Abnormal Psychology: The Paradigm of Abnormal Behavior

Siti Nuroniah Magreth Febriola Haryanto (1511422146)

Nadia Ismoyorini (1511422119)

There are several approaches to understanding abnormal psychology, including biological,

psychological and sociocultural perspectives. In recognizing abnormal behavior patterns that are
considered complex by most experts today, the most effective method used is through these three
perspectives.

1. Biological Perspective
1.1 Medical Model
This perspective is taken from researchers from the time of Hippocrates. Where abnormal behavior was
studied from its biological causes and treatment was based on biological approaches, such as drug
therapy. This perspective led to the emergence of the medical model. In this model, abnormal behavior
is a representation of symptoms of diseases called mental illnesses. The difference between the
biological perspective and the medical model is that the biological perspective views the cause of a
person's behavior based on a biological approach, but is not considered a symptom of a disorder.

1.2 Neurotransmitters
The nervous system also has a role in the development of abnormal behavior, where the neurons that
make up this system have nerve cells that send signals throughout the body. Psychiatric drugs, such as
those used to treat anxiety, depression, and schizophrenia, affect the action of neurotransmitters. This
is because neurotransmitter abnormalities or problems are a factor in the development of abnormal
behavior.

Neurotransmitter Function Associations with Abnormal

Behavior

Acetylcholine Memory formation and contraction Decline found in Alzheimer's

control in muscles patients

Dopamine Regulates muscle contractions and Overwork can involve the

mental processes involving learning, development of schizophrenia
memory, and emotions

Norepinephrine Mental processes involving learning Irregularities associated with

and memory mood disorders such as depression

Serotonin Regulating mood states, satiety, and Irregularities associated with

sleep depression and eating disorders
Tabel 1.1 Relationship between Neurotransmitter Function and Abnormal Behavior Patterns

1.3 Evaluation of the Biological Perspective

The basis of genes in determining abnormal behavior continues to be debated today, questioning how
much genes shape behavior compared to the environment. Here are some points to consider in this
debate.

1. Genes do not dictate the outcome of behavior.

There is strong evidence of biological influences in psychological disorders, particularly
schizophrenia. However, in cases where twins share 100% of the same genes, only one of the
twins is diagnosed with schizophrenia.
2. Genetic factors create a predisposition or likelihood, not a certainty that certain behaviors or
disorders will develop.
Genes do not directly cause psychological disorders, but rather increase the risk of developing
certain disorders.
3. Multigenic determinism affects psychological disorders.
In disorders in which genetic factors play a role, multiple genes are involved, not individual
genes acting alone (Hamilton, 2008; Uhl & Grow, 2004). Scientists have yet to find any
psychological disorder that can be explained by defects or variations on a single gene.
4. Genetic factors and environmental influence interact with each other in shaping our
personalities and determining our vulnerability to a range of psychological disorders.

2. Perspektif Psikolog
This approach was originally based on abnormal behavior in sigmun freud's psychoanalytic theory.
Over time, psychological models emerged from behavioristic, humanistic, and cognitivist theories.

2.1 Psychoanalysis
The psychoanalytic paradigm is based on the belief that psychological problems stem from unconscious
repression processes including childhood conflicts and experiences. Sigmun Freud believed that the
unconscious is the repository of biological impulses and drives commonly referred to as sexual and
aggressive instincts. Freud also divided the mental structure into id, ego and super-ego to preserve the
primitive impulses of the unconsciousness, although in reality the ego gives greater emphasis than the
conscious function. In mentally healthy people, the ego has strong control to restrain the superego.
Whereas, in people with psychological disorders there is an imbalance between the 3 psychic structures
which causes anxiety, guilt, hysteria and phobias.

According to other psychoanalysts, such as Jung and Adler also revealed that the need to develop self-
potential to achieve mental health, sexual urges must be expressed or channeled into productive
activities. Therapeutic interventions based on this theory are carried out by lifting past repressions so
that clients are able to learn their fears that may have been buried. The role of parents is also very
influential, parents with high tolerance can prevent the super ego from growing too severe.
2.2 Behavioristic
The behavioral paradigm that abnormalities can be formed through classical conditioning, operant
conditioning and modeling. This means that abnormal behavior is a product of the environment or the
result of an inappropriate learning process or an error in capturing the stimulus even though it may be
the same thing learned as a person who behaves normally.

Behaviorists hold the view that the study of psychology should focus on visible behavior, not just on
the underlying motivations. The therapy that can be applied to deal with abnormalities based on this
theory is to apply systematic learning principles to change or eliminate unwanted behaviors in both
parenting and children's learning at school.

2.3 Humanistic
Humanistic theory emphasizes the freedom of the individual to make choices for his or her own life
consciously. The humanistic figure, Abraham Maslow, believed that a healthy human being will
continue to strive towards self-actualization. In understanding abnormality from the humanistic
paradigm, we need to learn to understand a person's behavior from that person's perspective, including
understanding their inhibitions and subjective views, because it is the client's subjective views that lead
to interpreting their experiences in either a beneficial or detrimental way.

The humanistic paradigm assumes that abnormal behavior is the result of a distorted self-concept. Many
abnormal cases according to humanistics are caused by the family environment. Many children feel
unable to choose or have their own ideas, too much restraint from parents can also form a bad view of
the child's self. To maintain self-esteem, a child tends to deny or deny parts of themselves which results
in a distorted self-concept. Therapy can be done by developing a positive self-concept and giving clients
conditional positive regard.

2.4 Cognitivism
The cognitivism paradigm studies that cognitions - thoughts, beliefs, expectations, and inaccurate or
biased processing of information about the world - underlie abnormal behavior. Cognitive theorists
believe that it is our interpretation of life events that determines our emotional state.

Cognitive processes can be likened to a computer. In humans, information about the external world is
input through sensory and perceptual processes, manipulated (processed), stored in memory, retrieved,
then produces behavior as the output of processing the information. Blockages or distortions in
information processing can lead to aberrant behavioral outputs. People with schizophrenia, for example,
have difficulty accessing and organizing their thoughts, resulting in symptoms such as incoherent
speech or muddled thinking. They may also have difficulty focusing and filtering out external stimuli,
such as distracting noises, which may be a problem in their early sensory processing.

Reducing abnormal behavior can be done with several therapies. A cognitive expert, Albert Ellis, used
the A (activating event) B (beliefs) C (consequence) approach to identify the wrong way of thinking of
individuals. According to him, a person's worries about the future and feelings of disappointment are
natural, however, the process of interpretation based on irrational beliefs makes a person more
frustrated.

3. Sociocultural Perspective
The sociocultural perspective believes that in understanding abnormal behavior it is necessary to
consider social and cultural roles, such as race, gender, and social class. Sociocultural figures hold the
view that abnormal behavior is caused by environmental failures rather than the person's internal self.

3.1 Ethnicity and Mental Health

As ethnic diversity increases, studies on the influence of ethnic group differences in psychological
disorders have been conducted. People with incomes at or below the minimum wage are at greater risk
of developing psychological disorders. Another example, such as differences between ethnic subgroups,
such as Hispanic ethnic differences, where those from Central America consider depression as an
important and prominent problem more than those from Mexico due to differences in educational
background.

3.2 Evaluasi Perspektif Sosiokultural

This perspective forms two viewpoints, namely the social causation model and the downward drift
hypothesis. The social causation model views that people from lower socioeconomic groups are at
greater risk of experiencing problematic behaviors because they have higher levels of social stress. The
downward drift hypothesis, on the other hand, believes that problem behaviors such as alcoholism lead
to a decline in social status.

4. Biopsikososial Perspective
Seeing several different perspectives in assessing abnormal behavior does not mean that one perspective
is right and the other perspective is wrong. The biopsychosocial perspective takes a broader perspective
in looking at abnormal behavior. As the name suggests, this perspective combines the previous three
perspectives and how each perspective interacts. One example of a model from this perspective is the
diathesis-stress model.

4.1 Diathesis-Stress Model

This model was originally developed as a framework for understanding schizophrenia. It views
psychological disorders, such as schizophrenia, as arising from the combination or interaction of a
diathesis (a vulnerability or predisposition to develop the disorder, usually genetic in nature) with
stressful life experiences. This model is also applied to other disorders, such as depression and ADHD).
Whether a disorder actually develops depends on the nature of the diathesis and the type and severity
of stressors the person experiences in life. The life stressors that may contribute to the development of
disorders include birth complications, trauma or serious illness in childhood, childhood sexual or
physical abuse, prolonged unemployment, loss of loved ones, or significant medical problems
(Jablensky et al., 2005).

Tabel 4.1 Diathesis-Stress Model

References

Nevid, J. S., Rathus, S. A., & Greene, B. (2011). Abnormal psychology in a changing world. 8th ed.
Boston, Prentice Hall.