Henry Dave Demorito

14-5

Absorption is the conversion of the sound energy to other forms of energy. The combined effect of scattering and
absorption is called attenuation.

14-6

Wave absorption by the atmosphere is analogous to an I2R power loss. Once absorbed, the energy is lost forever
and causes an attenuation (reduction) in the voltage and magnetic field intensities and a corresponding reduction in
power density

14-7

Sound waves travel outward in straight lines from their source until something interferes with their path. When
sound changes mediums (enters a different material) at an angle other that 90 degrees, it is bent from its original
direction. This change in angle of direction is called refraction.

Snell's Law describes the relationship between the angles and the velocities of the waves. Snell's law equates the
ratio of material velocities V1 and V2 to the ratio of the sine's of incident (Q1) and refracted (Q2) angles, as shown in
the applet above and in the following equation.

14-8

When a radio wave or in fact any electromagnetic wave encounters a change in medium, some or all of it may
propagate into the new medium and the remainder is reflected. When a reflection occurs it can be seen that the
angle of incidence, θ1 is the same for the incident ray as for the reflected ray.

14-9

It means that a signal from a transmitter may be received from a transmitter even though it may be "shaded" by a
large object between them. This states that each point on a spherical wave front can be considered as a source of a
secondary wave front.

A statement that all points of a wave front of light in a vacuum or transparent medium may be regarded as new
sources of wavelets that expand in every direction at a rate depending on their velocities. 14.10 Conducting media
provide the optimum surfaces for reflecting radio waves. It is noticeable that for HF ionospheric propagation, when
signals are returned to earth and are reflected back again by the Earth's surface, areas of good conductivity provide
the best reflections.

14-11

The most important atmospheric effects on radio wave propagation are refraction and reflection. Refraction can
occur in the troposphere or the ionosphere. Tropospheric refraction occurs because the refractive index of the
atmosphere decreases as altitude increases, leading to a bending of waves back toward the earth.

14-12

Electromagnetic interference, also called radio-frequency interference when in the radio frequency spectrum, is a
disturbance generated by an external source that affects an electrical circuit by electromagnetic induction,
electrostatic coupling, or conduction.

14-13

Ground Wave propagation is a method of radio wave propagation that uses the area between the surface of the
earth and the ionosphere for transmission. The ground wave can propagate a considerable distance over the earth's
surface particularly in the low frequency and medium frequency portion of the radio spectrum.

Advantages of Ground Wave Propagation

These waves have the tendency to bend around the corners or obstructions during propagation which makes them
more efficient and also these are not affected by the change in atmospheric conditions.

Disadvantages of Ground Wave Propagation

High-frequency waves cannot be transmitted as the energy losses are more because of the absorption of energy in
the earth’s atmosphere. These are used to cover short ranges and also involves attenuation of waves as they interact
with the eddy currents produced by the surface of the earth.

14-14

Space wave propagation is defined for the radio waves that occur within the 20km of the atmosphere ie;
troposphere, comprising of a direct and reflected waves. These waves are also known as tropospheric propagation
as they can travel directly from the earth's surface to the troposphere surface of the earth.

14-15

In reality, the space wave does not quite travel in a straight line as it moves away from the transmitting antenna.
Instead, the signal travels in a slightly downward curved path that keeps it nearer to the Earth's surface, thus
extending its path a little further than the optical horizon.

14-16

There are three main regions of the ionosphere, called the D layer, the E layer, and the F layer. These regions do not
have sharp boundaries, and the altitudes at which they occur vary during the course of a day and from season to
season.

14-17

Skywave propagation also known as the skip is a type of radio wave propagation. It is either the reflected or
refracted back waves to the earth from the ionosphere which is an electrically charged layer of the upper
atmosphere.

14-18

During typical day-night cycles, the concentration of charged atmospheric particles, or plasma, waxes and wanes
with the Sun. "In the daytime, ionospheric plasma is dense," Earle said. "When the Sun sets, production goes away,
charged particles recombine gradually through the night and density drops.

14-19

Critical frequency is the highest magnitude of frequency above which the waves penetrate the ionosphere and
below which the waves are reflected back from the ionosphere. It is denoted by "fc". Its value is not fixed and it
depends upon the electron density of the ionosphere.

Critical angle is defined as the angle of incidence that provides an angle of refraction of 90-degrees. Make particular
note that the critical angle is an angle of incidence value. For the water-air boundary, the critical angle is 48.6-
degrees.

14-20

Virtual height is the height above Earth’s surface from which a refracted wave appears to have been reflected.

14-21

Maximum usable frequency is the highest radio frequency that can be used for transmission between two points via
reflection from the ionosphere at a specified time, independent of transmitter power.

14-22
Skip distance is defined as the minimum distance from a transmit antenna that a sky wave at a given frequency will
be returned to Earth. Because of the differing heights of refraction, or apparent reflection, the radio waves hit the
earth surface at different points hence generating the skip distance.

14-23

Is the reduction in power density of an electromagnetic wave as it propagates through space. Path loss is a major
component in the analysis and design of the link budget of a telecommunication system.

14-24

A design allowance that provides for sufficient system gain or sensitivity to accommodate expected fading, for the
purpose of ensuring that the required quality of service is maintained.

14-25

Fading is variation of the attenuation of a signal with various variables. These variables include time, geographical
position, and radio frequency. Fading is often modeled as a random process. A fading channel is a communication
channel that experiences fading.