circulatory systems of the body of the animals,
how they are organized and how the system works relative to the health and survival of
the animal. The cardiovascular system will be dealt by connecting all parts of the body,
taking emphasis on the arteries and veins, their structures and functions.

Intended Learning Outcomes

1. Identify the vital structures of the cardiovascular systems;

2. Relate the functions of the parts of the cardiovascular systems with the survival
and productivity of the animal;
3. Integrate values of appreciation, patience and team work in performing the
learning activities;
4. Observe timeliness in submission of learning activity reports; and
5. Recognize animal welfare in dealing with animals.

Learning contents

1. General functions of the cardiovascular systems

2. Parts of the cardiovascular system and their basic functions

Take off

Take notice of a person jogging for 2-minute. Ask them what system of their body
worked? Why does the breathing become faster? Notice the cheeks getting rosy?

What makes a developing fetus in the uterus survive for 9 months in cattle? 114
days in pigs? How do they get their nourishment?

Learning Activities

General Functions of the Cardiovascular Systems

To circulate blood from the heart to the different parts of the body. It distributes
oxygen and nutrients and takes out the waste products of metabolism (CO 2) through the
blood.

The cardiovascular system is composed of the following organs: heart, the blood
vessels and the blood. The blood flows through these vessels and is circulated through the
different parts of the body.

The Heart
A cone-shaped hollow four-chambered organ with very strong walls of muscles
(myocardium) enclosed in a membrane called pericardium.

Fig. 15. The Heart and its blood vessels (Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals, 7 th ed)
4 chambers of the heart

1. Right atrium
2. Left atrium
✓ ATRIUM -Thin-walled, located dorsally
3. Right ventricles
4. Left ventricles
✓ VENTRICLES- Thick-walled, located ventrally

Atrium (plural – atria) – receives blood and channel them to the ventricles
Ventricles – being muscular, pumps blood out to the lungs and to all parts of the body

Valves of the heart

Tricuspid valve –between the RA and RV

Bicuspid valve – between LA and LV
Pulmonic valve – between the RV and pulmonic artery
Aortic valve – semilunar valve between the LV and aorta
✓ Tricuspid and bicuspid valves regulate the blood to pass through the ventricles and
prevents them from going back. This is possible because when pressure in the atria is
higher than in the ventricles, blood flows from atria to the ventricles. When ventricles
contract, its cusps are apposed making a blood-tight seal, hence blood can not go back
to the atria.

✓ During systole, where ventricles are contracted, blood push the ventral folds of the
valve to allow blood to pass through to the pulmonary artery and aorta, respectively.
During diastole, ventricles are relax, blood can not go back to the ventricles because the
valves apposed completely, thus closing the pulmonic and aortic orifices, respectively.

Systole – the contraction of a chamber of the heart in the process of partially emptying
the chamber.
Diastole – the relaxation of the chamber of the heart just prior to and during the filling of
that chamber.

Heart Beats of Domestic Animals

Table ___ Average Heart rates/minute in animals

SPECIES RATE SPECIES RATE

Cattle 60-70 Horse 23 – 70 (44)
Goat 170-135 (90) Chicken 250 - 300
Sheep 60 – 120 (75) Dog 100 - 130
Pig 55 – 86 Cat 110 -140 (120)

Circulation and Blood Vessels

Your heart and blood vessels make up your overall blood circulatory system. Your
blood circulatory system is made up of four subsystems.

1. Arterial Circulation

Arterial circulation is the part of your overall blood circulatory system that involves
arteries, like the aorta and pulmonary arteries.

Arteries are blood vessels that carry oxygenated blood away from the heart.
Healthy arteries are strong and elastic. They become narrow between beats of the heart,
and they help keep your blood pressure consistent. This helps blood circulate efficiently
through your body.

Arteries branch into smaller blood vessels called arterioles. Arteries and arterioles
have strong, flexible walls that allow them to adjust the amount and rate of blood flowing
to various parts of your body.

2. Venous Circulation

Venous circulation is the part of your overall blood circulatory system that involves
veins, like the vena cava and pulmonary veins. Veins are blood vessels that carry less
oxygenated blood back to the heart.

Veins have thinner walls than arteries. Veins can widen as the amount of blood
passing through them increases.

3. Capillary Circulation

Capillary circulation is the part of your overall blood circulatory system where oxygen,
nutrients, and wastes pass between the blood and parts of the body. Capillaries connect
the arterial and venous circulatory subsystems. Capillaries are very small blood vessels
with very thin walls. Unlike arteries and veins, capillary walls are thin enough that
oxygen and nutrients in your blood can pass through the walls to the parts of your body
that need them to work normally.

Capillaries' thin walls allow waste products like carbon dioxide to pass from your body's
organs and tissues into the blood, where it's taken away to be released.

The Circulatory Systems

1. Pulmonary Circulation

Pulmonary circulation is the movement of blood from the heart to the lungs and
back to the heart again. Pulmonary circulation includes both arterial and venous
circulation.

Fig.
16.
Flow
of

blood in pulmonary circulation

(source: Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals, 7th ed)

Blood with less oxygen is pumped to the lungs from the heart (arterial circulation).
Oxygen-rich blood moves from the lungs to the heart through the pulmonary veins
(venous circulation).

Pulmonary circulation includes capillary circulation. Oxygen you breathe in from the
air passes through your lungs into the blood through the many capillaries in the lungs.
Oxygen-rich blood moves through the pulmonary veins to the left side of the heart and out
of the aorta to the rest of body body.

Capillaries in the lungs also remove carbon dioxide from your blood so that the
lungs can breathe the carbon dioxide out into the air.

Coronary Circulation

The part of systemic circulation, where the organ vascularized is the heart. This
is necessary so that the heart will be able to do its work – that is , to pump blood to the
different parts of the body. Oxygenated blood will flow through the coronary artery then
oxygenation and nutrients will be distributed through the capillary system and drain the
less oxygenated blood through coronary veins.
Fetal Circulation

This refers to the flow of blood from the dam to the developing fetus in its
uterus. The fetus obtains nutrients, water and oxygen needed for growth from the dam
and eliminates CO2 and other waste products of fetal metabolism through its umbilicus.

Systemic Circulation

The circulatory system is the continuous system of tubes through which the blood
is pumped around the body. It supplies the tissues with their requirements and
removes waste products. In mammals and birds the blood circulates through two separate
systems - the first from the heart to the lungs and back to the heart again (the pulmonary
circulation) and the second from the heart to the head and body and back again (the
systemic circulation).

Oxygenated blood from the heart will pass through the aorta. Thoracic aorta
supplies the oxygenated blood to the head and forelimbs while the abdominal aorta
supplies the abdomen and hindlimbs. It will then be distributed through the arteries in
respective organs such as renal artery to the kidney, mesenteric artery to the intestines
femoral artery to the hindlimbs, subclavian artery to the forelimbs and carotid artery to the
head.

Capillary circulation takes place in each of the organs and less oxygenated blood will
flow through the respective veins such as renal vein from the kidney, mesenteric vein from
the intestines, femoral veins from the hindlimbs, subclavian veins from the forelimbs and
jugular veins from the carotid veins. The blood from the veins will be consolidated in
bigger vessels – the caudal venacava (from the abdomen and hindlimbs) and the cranial
venacava (from the head and forelimbs). The venacava channels back the less
oxygenated blood to the heart for oxygenation.
Fig. 16 Circulation of arterial blood (shaded color) and venous blood (light color) in
systemic circulation (source: Frandson et al. 7th ed)
The Blood’s Composition

1. Blood cells
a. Leucocytes (White Blood Cells, WBC)
i. Agranulocytes
ii. Granulocytes
b. Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells, RBC)
c. Thrombocytes (platelets)
2. Serum- yellow supernatant fluid, contains antibodies
3. Plasma – 92% water, 8% other substances

Granulocytes (WBC,)
1. Eosinophils – granules attract acids
2. Neutrophils – granules are neutral
3. Basophils – granules attract bases

Agranulocytes (WBC,)
1. Monocytes – largest WBC, develop into macrophages
2. Lymphocytes – forms antibodies
✓ Neutrophils are the FIRST LINE OF DEFENSE against infection. They can pass through
blood vessel walls and meet where the foreign bodies are and fight them.

Functions of the blood

Blood is the vehicle that brings many substances to the parts of the body where they
are needed. It transports the nutrients absorbed in the digestive tract to the uterus with a
developing fetus, to the brain that studies a lot for the midterm examination, the calcium
and glucose to the mammary gland of a milking cow and to the lean of a fattening hog.

Red Blood cells transport the oxygen which is carried by the hemoglobin
(oxyhemoglobin) and exchanging it with the waste products (carbon dioxide) in the
capillary beds. The composition of the blood do their respective roles in order for the blood
to do these tasks.

The white blood cells worked in defending the body against infections serving as
antibodies. These WBCs include the lymphocytes, monocytes and neutrophils that defend
the body against foreign bodies entering the body.

Blood Pressure

The blood pressure is the pressure of the blood against the walls of the main
arteries. The pressure is highest as the pulse produced by the contraction of the left
ventricle passes along the artery. This is known as the systolic pressure. Pressure is much
lower between pulses. This is known as the diastolic pressure. Blood pressure is measured
in millimetres of mercury. A blood pressure that is higher than normal is known as
hypertension while a pressure lower than normal is known as hypotension.

Learning Activities

Bring the class to a mock or a real animal. Cluster the students and assign them to
trace the flow of blood towards and from the kidney, the uterus, the liver and the head.
Ensure that each student know the basic parts of the system and how the blood flow
through them.

Put emphasis on these structures – veins, arteries, capillaries, chambers of the

heart, the pulmonary artery, pulmonary veins, the aorta and the vena cava.

Pre test
Instruction. Match column A with column B by drawing lines.

COLUMN A COLUMN B

1. It pumps blood to be distributed to the body a. Arteries

2. It is the chamber of the heart that is muscular b. neutrophils
3. It is the valve between the RA and RV c. plasma
4. It is the vessel where oxygenated blood flows d. serum
5. It keeps less oxygenated blood back to the heart e. fetal circulation
6. It nourishes the heart f. heart
7. It nourishes the developing fetus from dam’s foods g. atrium
8. Its thin structure allows gas and nutrient exchange h. ventricles
9. It serves as soldiers of the body. i. tricuspid valve
10. It is the fluid portion of the blood. j. valves of the veins
k. coronary circulation
l. capillaries
Assessment
Prepare a music video with illustrations on the flow of blood from the chambers of the
heart to
a. the mammary gland of a milking cow.
Then, make a catchy title and upload on fb. This must gain you at least 100 likes.