Approaches to Understanding Human Behavior 1

APPROACHES TO UNDERSTANDING HUMAN BEHAVIOR

Hira Farooq

Hira Mehmood

Misbah Arif Siddiqui

Sunain Aneel Mumtaz

M.Sc. in Clinical Psychology

Submitted to Dr. Rab

Behavioral Neurosciences (631-A)

Date:25th July’2020

DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY

UNIVERSITY OF KARACHI
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Abstract

There are many approaches which plays their part in understanding human behavior.

These include biological, psychodynamic, behavioral and cognitive. Biological approach to

abnormal psychology focuses on the biological causes of mental illness, emphasizing

understanding the underlying cause of disorders. The psychodynamic approach includes all the

theories in psychology that see human functioning based upon the interaction of drives and

forces within the person, particularly unconscious, and between the different structures of the

personality. While the behavior approach is only concerned with observable stimulus-response

behaviors, as they can be studied in a systematic and observable manner. . In contrast, the

cognitive approach views human beings as processors of information much in the same way as a

computer processes information.

Keywords: approach, biological, psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive.

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Table of Contents

Abstract ............................................................................................................................... 2

Biological Approach to Understanding Human Behavior — By Hira Farooq ................... 4

Psychodynamic Approach To Understanding Human Behavior — By Misbah Arif ....... 13

Behaviorist Approach To Understand Human Behavior — By Hira Mehmood .............. 21

Cognitive Approach In Understanding Human Behavior — By Sunain Aneel Mumtaz . 25

Approaches to Understanding Human Behavior 4

Why do you act the way you do? Have you ever wondered why some people are the life

of the party and others prefer to curl up with a good book? Or why you remember certain events

but not others? There are many theories about, and approaches to, behavioral change derived

from disciplines such as psychology. These theories focus on a number of different levels: the

enabling environment; the community; the interpersonal; or the individual. What matters is not

only which behavior change intervention or policy is implemented, but how. This can be

explained by biological, psychodynamic, behavioral and cognitive approaches.

Biological Approach to Understanding Human Behavior — By Hira Farooq

This approach to abnormal psychology focuses on the biological causes of mental illness,

emphasizing understanding the underlying cause of disorders, which might include genetic

inheritance, related physical illnesses, infections, and chemical imbalances. Medical treatments

are often pharmacological in nature, although medication is often used in conjunction with some

type of psychotherapy.

The medical or biological perspective holds the belief that most or all abnormal behavior

can be attributed to a medical factor; assuming all psychological disorders are diseases. All

behaviors are determined by genetic, physiological and neurological factors.

History

The Greek physician Hippocrates, who is considered to be the father of Western medicine,

played a major role in the biological tradition. Hippocrates and his associates wrote the Hippocratic

Corpus between 450 and 350 BC, in which they suggested that abnormal behaviors can be treated

like any other disease. Hippocrates viewed the brain as the seat

of consciousness, emotion, intelligence, and wisdom and believed that disorders involving these

functions would logically be located in the brain.

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These ideas of Hippocrates and his associates were later adopted by Galen,

the Roman physician. Galen extended these ideas and developed a strong and influential school of

thought within the biological tradition that extended well into the 18th century.

Normality

In medicine, behavioral normality pertains to a patient's mental condition aligning with that

of a model, healthy patient. A person without any mental illness is considered a normal patient,

whereas a person with a mental disability or illness is viewed as abnormal. Here, the Normality is

a finely working nervous system.

Nature of Psychological Development

Development is a co-construction of biological, cultural and individual factors working

together. For Example: the Brain shapes culture, but it is also shaped by culture and the experiences

that individuals have or pursue.

Stages of Behavioral and Psychological development are based on the changes in the

growth of the brain that is genetically determined.

Biological processes produce changes in an individual’s physical nature. Genes inherited

from parents, the development of the brain, height and weight gains, changes in motor skills, the

hormonal changes of puberty and cardiovascular decline are all examples of biological processes

that affect development.

Preferred Methods of Study

An experiment is a procedure carried out to support, refute, or validate a hypothesis. To

understand the biological causes that influences abnormal behavior, experiments are done.

Experiments are done on animals such as rats, dogs and often on humans.
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Major Causes of Abnormal Behavior

Biological perspective focuses on biological and physiological factors as causes of

abnormal behavior, which is treated as a disease, or mental illness, and is diagnosed through

symptoms and cured through treatment. Hospitalization and drugs are often preferred methods of

treatment rather than psychological investigation.

Biological, psychosocial and social cultural factors play a role in causing maladaptive

behavior either by producing faulty development or by increasing stress or both.

Biological factors influence all aspects of our behavior. Diseases, malnutrition, injuries and

other conditions that interfere with normal development and functioning are potential causes of

abnormal behavior.

1. Genetic Defects/Disorders

Genes are the building block of human life. A person's genes can influence all sorts of things,

from what color eyes they have to whether they develop a mental disorder. There are many

psychological disorders that are influenced by genetics, including schizophrenia, bipolar disorder,

Alzheimer's disease, and anxiety disorders. Of course, genetics are not the only cause, but they can

have a powerful impact.

Psychologists study the relationship between genes and mental health in several ways. One

type of genetic study is a twin study. Since identical twins have exactly the same genes and

fraternal twins have about half their genes in common, it's helpful to look at the prevalence of

mental illness in twins. If something is 100% caused by genetics, someone with an identical twin

who has a disorder will also have that disorder.

a. Chromosomal aberrations

• Forty-six chromosomes in the nucleus of each normal being

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• Encoded in the chromosomes is the hereditary plan

• When fertilization takes place the normal inheritance of the new individual consist of 23

pairs of chromosomes, one of each pair being from the mother and one from the father

• Twenty-two pairs of these chromosomes are known as autosomes, which determine body

characteristics

• The remaining pair is the sex chromosome

• When the chromosomes are deficient in specific genetic information the result maybe color

blindness, Down’s Syndrome

• Down’s Syndrome: A type of mental retardation in which individual has slanting eyes, a

flat face and other characteristics that produce a superficial resemblance to Mongolians

b. Faulty Genes

• Each chromosome is made up of a long molecule of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

• Scientists have shown that our genetic instructions are stored in DNA

• Genes carry the instructions for specific body traits such as eye color and blood type
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• Two types of genes: 1: Dominant Genes: Their instructions are followed even if other

member of the pair carries contradictory instructions. 2: Recessive Genes: Genes whose

instructions are not followed unless the individual has inherited two such genes, one from

each parent

c. Genetic predisposition to specific mental disorder

• Although marked advances have been made in the identification of faulty genes, most of

the information we have concerning the role of genetic factor in mental disorder is based

on family studies

2. Constitutional liabilities

It denotes the relatively enduring biological makeup of the individual resulting from both

genetic and environmental influences. The traits that are included in this category:
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• Physique

• Physical handicaps

• Vulnerability to stress

3. Physical deprivation

A wide range of physical deprivations may act as predisposing or precipitating causes in

mental disorders. These includes:

• Malnutrition

• Sleep deprivation and Fatigue

4. Chemical imbalance/Allergies
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Imbalances of neurotransmitters

like norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin and GABA (Gamma amino butyric acid) and hormonal

imbalances in the brain causes mental disorders.

Most scientists believe that mental illnesses

result from problems with the communication between

neurons in the brain (neurotransmission). For example,

the level of the neurotransmitter serotonin is lower in

individuals who have depression. This finding led to the

development of certain medications for the

illness. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)

work by reducing the amount of serotonin that is taken

back into the presynaptic neuron. This leads to an

increase in the amount of serotonin available in the

synaptic space for binding to the receptor on the postsynaptic neuron. Changes in other

neurotransmitters (in addition to serotonin) may occur in depression, thus adding to the complexity

of the cause underlying the disease

5. Brain Pathology

• About one half of the patients in mental hospitals are suffering from mental disorders

associated with toxic or organic brain pathology

• The body produces antibodies to defend itself against invading viruses and other

microorganisms, similarly, the brain has special forms to reaction to stress in comparison

with other organs

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• Stress may disrupt the delicate biochemistry of the brain with adverse consequences for

certain predisposed individuals

• Head/Brain injuries can also increase the likelihood to develop a mental illness

• Abnormal behavior can occur if the structure of the Brain is damaged

Preferred Methods of Treatment

Following are the preferred methods of treatment for abnormal behavior:

1. Drug Treatment

Some mental disturbances are associated with too much or too little neurotransmitters.

There are four main groups to treat mental abnormality:

• Anti-depressants

• Anti-anxiety (benzodiazepines)

• Anti-psychotics

• Anti-maniacs

2. Electro Convulsive Therapy (ECT)

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It is used when drugs fail to treat depressive disorders. Patient is given relaxant and

anesthesia, a 110mv shock to brain is given which causes seizure for about a minute. Patient gains

consciousness after 5-10 minutes. Modern techniques involve a mild current of between 70-130

volts. Typically, patients receive 6-9 treatments in a month. Side effects of ECT includes:

• Memory loss in at least 1/3 of the patients

• Cardiovascular change (Irregular heartbeat)

• Headaches

• General slowing of brain pattern

3. Psychosurgery

The final and most drastic treatment for abnormal behavior is the brain surgery. Areas of

the brain thought to be responsible for the behavior are partially or completely removed.

• The mode of action involves the cutting of neural tissue in the brain and was designed to

alter the symptoms of severe psychological disorders

• Psychosurgery is a treatment of last resort

Goals of Treatment

• To reduce the symptoms

• To know the underlying causes of the illness

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Psychodynamic Approach To Understanding Human Behavior — By Misbah Arif Siddiqui

The psychodynamic approach has laid its foundations on a psychological theory Sigmund

Freud (1856-1939) and his later followers applied to explain the origins of human behavior.

The psychodynamic approach includes all the theories in psychology that see human

functioning based upon the interaction of drives and forces within the person, particularly

unconscious, and between the different structures of the personality.

Key Factors of Psychodynamic Approach

• The cause of our behavior is usually our unconscious mental activity.

• We possess innate ‘drives’ (or ‘instincts’) that ‘energize’ our minds to motivate

behavior as we develop through our lives

• Our personality consist of three part: Id, ego and superego.

• Childhood experiences have significant importance in determining our personality

when we reach adulthood.

Id, Ego & Superego

According to Freud, the psyche (our personality) consists of three parts (the tripartite):

the id, ego, and superego, all developing through the different stages of life. Although each part

of the personality comprises unique features, they interact to form a whole, and each part makes

a relative contribution to an individual's behavior.

Id:
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The id is the impulsive (and unconscious)

part of our psyche which responds directly and

immediately to basic urges, needs, and desires.

Innate instincts such as the need for food, water,

warmth and sexual desires originate in our id. In a

sense, the id is our 'inner child' - it drives our

Figure 1: The ego acts as a mediator between
id and superego.
instinctive behavior from birth and expects its

demands to be met immediately, regardless of any consequences. The id abides by the Pleasure

Principle, which asserts that we seek to maximize pleasure and avoid pain wherever possible.

Also contained within the id is the death drive, a self-destructive impulsiveness which

drives us to the end of our life. It exist since birth.

Ego:

The ego develops to mediate between the unrealistic id and the external real world. It is

the decision-making component of personality. Ideally, the ego works by reason, whereas the id

is chaotic and unreasonable. It tries to satisfy the needs of the id as much as is practically

possible without necessarily understanding why some demands might be unreasonable.

The ego remains self-centered and does not give consideration to other people's needs or

wishes. It acts based on the Reality Principle, which, in contrast to the Pleasure Principle of the

id, accepts the limits of what can be obtained from the outside world. It develops years 2-4.

Superego:
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The superego's function is to control the id's impulses, especially those which society

forbids, such as sex and aggression This feels compassion for others, but understands that some

of those needs may adversely affect others. It acts as a filter for our behavior and maintains

our conscience, leading to an understanding of other people's emotions and to emotional guilt. It

develops years 4-5.

Freud believed that the id, ego, and superego are in constant conflict and that adult

personality and behavior are rooted in the results of these internal struggles throughout

childhood. He believed that a person who has a strong ego has a healthy personality and that

imbalances in this system can lead to neurosis (what we now think of as anxiety and depression)

and unhealthy behaviors.

The Nature of Psychological Development

Freud believed that the nature of the conflicts among the id, ego, and superego change

over time as a person grows from child to adult. Specifically, he maintained that these conflicts

progress through a series of five basic stages, each with a different focus: oral, anal, phallic,

latency, and genital. He called his idea the psychosexual theory of development, with each

psychosexual stage directly related to a different physical center of pleasure.

Oral Stage (Birth-1 year):

In the first stage of personality development, the libido is centered in a baby's mouth. It

gets much satisfaction from putting all sorts of things in its mouth to satisfy the libido, and thus

its id demands. Which at this stage in life are oral, or mouth orientated, such as sucking, biting,

and breastfeeding.

Anal Stage (1-3 years):

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The libido now becomes focused on the anus, and the child derives great pleasure from

defecating. The child is now fully aware that they are a person in their own right and that their

wishes can bring them into conflict with the demands of the outside world (i.e., their ego has

developed).
Figure 2: Psychosexual Developmental Stages by Freud

Phallic Stage (3-6 years):

Sensitivity now becomes concentrated in the genitals and masturbation (in both sexes)

becomes a new source of pleasure.

The child becomes aware of anatomical sex differences, which sets in motion the conflict

between erotic attraction, resentment, rivalry, jealousy and fear which Freud called the Oedipus

complex (in boys) and the Electra complex (in girls).

Latency Stage (6-puberty):

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No further psychosexual development takes place during this stage (latent means

hidden). The libido is dormant. Freud thought that most sexual impulses are repressed during the

latent stage, and sexual energy can be sublimated towards school work, hobbies, and

friendships. Much of the child's energy is channeled into developing new skills and acquiring

new knowledge, and play becomes largely confined to other children of the same gender.

Genital Stage (Puberty-adulthood):

This is the last stage of Freud's psychosexual theory of personality development and

begins in puberty. It is a time of adolescent sexual experimentation, the successful resolution of

which is settling down in a loving one-to-one relationship with another person in our 20's. Sexual

instinct is directed to heterosexual pleasure, rather than self-pleasure like during the phallic

stage.

Major causes of Abnormal Behavior

Across the five psychosexual stages, the child is presented with different conflicts

between their biological drives (id) and their social and moral conscience (supereg0) because

their biological pleasure-seeking urges focus on different areas of the body (what Freud called

“erogenous zones”). The child’s ability to resolve these internal conflicts determines their future

ability to cope and function as an adult. Failure to resolve a stage can lead one to become fixated

in that stage, leading to unhealthy personality traits.

Treatment of the Abnormal Behavior

The ego balances potential conflict between the ID and superego, and tries to reduce

anxiety. In areas of significant conflict, the ego can redirect psychic energy using 'defense

mechanisms'. The table below shows different types of defense mechanisms:

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Figure 3:Different types of defense mechanism

Freud used three primary assessment techniques as part of psychoanalysis, or

psychoanalytic therapy, to understand the personalities of his patients and to expose repressed

material, which included free association, transference, and dream analysis. First, free

association involves the patient describing whatever comes to mind during the session. The

patient continues but always reaches a point when he/she cannot or will not proceed any further.

The patient might change the subject, stop talking, or lose his/her train of thought. Freud said this

was resistance and revealed where issues were.

Second, transference is the process through which patients transfer to the therapist

attitudes he/she held during childhood. They may be positive and include friendly, affectionate

feelings, or negative, and include hostile and angry feelings. The goal of therapy is to wean

patients from their childlike dependency on the therapist.

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Finally, Freud used dream analysis to understand a person’s inner most wishes. The

content of dreams include the person’s actual retelling of the dreams, called manifest content,

and the hidden or symbolic meaning, called latent content. In terms of the latter, some symbols

are linked to the person specifically while others are common to all people.

Evaluations of Psychodynamic Approach

Strengths:

• Focused on the effects that childhood experiences have on the developing

personality.

• Led to other psychologists including Piaget developing theories on

childhood. (Development theory)

• Takes both nature and nurture into account (Nature: ID, Ego, Superego/

Nurture: Parents, Childhood experiences)

Weaknesses:

• It is unfalsifiable because the assumptions cannot be scientifically

measured or proved wrong

• It is deterministic-suggesting that behavior is predetermined and people do

not have free will (Freuds psychosexual stages)

Psychodynamics Today

At present, psychodynamics is an evolving multidisciplinary field that analyzes and

studies human thought processes, response patterns, and influences. Research in this field

focuses on areas such as:

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• understanding and anticipating the range of conscious and unconscious responses

to specific sensory inputs, such as images, colors, textures, sounds, etc.;

• utilizing the communicative nature of movement and primal physiological

gestures to affect and study specific mind-body states; and

• examining the capacity of the mind and senses to directly affect physiological

response and biological change.

Psychodynamic therapy, in which patients become increasingly aware of dynamic

conflicts and tensions that are manifesting as a symptom or challenge in their lives, is an

approach to therapy that is still commonly used today.

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Behaviorist Approach To Understand Human Behavior — By Hira Mehmood

Behaviorism is a theory of learning which states all behaviors are learned through

interaction with the environment through a process called conditioning. Thus, behavior is simply

a response to environmental stimuli. Behaviorism is only concerned with observable stimulus-

response behaviors, as they can be studied in a systematic and observable manner.

We learn new behavior through classical or operant conditioning (collectively known as

‘learning theory')

• Classical Conditioning: Classical conditioning was discovered by

Pavlov, a Russian physiologist. It is a technique frequently used in behavioral training in

which a neutral stimulus is paired with a naturally occurring stimulus. Eventually, the

neutral stimulus comes to evoke the same response as the naturally occurring stimulus,

even without the naturally occurring stimulus presenting itself.

Example: In Pavlov’s experiments, he presented food to a dog while shining a light in a

dark room or ringing a bell. The dog automatically salivated when the food was placed in its

mouth. After the presentation of the food was repeatedly paired with the light or bell, the dog

started salivating when it saw the light or heard the bell, even when no food was presented. In

other words, the dog was conditioned to associate the previously neutral stimulus with the

salivation response.

Throughout the course of three distinct phases, the associated stimulus becomes known

as the conditioned stimulus and the learned behavior is known as the conditioned response.

• Operant Conditioning: Operant conditioning was first described by

behaviorist B.F. Skinner, which is why you may occasionally hear it referred to as

Skinnerian conditioning. It, sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning, is a

Approaches to Understanding Human Behavior 22

method of learning that employs rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant

conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence (whether

negative or positive) for that behavior.

Example, when lab rats press a lever when a green light is on, they receive a food pellet

as a reward. When they press the lever when a red light is on, they receive a mild electric shock.

As a result, they learn to press the lever when the green light is on and avoid the red light.

But operant conditioning is not just something that takes place in experimental settings

while training lab animals. It also plays a powerful role in everyday learning. Reinforcement and

punishment take place in natural settings all the time, as well as in more structured settings such

as classrooms or therapy sessions.

Normality

Normality is a behavior that can be normal for an individual when it is consistent with the

most common behavior for that person. In behaviorist approach, a person is said to be normal

when he has an enough range of learned responses.

Major Causes Of Abnormal Behavior

Abnormal behavior is behavior that deviates from what is expected and normal. The

major causes that lies in an abnormal behavior, according to behaviorist approach, are:

1: Adopt a maladaptive behavior. Maladaptive behaviors are those that stop you from

adapting to new or difficult circumstances. They can start after a major life change, illness, or

traumatic event. It could also be a habit you picked up at an early age.

2. Abnormal behavior can be also result from reinforcement. For example, the early stage

of drug abuse can be encouraged by positive reinforcement because of the pleasure or comfort

associated with drug use.

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Treatment

In behavioral therapy, the goal is to reinforce desirable behaviors and eliminate unwanted

or maladaptive ones. Behavioral therapy is an umbrella term for types of therapy that treat

mental health disorders. This form of therapy seeks to identify and help change potentially self-

destructive or unhealthy behaviors. It functions on the idea that all behaviors are learned and that

unhealthy behaviors can be changed.

• Flooding: This process involves exposing people to fear-invoking objects

or situations intensely and rapidly. It is often used to treat phobias. During the process,

the individual is prevented from escaping or avoiding the situation.

For example, flooding might be used to help a person who is suffering from an intense

fear of dogs. At first, the client might be exposed to a small, friendly dog for an extended period

of time during which they cannot leave. After repeated exposures to the dog during which

nothing bad happens, the fear response begins to fade.

• Systematic Desensitization: In this technique, a client makes a list of

fears and then learns to relax while concentrating on these fears. The use of this process

began with psychologist John B. Watson and his famous Little Albert experiment in

which he conditioned a young child to fear a white rat. Later, Mary Cover Jones

replicated Watson's results and utilized counterconditioning techniques to desensitize and

eliminate the fear response. Systematic desensitization is often used to treat phobias and

other anxiety disorders. The process follows three basic steps.

1. First, the therapist teaches the client relaxation techniques.

2. Next, the individual creates a ranked list of fear-invoking situations.

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3. Starting with the least fear-inducing item and working their way up to the

most fear-inducing item, the client confronts these fears under the guidance of the

therapist while maintaining a relaxed state.

For example, an individual with a fear of the dark might start by looking at an image of a

dark room, before moving on to thinking about being in a dark room, and then actually

confronting his fear by sitting in a dark room. By pairing the old fear-producing stimulus with

the newly learned relaxation behavior, the phobic response can be reduced or even eliminated.

• Aversion Therapy: This process involves pairing an undesirable behavior

with an aversive stimulus in the hope that the unwanted behavior will eventually be

reduced. For example, someone suffering from alcoholism might take disulfiram, a drug

which causes severe symptoms (such as headaches, nausea, anxiety, and vomiting) when

combined with alcohol.

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Cognitive Approach In Understanding Human Behavior — By Sunain Aneel Mumtaz

The cognitive approach in psychology is a relatively modern approach to human behavior

that focuses on how we think. It assumes that our thought processes affect the way in which we

behave. In contrast, other approaches take other factors into account, such as the biological

approach, which acknowledges the influences of genetics and chemical imbalances on our

behavior. It views human beings as processors of information much in the same way as a

computer processes information.

The brain organizes and manipulates information from daily life. This can be seen in the

‘cognitive triad’ (what we think about ourselves and the world affects how we feel about

ourselves and the world, which affects the way we act). Cognitive theory contends that solutions

to problems take the form of algorithms, heuristics, or insights. Major areas of research in

cognitive psychology include perception, memory, categorization, knowledge representation,

numerical cognition, language, and thinking. The proper functioning and ability to use the

cognitive processes is considered as the normal human behavior.

Assumptions by Cognitive Approach

1. The mind actively processes information from our senses (touch, taste etc.).

2. Between stimulus and response are complex mental processes, which can be studied

scientifically.

3. Humans can be seen as data processing systems.

4. The workings of a computer and the human mind are alike – they encode and store

information, and they have outputs.

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Mediational Process

• The cognitive approach believes that internal mental behavior can be scientifically

studied using experiments. Cognitive psychology assumes that a mediational process

occurs between stimulus/input and response/output. The mediational (i.e., mental) event

could be memory, perception, attention or problem solving, etc. These are known as

mediational processes because they mediate (i.e., go-between) between the stimulus and

the response. They come after the stimulus and before the response.

• Therefore, cognitive psychologists’ say if you want to understand behavior, you have to

understand these mediational processes.

Information Processing Model

This model describes the mind as if a computer, in terms of the relationship between

incoming information to be encoded (from the senses), manipulating this mentally (e.g. storage,

a decision), and consequently directing an output (e.g. a behavior, emotion). In recent decades,

newer models including Computational and Connectionists models have taken some attention

away from the previously dominant information-processing analogy:

• The Computational model similarly compares with a computer, but focuses more on how

we structure the process of reaching the behavioral output (i.e. the aim, strategy and

action taken), without specifying when/how much information is dealt with.

• The Connectionist model takes a neural line of thought; it looks at the mind as a complex

network of neurons, which activate in regular configurations that characterize known

associations between stimuli.

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Selective Attention

When we are selectively attending to one activity, we tend to ignore other stimulation,

although our attention can be distracted by something else, like the telephone ringing or someone

using our name.

Psychologists are interested in what makes us attend to one thing rather than another

(selective attention); why we sometimes switch our attention to something that was previously

unattended (e.g. Cocktail Party Syndrome), and how many things we can attend to at the same

time (attentional capacity).

The Role of Schemas

A key concept to the approach is the schema, an internal ‘script’ for how to act or what to

expect from a given situation. For example, gender schemas assume how males/females behave

and how is best to respond accordingly, e.g. a child may assume that all boys enjoy playing

football. Schemas are like stereotypes, and alter mental processing of incoming information;

their role in eyewitness testimony can be negative, as what somebody expects to see may distort

their memory of was actually witnessed.

The Nature of Psychological Development

Jean Piaget, a Swiss developmental psychologist , proposed a theory of intellectual or

cognitive development in 1936. It focuses on children, from birth through adolescence, and

characterizes different stages of development, including:

• language
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• morals

• memory

• reasoning

There are four stages in all:

• sensorimotor stage

• preoperational stage

• concrete operational stage

• formal operational stage

The stages cover a range of ages from birth to 2 years old to young adulthood.

1. Sensorimotor Stage (Birth - 2 years)

The main achievement during this stage is object permanence - knowing that an object

still exists, even if it is hidden.

It requires the ability to form a mental representation (i.e., a schema) of the object.

2. Preoperational Stage (2 - 7 years)

During this stage, young children can think about things symbolically. This is the ability

to make one thing - a word or an object - stand for something other than itself.
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Thinking is still egocentric, and the infant has difficulty taking the viewpoint of others.

3. Concrete Operational Stage (7 - 11 years)

Piaget considered the concrete stage a major turning point in the child's cognitive

development because it marks the beginning of logical or operational thought.

This means the child can work things out internally in their head (rather than physically

try things out in the real world).

Children can conserve number (age 6), mass (age 7), and weight (age 9). Conservation is

the understanding that something stays the same in quantity even though its appearance

changes.

4. Formal Operational Stage (11 years and over)

The formal operational stage begins at approximately age eleven and lasts into adulthood.

During this time, people develop the ability to think about abstract concepts, and

logically test hypotheses.

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Preferred Methods of Study

Research methods in the cognitive approach to understanding of behavior rely on

experiments and brain imaging technologies as well as qualitative approaches to understanding

everyday memory and thinking, making the cognitive approach an example of the holistic

approach to understanding human behavior.

The Major Causes of Abnormal Behavior

Maladaptive behavior is caused by faulty and irrational cognitions. It is the way you think

about a problem, rather than the problem itself that causes mental disorders. The information

about how we think and behave can be altered by psychological therapy; correcting the thought

processes of a person who over generalizes and magnifies a particular problem. This therapy

would also stop the person looking at life in a way where they question themselves; ‘I should

have done that’, ‘I should look this way’. These feelings can create a cognitive disorder in the

brain leading to a feeling of worthlessness. Reilly (1998) demonstrated this through a case study

on treating a suicidal patient and decreasing their hopelessness.

Treatments

Individuals can overcome mental disorders by learning to use more appropriate

cognitions. Cognitive behavioral therapy is, in fact, an umbrella term for many different

therapies that share some common elements. Two of the earliest forms of Cognitive behavioral

Therapy were Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT), developed by Albert Ellis in the

1950s, and Cognitive Therapy, developed by Aaron T. Beck in the 1960s.

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT):

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Cognitive behavioral therapy focuses on exploring relationships among a person’s

thoughts, feelings and behaviors. During CBT a therapist will actively work with a person to

uncover unhealthy patterns of thought and how they may be causing self-destructive behaviors

and beliefs. CBT attempts to identifying negative or false beliefs and restructure them. They add,

Oftentimes someone being treated with CBT will have homework in between sessions where

they practice replacing negative thoughts with more realistic thoughts based on prior experiences

or record their negative thoughts in a journal.

Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy (REBT):

Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) is a short-term form of psychotherapy that

helps you identify self-defeating thoughts and feelings, challenge the rationality of those

feelings, and replace them with healthier, more productive beliefs. REBT focuses mostly on the

present time to help you understand how unhealthy thoughts and beliefs create emotional distress

which, in turn, leads to unhealthy actions and behaviors that interfere with your current

life goals. Once identified and understood, negative thoughts and actions can be changed and

replaced with more positive and productive behavior, allowing you to develop more successful

personal and professional relationships.

Evaluations of Cognitive Approaches

Strengths:

The strengths of the cognitive approach are that it is scientific and the theories can be

tested. It can also explain the irrational behavior of a person through cognitive disorders by the

process of therapy and identifying malfunctioning thought processes, giving treatment to create a
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positive outlook. This approach has given explanations to many aspects of human behavior and it

also takes into consideration many of the other approaches in psychology.

Weaknesses:

Its weaknesses are that it ignores social and cultural factors and the emotional effects of

human life. It assumes that information processes apply to everyone. The rule is however, that

the more complex the cognitive process is, the more likely there are to be individual differences