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Magnetic levitation using diamagnetism: Mechanism, applications

and prospects
GAO QiuHua, YAN Han, ZOU HongXiang, LI WenBo, PENG ZhiKe,
*
MENG Guang & ZHANG WenMing

State Key Laboratory of Mechanical System and Vibration, School of Mechanical Engineering,
Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China

Received January 15, 2020; accepted February 25, 2020; published online May 13, 2020

As a typical contact-free manipulation technique that removes friction and contamination risk, levitation has gradually become a
preferred candidate for various applications. Magnetic levitation using diamagnetism, beyond Earnshaw’s theorem, is a kind of
passive stable levitation that can be achieved at normal temperatures with no energy input. Appealingly, most seemingly
nonmagnetic materials can be levitated in a magnetic field and can stabilize free levitation of magnetic materials. This review
focuses on the fundamental principles of magnetic levitation using diamagnetism, with emphasis on its burgeoning applications.
The theoretical basis associated with the magnetic levitation using diamagnetism is discussed by elucidating the characteristics
of diamagnetic materials, and the key levitation mechanisms are clarified. Afterwards, state-of-the-art applications in various
aspects, including sensing and measurement, actuating and micromanipulation, energy harvesting and magnetic gravity com-
pensation, are summarized and compared. Finally, the review concludes with a brief outlook on future perspectives.
magnetic levitation, diamagnetism, sensors, actuators, energy harvesters

Citation: Gao Q H, Yan H, Zou H X, et al. Magnetic levitation using diamagnetism: Mechanism, applications and prospects. Sci China Tech Sci, 2020, 63,
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11431-020-1550-1

1 Introduction erties but also clear limitations. Aerodynamic levitation lifts

Contactless levitation and controlled motion of matter are of
fundamental importance to many branches of modern sci-
ence. In recent years, levitation techniques have been
adopted in a wealth of applications ranging from materials
science to biophysics [1,2], such as containerless processing
for high-purity materials [3,4], physical properties mea-
surement [5,6], manipulation of particles and biological
materials [2,7–9], and so forth [10–12]. Substances may be
levitated by a jet of airflow, a beam of laser light, intense
waves of sound, alternative electric field and strong radio-
frequency field. Each of these methods has intriguing prop-
*Corresponding author (email: wenmingz@sjtu.edu.cn)
a sample by aerodynamic forces in a gas stream flowing from
a jet nozzle. Stability in the vertical direction can be realized
by the divergence of the jet, and the stability in the transverse
direction can be guaranteed via the centering force produced
by the increased Bernoulli force where the flow is faster [13].
However, this technique cannot levitate a sample in a va-
cuum. Acoustic levitation suspends a sample via the acoustic
radiation force at the point where the force converges [14].
The commonest acoustic levitators are single-axis types,
which generally consist of a circular ultrasonic transducer
and a reflector or another transducer. Between the two ele-
ments, the acoustic radiation force generated by the standing
wave pushes the sample to a pressure node [15]. In this
technique, the sample must be levitated in a medium. Optical

© Science China Press and Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2020 tech.scichina.com link.springer.com
2 Gao Q H, et al.
levitation suspends the sample against gravity using the ra-
diation pressure from a focused laser in air or vacuum [16].
Based on the optical levitation, optical manipulations have
significantly advanced in scientific fields ranging from
atoms to biological materials [9], but are disadvantaged by
bulky and sophisticated instruments [17], heating at the focal
point due to optical absorption [2]. Samples that are elec-
trically charged can be levitated in an electrostatic field. This
method, known as electrostatic levitation, can be applied to
conductors, semi-conductors and insulators in a vacuum
environment [3]. One drawback is the complexity and high
cost of electrostatic levitators, which require tricky operation
and active feed-back system [18]. Magnetic levitation can be
realized in several different ways. One or a combination of
permanent magnets, electromagnets, diamagnets or super-
conductors may be involved under the action of attractive
and repulsive fields, such as levitation by repulsive perma-
nent magnets with guidance [13,19], radio-frequency elec-
tromagnetic levitation [3,20] and superconducting levitation
[21]. Interestingly, most seemingly nonmagnetic materials
can be levitated in a magnetic field and can stabilize the free
levitation of permanent magnets at normal temperatures,
namely magnetic levitation by diamagnetism [13,22].
The demonstration of magnetic levitation using dia-
magnetism dates back to the year of 1939, in which Braun-
bek et al. [23] levitated tiny pieces of strongly diamagnetic
materials (bismuth and graphite) under a strong in-
homogeneous magnetic field of an electromagnet. Later in
1991, various diamagnetic materials such as water, ethanol,
acetone, antimony, bismuth, graphite, wood and plastic, were
levitated in a high static magnetic field of 27 T [24]. Berry
and Geim [25] levitated a living frog in a strong magnetic
field from a bitter magnet, which have drawn wide attention.
The levitation of creatures has demonstrated that all dia-
magnetic materials could be levitated with a sufficiently high
magnetic field [26]. Stable levitation of diamagnetic mate-
rials can be achieved in the magnetic field, and vice versa,
diamagnetic materials can stabilize free levitation of a per-
manent magnet. Geim et al. [27] demonstrated the stable
levitation of one permanent magnet by the diamagnetism of
human fingertips at room temperature. Levitating a water
droplet containing CuSO4 in a pressurized oxygen atmo-
sphere demonstrated that paramagnetic substance could be
levitated as well using the magneto-Archimedes effect [28].
Cryogenic liquid and gaseous oxygen were also employed to
levitate a range of diamagnetic materials [29].
Nowadays, magnetic levitation using diamagnetism has
boosted the recent growth of contactless devices and appli-
cations. This article systematically reviews the latest pro-
gress on fundamentals and applications of magnetic
levitation using diamagnetism. After introducing state-of-
the-art levitation techniques, we illustrate the characteristics
of diamagnetic materials and elucidate the key mechanisms
Sci China Tech Sci
underlying the research subarea. Advances in applications
such as acceleration sensors, viscosity and density sensors,
force sensors, rotating actuators, micro-robots, energy har-
vesters, are summarized and compared (Figure 1). Finally,
we discuss current challenges and limitations in an outlook
with future perspectives.
2 Fundamentals
2.1 Diamagnetic materials
The magnetic property of a material depends on two main
atomistic effects, specifically, the orbital motion of electrons
around nucleus and the intrinsic spin of the electrons, which
are associated with its atomic structure and temperature
[36,37]. Magnetic materials can be generally classified into
ferromagnets (the most familiar type), paramagnets and
diamagnets [38]. An externally applied magnetic field aligns
the moments of all the magnetic domains, and the vector sum
of each domain manifests as the magnetization of the fer-
romagnetic material. Due to the dimensions as well as
structures of the domains and their interactions, ferromag-
netic materials exhibit nonlinear magnetization behavior that
depends on the history of the applied magnetic field, which is
described by B-H curves. The induction Br remains after the
external magnetic field is removed. Different from the fer-
romagnetic materials, the magnetizations of feeble magnetic
materials can be regarded as a dynamic process in some
extent [22,39], that is, the magnetizations are linear with the
externally applied magnetic field and return to zero when the
external magnetic field is removed. Paramagnetic materials,
with positive magnetic susceptibilities, align along the ex-
ternal magnetic field and are attracted to magnetic field
maximum (Figure 2(a)). In contrast, diamagnetic material
manifests itself as a negative susceptibility, which can be
also characterized as an induced magnetic moment opposite
to the external magnetic field. Hence, they are repelled by the
external magnetic field and move toward the field minimum
(Figure 2(b)).
Diamagnetism is a quantum mechanical effect inherent in
each atom and molecule [40]. However, the diamagnetic
effect remains unnoticed generally in the paramagnetic or
ferromagnetic materials because it is weaker and can be
overwhelmed by paramagnetism or ferromagnetism. Table 1
lists the net volumetric magnetic susceptibilities of some
diamagnetic materials. Superconductors are perfect dia-
magnets because the interior magnetic field of the super-
conductor can be cancelled by appropriate surface currents
[21].
2.2 Magnetic levitation using diamagnetism
Earnshaw’s theorem proved that particles could have no
 Gao Q H, et al. Sci China Tech Sci 3

Figure 1 (Color online) Summary of magnetic levitation using diamagnetism: diamagnetic levitation (reprinted from ref. [22], with the permission of AIP
Publishing) and diamagnetically stabilized magnet levitation (reprinted by permission from ref. [27], copyright 1999 Springer Nature). (a) Diamagnetic
levitation-based rotor, reprinted from ref. [30], copyright 2019, with permission from Elsevier; (b) diamagnetic levitation-based sensor, © 2018 IEEE,
reprinted, with permission, from ref. [31]; (c) magnetic gravity compensation, reprinted by permission from ref. [32], copyright 2015 Springer Nature; (d)
diamagnetically stabilized energy harvester, © 2017 IEEE, reprinted, with permission, from ref. [33]; (e) diamagnetically stabilized microrobot, reprinted by
permission from ref. [34], copyright 2018 Springer Nature; (f) diamagnetically stabilized force sensor, reprinted from ref. [35], copyright 2016, with
permission from Elsevier.

Figure 2 (Color online) Magnetic effects under an external magnetic field. (a) Paramagnetic materials, with the magnetization direction parallel to that of
the external magnetic field, experience an attractive force; (b) diamagnetic materials, with the magnetization direction antiparallel to the external magnetic
field, experience a repulsive force.

stable equilibrium position if they are exerted by any type or given as

2
combination of 1/r forces, such as gravity, electrostatic M= p H, (1)
forces and magnetic forces [44]. Substances with positive
where H represents the magnetic field strength. χp is the
susceptibilities under an externally applied magnetic field
dimensionless magnetic susceptibility. It is weak (|χp|<<1)
move to a location featured as maximized field and cannot be
and negative (χp<0) for diamagnetic matter. For an object
stably levitated in free space. While the Earnshaw’s theorem
with volume Vp, the induced magnetic moment m can be
only applies to ferromagnetic or paramagnetic materials [45].
given by
Pushed towards an area of the field minimum, diamagnetic
materials can be stably levitated because local field minima m = p BVp / µ 0 . (2)
can exist in free space. The magnetizations of diamagnetic Here we ignore the distortion of the ambient field by the
materials vary with an applied magnetic field which can be object and the self-demagnetization in the object [25,46].
4 Gao Q H, et al. Sci China Tech Sci

Table 1 Net volumetric magnetic susceptibilities of some diamagnetic sultant force can be calculated as
materials [41–43]
( p m)
Net volumetric magnetic susceptibility F= B2Vp ( p m )gVp e z, (6)
Materials –6
(×10 )
2µ 0
V

Superconductors –10
6 where ez is the upwards unit vector. When stably levitated in
Pyrolytic graphite⊥ –450 the magnetic medium, the total force acted on the object
Pyrolytic graphite∥ –85 needs to be zero to keep static equilibrium. At the same time,
Diamond –21.8 remaining dynamic force balance requires a minimum of the
Silicon –3.25 potential at the levitation point, that is
Silicon nitride –9.0 2 ( p m) 2 2
E= B > 0, (7)
Glass –13.9 2µ 0
2
H2O –9.04 where B 2 can be calculated by
D2O –8.82 2
B2 = 2
(Bx2 + B y2 + B z2)
Bismuth –170
2 2 2
Copper –9.65 = 2( Bx + By + Bz ) 0. (8)
Gol –34.5
Then the necessary condition for stability can be simplified
Silver –23.8
as
Lead –15.6
p m < 0. (9)
Mercury –28
Hemoglobin –3.38 Based on the necessary condition for stable levitation,
Fibrinogen –6.12 magnetic levitation using diamagnetism comes in two fla-
DNA –4.99 vors: diamagnetic levitation and diamagnetically stabilized
Cholesterol –7.61 magnet levitation. Diamagnetic levitation refers to the stable
Benzene –7.68 levitation of diamagnetic substances (χp < 0) in an in-
Methanol –6.66 homogeneous magnetic field. The most representative ex-
Ethanol –7.23 ample is the levitation of a living frog [25]. Furthermore,
paramagnetic materials can be levitated like diamagnets by
immersing in a stronger paramagnetic medium (χm >χp >0),
The magnetic energy of the object can be expressed as [47] which is called magneto-Archimedes levitation [28]. Mag-
1 p neto-Archimedes levitation is considered as a variant of
Um = M BVp = B2Vp . (3)
2 2µ 0 diamagnetic levitation. The stable levitation of one magnet
As force and energy are related by Fm = Um, the by another in free space can be obtained with the aid of
magnetic force acting on the object can be derived by diamagnetic materials (such as fingertips) at special loca-
p tions [27], which is known as diamagnetically stabilized
Fm = B2Vp . (4) magnet levitation, or abbreviated as diamagnetically stabi-
2µ 0
Supposing that an object with the density ρp levitates in a lized levitation. The comparison of levitation mechanisms at
medium with the density ρm and magnetic susceptibility χm, room temperature is listed in Table 2.
the total energy of the object, including the magnetic energy
and gravitational energy, can be given by 3 Diamagnetic levitation: Methods and appli-
( p m) 2 cations
E= B Vp +( p m )Vp gz , (5)
2µ 0
where g represents the gravity acceleration. Then the re- In recent years, diamagnetic levitation has proved its worth

Table 2 Summary and comparison of magnetic levitation using diamagnetism: Diamagnetic levitation and diamagnetically stabilized magnet levitation
Levitation mechanism Diamagnetic levitation Diamagnetically stabilized levitation

Regime ( p m
) 2
B Vp ( )gVpe z = 0
2µ 0 p m

Diamagnets Diamagnets or paramagnets

Levitating objects Magnets
( p < 0) ( p < 0 or 0 < p < m )
Air or vacuum Paramagnetic medium Air or vacuum
Medium
( m 0) ( m > 0) ( m 0)
 Gao Q H, et al. Sci China Tech Sci 5

due to no mechanical friction, wear and thermal dilatations producing a local magnetic field minimum with a steep
exist. Meanwhile, passive levitation needs no active control gradient. This magnet pattern is inherently stable and needs
and power supply, which improves reliability and offers a no gluing for assembly. The linear Halbach array, assembled
long service life. from magnets with spatially rotating pattern of magnetiza-
tions (Figure 3(b)), concentrates the flux on the one side and
3.1 Levitation mechanism and configurations cancels it on the other side [49]. This array cannot constrain
the motion of the levitating object along the width of the
To levitate a diamagnetic material, the construction must not magnets. With 2D pattern repetitions (Figure 3(c)), Halbach-
only support the object against gravity, but must also ensure 2D magnet array harnesses a higher thrust force density by
levitation stability to resist certain disturbance [48]. To cal- concentrating the magnetic field on the one side and
culate the whole diamagnetic force acting on the levitated shielding the stray field on the other side using a reduced
materials, each single dipole of the diamagnetic material has number of magnets [50]. However, the Halbach arrays need
to be considered. The diamagnetic force for the entire vo- gluing for assembly [51]. The above-mentioned magnet ar-
lume can be expressed as rays can be also constructed from ring-shaped magnets
p (Figure 3(d)–(f)), which generate a rotationally symmetrical
Fd = B2dv. (10) magnetic field and stabilize all degrees of freedom except the
2µ 0 V
rotation around the main axis [52].
Thus, the diamagnetic force in the three directions can be
According to eq. (10), the diamagnetic repulsion force is
derived as
proportional to the magnetic susceptibility of diamagnetic
p Bx By Bz materials. To counteract gravity in the magnetic field, ma-
Fdx = µ Bx + By + Bz dv,
0 V x x x terials with strong diamagnetism and lightweight properties
are preferred. Pyrolytic graphite and highly-oriented pyr-
p Bx By Bz
Fdy = µ Bx + By + Bz dv, olytic graphite (HOPG), formed by accurately aligning car-
0 V y y y bon atoms on a solid substrate by high-temperature
Bx By Bz decomposition [53], are usually chosen as the levitating
p
Fdz = µ Bx + By + Bz dv. (11) parts. Both materials exhibit strongly anisotropic magnetic
0 V z z z
and thermal properties, because the atomic bonding is strong
The magnetic field distribution is vitally important for within each layer but weak between layers [54]. High-quality
stable levitation. A spatially varying high magnetic field can graphite and HOPG are considered to have the strongest
be produced by Bitter magnet, superconducting magnets, or magnetic susceptibilities among bulk materials, and their
hybrid magnets. A weaker magnetic field can be produced by susceptibility depends on the heat treatment process [55].
electromagnets, magnets in configured arrangements, or a
combination of both. For the diamagnetic levitation using 3.2 Sensing and Measurement
permanent magnets, the key is to construct a local magnetic
field minimum with a steep gradient. The commonly used In an inertial sensing system based on diamagnetic levitation,
magnet configurations are schematized in Figure 3. The the typical seismic mass (which is displaced under external
opposite-2D magnet array (Figure 3(a)), consisting of acceleration) is levitating pyrolytic graphite. Barrot et al.
neighboring magnets with different polarities, is effective in [50] developed a 2D acceleration sensor that combined

Figure 3 (Color online) Schematics of commonly used magnet arrays for diamagnetic levitation. (a) Opposite-2D magnet array; (b) linear Halbach magnet
array; (c) Halbach-2D magnet array; (d) and (e) opposite-ring magnet array; (f) Halbach ring magnet array.
6 Gao Q H, et al. Sci China Tech Sci

Figure 4 (Color online) Prototypes and schematics of measurement devices using diamagnetic levitation. (a) 2D-acceleration sensor by combining
diamagnetic levitation and electrostatic actuation, reprinted by permission from ref. [50], copyright 2005 Springer Nature; (b) inertial sensor exploiting an
inductive readout strategy for displacement and acceleration measurement, © 2018 IEEE, reprinted, with permission, from ref. [31]; (c) microscope photo of a
levitated MEMS acceleration sensor for low-frequency measurement, © 2007 IEEE, reprinted, with permission, from ref. [56]; (d) laser power measurement
based on the levitation height of the pyrolytic carbon [54]; (e) mass change recorded after applying temperature correction over 120 s for three optical powers
generated by the laser of wavelength 532 nm, republished with permission of IOP Publishing, Ltd, from ref. [57], 2018 of copyright, permission conveyed
through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.; (f) schematic of a gas viscometer using electromagnetically spinning method [58]; (g) experimentally obtained
magnetic field display of multilayer graphene suspension, reproduced with permission from ref. [59], copyright 2016 John Wiley and Sons.

diamagnetic levitation and electrostatic actuation (Figure 4
(a)). The seismic mass to be levitated was pyrolytic graphite
surrounded by an aluminum ring. The relative position in-
formation of the seismic mass was input to a feedback
control loop that maintained the diamagnetic part at a pre-
defined position. Furthermore, they presented the design of a
3D-acceleration sensor prototype that could measure the
vertical motion with a differential control system. Ando et al.
[31] developed an inertial sensor that could measure both
displacement and acceleration (Figure 4(b)). The resolution
–4 2
in two operating modes reached as low as 1×10 m/s and
–4
1.9×10 mm, respectively. Garmire et al. [56] presented a
proof-of-concept design for MEMS based accelerator (Fig-
ure 4(c)). The accelerator measured low-frequency vibration
(below 5 Hz) with a measurement sensitivity of 34 μg at a
0.1 V sense signal.
Pinot and Silvestri [54] preliminarily studied a laser power
sensor that exploited the photothermal effect of pyrolytic
carbon. Direct irradiation with a laser beam photothermally
induced changes in the magnetic susceptibility of the pyr-
olytic graphite. Consequently, the irradiating laser power
could be measured by relating the levitation height of pyr-
olytic carbon to the optical power as shown in Figure 4(d).
More recently, the same working group developed a second
configuration for laser power measurement [57]. Unlike the
first configuration, the new system detected the mass change
of pyrolytic graphite placed on a balance pan and irradiated
by a laser beam. A plot of mass change with respect to the
exposure time after applying temperature correction over
120 s is shown in Figure 4(e). It was demonstrated that the
wave-lengths of irradiating light beams affected the photo-
response of the pyrolytic graphite.
Shimokawa et al. [58] proposed a viscosity measurement
method using diamagnetic levitation. Free from mechanical
friction, the levitating graphite was rotated by an electro-
magnetically induced torque as shown in Figure 4(f). The
measurement results demonstrated that the measurement
accuracy of this method was the order of μPa·s. With the aid
of high diamagnetism of exfoliated graphene, Lin et al. [59]
reported that graphene flakes could be aligned in the mag-
netic field generated by one permanent magnet. When the
magnetic field and flakes were oriented horizontally, the
reflection was relatively high. When the magnetic field and
flakes were oriented vertically, the reflection was low be-
cause the light was transmitted among the flakes. Based on
this phenomenon, the sensitivity of graphene to the magnetic
field could be exploited in magnetic field sensors that re-
flected the actual distribution of the magnetic field (Figure 4
(g)). Later, levitation and orientation of graphene using
magnetic field were theoretically and experimentally in-
vestigated, which provided potential for the use of graphene
magnetic writing board [60].
 Gao Q H, et al. Sci China Tech Sci 7

3.3 Actuating and micromanipulation
Magnetic interactions provide improved performances for
integrated MEMS systems due to the scale reduction effect
[61]. Schemes for diamagnetic bearings range from simple
arrangements to sophisticated designs. The most straight-
forward structure consists of a ring-shaped magnet array
stator and a diamagnetic rotor. Chen et al. [62] theoretically
evaluated the dynamic stability and rotational properties of a
diamagnetic bearing. The vertical, lateral and inclination
damping as well as rotational losses caused by eddy current
effect were evaluated based on the thin-sheet model and the
image method [63]. Utilizing MEMES processing methods
and the axial variable-capacitance motor principle, Liu et al.
[30] designed an electrostatic micromotor based on open-
loop and closed-loop control (Figure 5(a)). When levitated,
the gear-shaped pyrolytic graphite rotor reached a rotating
speed of 70.0 r/min above the magnets. Xu et al. [52] com-
bined frictionless diamagnetic levitation with an electrostatic
glass motor. A piece of pyrolytic graphite adhered to a glass
flake was levitated at a height of about 100 μm and actuated
by a three-phase rotary electrostatic field generated by
electrodes fixed on the stator. The maximum rotating speed
was limited to 140 r/min by the instability caused by the high
voltage or small levitation gap. Su et al. [64] developed a
micromachined rotator actuated by a continuous nitrogen
flow (Figure 5(b)). The four-blade HOPG rotor was levitated
to a height of 132 μm above the opposite-ring magnet array,
and the maximum rotating speed was 500 r/min. Kobayashi
and Abe [65] demonstrated that photothermally induced
changes in magnetic susceptibility could control the motions
of the graphite (Figure 5(c)). The magnetic susceptibility was
changed at the irradiated side, leading to a variation in the
magnetic force. The light energy then could be converted
into rotational kinetic energy. Intriguingly, the maximum
rotating speed reached over 200 r/min under sunlight. Later,
the physics mechanism and thermal driven motion of gra-
phite on a checkerboard magnet array was investigated the-
oretically and experimentally [66].
Suzuki et al. [67] experimentally studied a contact-free
linear drive system using diamagnetic levitation. Levitated
above the linear Halbach magnet array, the graphite plate
could be motivated by a small piece of approaching magnet.
The acceleration was found to depend on the edge shape of
the pyrolytic graphite plate and the magnetic pole relation
between the magnet piece and the Halbach array. Kang et al.
[68] developed a frictionless trajectory-control method op-
erated by adjusting magnetic field distribution. To guide the
motions of the graphite levitated above the linear Halbach
magnet array, they modified the magnet rails with spacers
because diamagnetic materials were pulled into the weak
magnetic field region. The experiments confirmed linear,
pendulum and curved motions of the pyrolytic graphite
(Figure 5(d)).

Figure 5 (Color online) Representatives of actuating devices using diamagnetic levitation. (a) Photo of a levitated pyrolytic graphite rotor driven by the
electrostatic field, reprinted from ref. [30], copyright 2019, with permission from Elsevier; (b) a micromachined diamagnetic rotator actuated by a gas flow, ©
2015 IEEE, reprinted, with permission, from ref. [64]; (c) photographic frames of the rotatory motion of a levitated pyrolytic graphite by a laser beam,
reprinted with permission from ref. [65], copyright 2012 American Chemical Society; (d) trajectory control of a levitated diamagnetic graphite by adjusting
the magnetic field distribution, reprinted by permission from ref. [68], copyright 2018 Springer Nature; (e) using the microrobot to carry a microparticle over
1000 μm, reprinted from ref. [69], with the permission of AIP Publishing.
8 Gao Q H, et al.
Feng et al. [69] investigated the relationship between
passive levitation stability and the shape of pyrolytic gra-
phite by finite element analysis. Based on the theoretical
analysis, they optimized a star-shaped pyrolytic graphite and
employed it in the microrobot. By adjusting the relative
position between the magnets and the pyrolytic graphite, the
microrobot was able to convey a microparticle at a relatively
high speed (up to 20 mm/s) over a long distance (1000 μm)
(Figure 5(e)). The experiments demonstrated the feasibility
of microrobots and their potential in wide practical manip-
ulations.
3.4 Magnetic gravity compensation
Magnetic gravity compensation refers to the controlled re-
duction of gravity force inside the object, which is not
equivalent to the definition of levitation [70]. The vertical
diamagnetic force is proportional to the product of the
magnitude of the magnetic field B and vertical gradient
δB/δz. One example of the magnetic levitation positions with
respect to magnetic field B and the field-gradient product
was introduced in ref. [71]. The magnitude and direction of
the effective gravity vary continuously, flexibly mimicking
hypergravity, hypogravity and inverted gravity environments
[72,73].
With the development of superconductive solenoids and
high field magnets, magnetic gravity compensation using
diamagnetism has paved the way for low-gravity environ-
ment [70]. Magnetic gravity-compensation technology has
been widely applied in physical and biological sciences. In
the physical sciences, containerless processing technology
based on magnetic gravity compensation has provided an
alternative for obtaining high-quality products with no con-
tainer contact [74,75]. Fluid behaviors such as vibrations and
oscillations of droplets [76–78], shapes and fissility of dro-
plets [79,80], influence of hydrodynamic flow on suspended
particles [81], have also been investigated under the
weightless conditions. Additionally, the investigations on
surface effects in two-phase systems have caught attention
[82,83].
In the biological sciences, magnetic gravity compensation
has been mainly applied in molecular level, cellular level and
organism-level studies of microgravity. Biological materials
and organisms are levitated by the interaction between the
magnetic field and the molecular components, which de-
pends on the average diamagnetic susceptibility of the ma-
terial or organism [32]. Molecular level researches under
weightless conditions have mainly focused on gene and
protein expressions [84,85]. The altered gene or protein ex-
pressions under reduced-gravity conditions inevitably affect
the structures and functions of cells [32,86,87]. Meanwhile,
for living organisms under weightless conditions, the most
straightforward impact goes to the gravikinetic response
Sci China Tech Sci
[72,88]. More applications of magnetic gravity compensa-
tion in the biological sciences were detailed in the refs. [89–
91].
4 Diamagnetically stabilized levitation: Meth-
ods and applications
Diamagnetically stabilized levitation means the passive le-
vitation of a permanent magnet via the diamagnetic materi-
als. Notably, diamagnetic levitation and diamagnetically
stabilized levitation refer to two different kinds of levitation
mechanisms. The former refers to the levitation of diamag-
netic materials as opposed to a levitated magnet in the latter.
Diamagnetically stabilized levitation can be regarded as a
further variant of diamagnetic levitation [51].
4.1 Levitation mechanism and configurations
Several configurations of diamagnetically stabilized levita-
tion are illustrated in Figure 6. The basic structure is a
magnet array with alternative poles (opposite-2D magnet
array) placed above the diamagnetic material (Figure 6(a)).
Besides direct levitation of the permanent magnets, dia-
magnetically stabilized levitation can be realized by in-
troducing another fixed magnet called the biasing magnet.
When the lifting force of the biasing magnet matches the
weight of the permanent magnet, a stable levitation can be
obtained within a hollow diamagnetic cylinder (Figure 6(b))
[45]. As shown in Figure 6(c) and mentioned by Boukallel
et al. [92], the levitated magnet can be stabilized by placing
the diamagnetic material closely below it. Similarly, the le-
vitated magnet can be stabilized by placing the diamagnetic
materials closely above it (Figure 6(d)). The levitated magnet
receives an upward force from the lifting magnet and a
downward force from the diamagnetic material. Equilibrium
can be achieved when the vector sum of the lifting force,
gravity and diamagnetic force is zero. The stable levitation
interval can be extended by applying double pieces of the
diamagnetic material (Figure 6(e) and (f)). For consistency
with the literature on diamagnetically stabilized levitation,
the two configurations are differentiated by the terms vertical
and horizontal [93].
Diamagnetic levitation and diamagnetically stabilized le-
vitation can be combined to produce weight compensated
diamagnetic levitation (Figure 6(g)) [51]. The weight of the
floating specimen, including a compensation magnet, a rod,
and a piece of diamagnetic material, is mainly counter-
balanced by an attraction of a lift magnet or a ferromagnet.
Such a configuration enhances the levitation gap. In addition,
Küstler developed an inline triple-levitation configuration
based on weight-compensated diamagnetic levitation, which
simultaneously levitated the magnet and diamagnetic mate-
 Gao Q H, et al. Sci China Tech Sci 9

Figure 6 (Color online) Configurations to achieve diamagnetically stabilized levitation of permanent magnets. (a) Levitation of a magnet array over a piece
of diamagnetic material; (b) levitation of a permanent magnet via the stable effect of a hollow diamagnetic cylinder [45]. (c) and (d) Stable levitation of one
magnet by another with one piece of diamagnetic material [92]. (e) and (f) Vertical and horizontal levitation of one magnet with double pieces of diamagnetic
material [93]. (g) Weight compensated diamagnetic levitation [51]; (h) inline triple levitation in diamagnetic levitation [94].

rial as shown in Figure 6(h) [94].
4.2 Sensing and measurement
Boukallel et al. [92] designed a force sensor with variable
stiffness based on diamagnetically stabilized horizontal le-
vitation. The sensing part was a levitated cylindrical magnet
that allowed force measurement in two directions. Abadie
et al. [95] experimentally investigated a low-frequency na-
noforce sensor with two levitating magnets joined by a 10-
cm long macroscopic thin capillary as the sensing part, al-
lowing the force measurement along one direction. Within
certain limits, the displacement of this capillary tube was
proportional to the force. Over the measurement range –50–
+50 µN, the mechanical stiffness could be adjusted from
0.01 to 0.03 N/m. More recently, Billot et al. [35] proposed a
passive strategy that compensated the low-frequency en-
vironmental disturbance. A protype of the force sensor is
shown in Figure 7(a). This strategy utilized two force sensors
simultaneously, realizing a differential measurement princi-
ple that decreased the force estimation error without in-
troducing new types of sensors.
Clara et al. [96] measured the density and viscosity of fluid
using a magnet floated above pyrolytic graphite (Figure 7
(b)). The sensor mainly consisted of an actuation coil, a
lifting magnet, a measurement chamber, a floating magnet, a
piece of pyrolytic graphite plate, and a Hall sensor that
measured the levitation height of the floating magnet. Im-
mersed in the liquid, the floating magnet experienced a
buoyance force. When the lifting magnet was adjusted to
maintain the levitation height of the floating magnet, the
density of the fluid could be obtained. For the viscosity
measurements, a series of periodic vibrations were exerted
on the floating magnet in the vertical direction by the ac-
tuation coil. The damping effect induced by the surrounding
fluid indicated the feasibility of this setup for viscosity
measurement. They concluded that the viscosity measure-
ment was strongly affected by squeezing film damping as the
floating magnet was actuated linearly perpendicular to the
bottom. To improve the viscosity measurement performance,
Clara et al. [97] optimized the viscosity measurement
method by actuating a spherical floating magnet in rotatory
oscillations as shown in Figure 7(c). The generated shearing
wave could obtain a higher penetration depth than that of the
traditional resonant sensor.
Zhang et al. [98] presented a gas flowmeter that measured
the rotating speed of a diamagnetically levitated magnet
rotor (Figure 7(d)). To decrease the levitating weight and
enable rotation under a weak gas flow, a round hole was
formed in the center and three teeth were evenly distributed
along the circumference of the rotor. The measuring range of
this prototype was 0.13–1.0 L/min with the linearity of 3.4%.
Aydemir et al. [99] developed a passive microflow sensor
based on diamagnetically stabilized magnet levitation as
10 Gao Q H, et al. Sci China Tech Sci

Figure 7 (Color online) Prototypes and schematics of sensors based on diamagnetically stabilized levitation. (a) Nanoforce sensor based on diamagnetically
stabilized horizontal levitation and a differential measurement principle using two force sensors, reprinted from ref. [35], copyright 2016, with permission
from Elsevier; (b) scheme of fluid viscosity and density measurement sensor using a floating magnet actuated linearly above the pyrolytic graphite [96]; (c)
image of a floating magnet excited in rotatory oscillations in an optimized measurement sensor, reprinted from ref. [97], copyright 2016, with permission
from Elsevier; (d) schematic of a flowmeter using a floating magnet with three teeth distributed evenly along the circumference [98]; (e) schematic of a
passive microflow sensor with the measurement range of 1000–7000 μL/min, reprinted from ref. [99], copyright 2019, with permission from Elsevier.

shown in Figure 7(e). The measurement range was between
1000–7000 μL/min.
4.3 Actuating and micromanipulation
Hilber and Jakoby [100] exploited diamagnetically stabilized
levitation in a miniaturized magnetic membrane actuator
(Figure 8(a)). The floating magnet, integrated in a composite
membrane of PDMS and NdFeB powder, was levitated
above a piece of pyrolytic graphite. The interaction between
the floating magnet and pyrolytic graphite stabilized the
moveable membrane in the vertical direction. The neutral
position of the actuating membrane could be tuned by ad-
justing the diamagnetically stabilized levitation. The mem-
brane was actuated by an integrated coil driven by AC-
signal.
Moser and Bleuler [101] presented a rotative positioning
device based on diamagnetically stabilized levitation in
combination with the electrostatic glass actuators. They de-
monstrated slow and synchronous rotation in the sub-arc
second range. Cansiz and Hull [102] developed a bearing
driven by a tangential jet of nitrogen gas. The rotor weight,
compensated by a ferrite ring-shaped lift magnet, was levi-
tated between two pieces of bismuth plates. Their spin-down
measurement experiments attested that the rotational losses
varied with the frequency due to eddy currents. Later, Cansiz
[103] investigated the static characteristic and dynamic be-
haviour of a diamagnetically levitated bearing, including its
transitional and angular vibrations. A dynamic model in-
tegrated with vertical and lateral forces was constructed, and
the governing equation of the motion was simplified by using
the diamagnetic-mirror-image model. Ho and Wang [104]
designed an in-plane rotary microgenerator based on dia-
magnetically stabilized vertical levitation (Figure 8(b)). Le-
vitated between two plates of pyrolytic graphite, a triangular
configuration of magnets generated voltage by passing
through coils placed below the rotor. Their experiments in-
dicated that the induced voltage could be 1.7 mV at a radial
frequency of 21.8 rad/s.
In the absence of friction, wear and surface adhesions,
diamagnetically stabilized levitation has been attractive for
small and micro-robotic systems. A series of researches on
diamagnetically levitated robots have been carried out. Fig-
ure 8(c) shows the basic schematic of the microrobot [105].
The main components included a plate of pyrolytic graphite,
an opposite-2D magnet array and a printed circuit board
(PCB). The magnet array (forming the main part of the mi-
crorobot) was levitated above the pyrolytic graphite and
actuated by magnetic fields generated by traces in the PCB.
Figure 8(d) plots the simulated forces generated by the ser-
pentine traces, manifesting that the robot could be approxi-
mated as sitting in a parabolic potential well [34]. The planar
motion of the microrobot was driven by a magnetic wave
pattern generated by two-layer phasing of the currents, while
 Gao Q H, et al. Sci China Tech Sci 11

Figure 8 (Color online) Representatives of actuating devices based on diamagnetically stabilized levitation. (a) Schematic of a membrane actuator along
with each layer of the device prior to the adhesive bonding step [100]; (b) photograph of an electric generator with the enlarged images of a triangular
configuration magnets rotor, reprinted from ref. [104], with the permission of AIP Publishing. (c)–(e) Microrobots using diamagnetically stabilized levitation.
(c) Schematic of the diamagnetically levitated microrobot actuated by the magnetic field generated by PCB [105]; (d) simulated forces (Fx, Fy, Fz) generated
by the serpentine traces, reprinted by permission from ref. [106], copyright 2018 Springer Nature; (e) multi-agent systems using diamagnetically levitated
robots: one microrobot carried the syringe and the other microrobot actuated the plunger, © 2017 IEEE, reprinted, with permission, from ref. [107].

the vertical motion was excited by the current amplitude
[105]. Pelrine conceptualized a massively parallel robotic
system that simultaneously levitated 130 microrobots as
2
small as 1.7 mm with the density up to 12.5 robots/cm
[106]. More recently, the same research team developed
multi-agent systems using diamagnetically levitated micro-
robots [107]. Several levitated microrobots cooperated in
partial completion of complex tasks, such as controlling the
plunger for a syringe tube (Figure 8(e)). The basic dia-
magnetically levitated robots were also employed in 2D and
3D micro-assembly [34,108]. Various types of parts could be
transferred with high precision, including silicon-on-
insulators wafers with surface coatings or individual carbon
fibers, and biochemical nanoliter fluid [109,110]. Light-
weight end effectors combined with force-compatible micro-
processes were integrated into diamagnetically levitated ro-
bots for 3D micro-assembly tasks such as assembling mi-
crospheres, grasping and liquid deposition [34]. More
recently, additional rotational rather than translational de-
grees-of-freedom were imparted by applying repulsive for-
ces on the multipole magnetic robots and changing the center
of rotation [111]. Experimental results confirmed a dynamic
in-plane rotation of 3500 deg/s.
4.4 Energy harvesting
Diamagnetically stabilized levitation has provided a platform
for the design of energy harvesters in low-frequency
broadband spectra. Liu and Yuan [112,113] presented a
nonlinear vibration energy harvester based on diamagneti-
cally stabilized vertical levitation, and performed a series of
theoretical analyses. This system harvested electricity and
stabilized the levitation of a permanent magnet by two spiral
bismuth coils. Later, Wang et al. [114] designed and fabri-
cated a nonlinear electromagnetic vibration energy harvester.
The schematic of this harvester is shown in Figure 9(a). The
weight of the floating magnet was balanced by a lifting
magnet, and the levitation was stabilized by two pieces of
pyrolytic graphite plates. Mechanical energy was converted
into electrical energy by two thick cylindrical coils placed in
grooves engraved in the pyrolytic plates. Palagummi and
Yuan [115] parametrically optimized the design based on the
thin-coil model for magnetic forces analysis, and calculated
the diamagnetic force by the discrete volume method. The
12 Gao Q H, et al.
Figure 9 (Color online) Schematics of energy harvesters based on diamagnetically stabilized levitation. (a) Vibration energy harvester based on dia-
magnetically stabilized vertical levitation [114]; (b) monostable vibration energy harvester using diamagnetically stabilized horizontal levitation [116]; (c)
bistable vibration energy harvester using diamagnetically stabilized horizontal levitation [33].
levitating magnet vibrated along the vertical direction when
the base was subjected to a harmonic excitation. A root mean
square (RMS) power output of 1.72 μW could be harvested
at a frequency of 2.1 Hz under a peak acceleration of
2
0.081 m/s . Theoretical analysis and experimental results
confirmed the suitability of the device for energy harvesting
in a low-frequency ambient environment. Nevertheless, in
energy harvesters based on the diamagnetically stabilized
vertical levitation, the motion of the floating magnet in the
vertical direction may be restricted by the structure. To avoid
this limitation, energy harvesters based on diamagnetically
stabilized horizontal levitation were presented, and the
schematic is illustrated in Figure 9(b) [93,116]. The weight
of the floating magnet was counteracted by the attractive
forces from the lifting magnets at right and left sides. The
levitation was stabilized by symmetrically arranged pyrolytic
graphite. To broaden the operating bandwidth and enhance
the amplitude of the floating magnet, a bistable system was
incorporated into the design of the vibration energy har-
vesters [33,117]. The bistable magnetic potential well could
be constructed from strategically placed multiple magnets,
increasing the vertical range of the floating-magnet vibra-
tions (Figure 9(c)).
5 Summary and outlook
Magnetic levitation using diamagnetism is a rising and
powerful tool that has inspired multiple research endeavors.
In this work, we focus on the recent advancements in mag-
netic levitation using diamagnetism and elucidate the key
mechanisms underlying each research subarea. A systema-
tical review is presented with the emphasis on the burgeon-
ing applications, ranging from sensing and measurement,
actuating and micromanipulation to magnetic gravity com-
pensation and energy harvesting.
Future directions for diamagnetic levitation could involve
the optimization of existing magnetic field arrangement and
levitation mechanism for improving the carrying capacity
and levitation height. More explored stimuli could be in-
Sci China Tech Sci
corporated into sensor and actuator designs, such as optically
driven actuator using the photothermal effect [118], elec-
trostatic-field driven rotor [52], and gas flowmeter [98].
Frenkel et al. [119] demonstrated that diamagnetic particles
floating on diamagnetic fluids could be actuated by a per-
manent magnet, which was induced by interfacial phenom-
ena related to the hysteresis of the contact angle. Actuating
diamagnetic materials by this approach is potentially useful
for exploiting the properties of fluid [120,121]. Potential
applications could be further diversified but not limited to the
optimization of existing techniques. For example, a fully
biocompatible transporting method was tested in the mag-
netic transport of lipid-coated HOPG in NaCl aqueous so-
lution, which demonstrated the potential applicability in the
biomedical domain [122]. Moreover, the strong diamagnet-
ism and unique anisotropic optical property of graphene
flakes could be combined in many other applications, such as
3D patterning techniques [59] and the control and alignment
of other low-dimensional nanomaterials [123].
Diamagnetically stabilized levitation has offered a unique
capability of multiple magnets simultaneous levitation in the
vertical and horizontal configurations [106,124]. Future di-
rections for diamagnetically stabilized levitation might in-
volve multi-agent operations, which are being increasingly
enriched with multi-functionality. Combined with machine
vision or optimized end effectors, multi-agent operations
with adaptability and self-repair ability could be utilized in
sensing, scanning, surface topography inspection, or micro-
manipulations [108].
One of the most important technical challenges of mag-
netic levitation using diamagnetism is the electromagnetic
eddy current damping, as the most commonly used dia-
magnetic materials (pyrolytic graphite or HOPG) are not
only strongly diamagnetic, but also good conductors. Eddy
current damping, generated by the relative motion between
the permanent magnet and the conductor, may have an im-
pact on the precision and trajectory repeatability.
This work was supported by the Innovation Program of Shanghai Municipal
Education Commission (Grant No. 2019-01-07-00-02-E00030), the Na-
 Gao Q H, et al.
tional Science Fund for Distinguished Young Scholars (Grant No.
11625208), and the Program of Shanghai Academic/Technology Research
Leader (Grant No. 19XD1421600).
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