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The Effect of Critical Parameters of High Temperature Superconductor (YBCO)

in Magnetic Levitation Trains

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 National Conference on Mechanical Engineering
February 22-23, 2012, Islamic Azad University, Shiraz Branch, Shiraz, Iran

The Effect of Critical Parameters of High Temperature Superconductor

(YBCO) in Magnetic Levitation Trains
G. A. Shams, M. Ranjbar*, F. Barzegar

Department of Physics, Shiraz Branch, Islamic Azad University; nanoagri@gmail.com*

Abstract Introduction
The discovery of high temperature Superconductivity is a striking and fascinating
superconductor YBCO (Yttrium barium field of physics. Scientists and engineers
copper oxide) opened up a new class of throughout the world have been determined to
applications in technology. To name one, these develop an understanding of this interesting
technologies, the levitating train operating at phenomenon for many years. This
speeds exceeding 500 km/h. To study the phenomenon occurs in certain materials
efficiency and improvement of magnetic generally at low temperatures, characterized
levitation train, high temperature by exactly zero electrical resistance and the
superconductor YBCO samples were prepared expulsion of the interior magnetic field. The
by using the standard solid state reaction latter property which makes the
method. The critical parameters such as TC, JC, superconductor exhibit perfect diamagnetism,
and HC were measured in our samples. The is called Meissner effect [ 1], Ashcroft and
1

resistivity and critical temperature (TC) Mermin have a nice, not too technical
measurements were undertaken using the discussion of this property in one of the last
standard four-point probe method with an AC chapters in their textbook [ 2].The zero 2

lock-in technique and a PC data acquisition electrical resistance property which deals with
system. To measure critical current density the flow of charged particles (electron pairs)
(JC), a Vibrating Sample Magnetometer without dissipation, combined with the
(VSM) was used, and critical magnetic field discovery of high-temperature
(HC) was calculated by theoretical work. The superconductors (HTS) in and after 1986 [ 3], 3

amounts of TC, JC and HC were 91K, began dreaming up practical applications in

754.5A/cm2, and 47.6T at 77K respectively. It superconductivity technology and industry. To
is shown that the interaction between JC which name a few, these technologies from next
is one of the key parameters in generation self-healing superconducting
superconductors YBCO and Ha (magnetic electricity grids, saving up to 15% of the
field) at 77K are related to an exponential transported electricity, superconducting
decay curve. However, the value of JC is low, generators with improved performance
and instead of polycrystalline, using high deployable among others in off-shore wind
quality melt-texture and single crystalline turbines or for ship propulsion,
materials is needed to improve JC and superconducting induction heater for power-
consequently superconducting state in maglev saving metal processing, International
train systems. Thermonuclear Reactor (ITER) with the
superconducting magnet holding a very hot
Keywords: Flux pinning; Maglev Trains; plasma making possible the fusion reaction,
Meissner Effect; YBCO. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) detectors,
magnetometers, Superconducting Super
Collider (SSC), magnetic shielding devices,
superconducting quantum interference devices

(SQUIDS) [ 4], infrared sensors, analog signal
4
processing devices, microwave devices and the
levitating train operating at speeds exceeding
500 km/h. To enable the emerging new
technologies, the superconducting materials
with a superior performance can be developed
by manipulating the appropriate “elementary
building blocks” through nanostructuring. For
superconductivity, such “elementary blocks”
are Cooper pairs and fluxons [ 5] which is5
related to the magnetic flux. A more
comprehensive study can be found in recent
literatures [ 6-8].
6
The superconducting state is influenced by
three very important factors: critical
temperature (Tc), critical field (Hc), and critical
current density (Jc). The value of critical
current density (Jc) is a function of
temperature; the colder you keep the
superconductor the more current it can carry
[ 9-13]. Each of these parameters is very
7
dependent on the other two properties present.
As our understanding of these three factor
increases, applications will become more
practical. Maintaining the superconducting
state requires that temperature, the magnetic
field and the current density, remain below the
critical values, all of which depend on the
material. The phase diagram and quantum
design of superconducting parameters in figure
1 [ 14] demonstrates relationship between Tc,
8
Hc, and Jc. The highest values for H and J
occur at 0 K, while the highest value for Tc
occurs when Hc and Jc are zero. When
considering all three parameters, the plot
represents a critical surface.
Fig. 1 Quantum Design of Superconducting Parameters
According to the Consortium of European
Companies for Superconductivity Use,
(Conectus, 2007), the current global
superconductivity market including small and
large systems for research and technology
development (RTD) applications amounts to
some € 4 billion per year (2007) and is
expected to grow by some 10% by 2013 [ 15].
The work of commercialization centers on the
National Conference on Mechanical Engineering
development of new products and the
engineering needed to implement the new
technology such as Maglev. This system is an
entirely new, the first to overcome the
limitations of wheels and rail. This non contact
technology is an important economic factor.
Due to the low maintenance requirements and
energy consumption the operating cost of the
maglev system are lower than those high speed
trains. Inter structure costs are approximately
the same. The smallest magnetic levitation
train set consists of two sections depending on
passenger numbers vehicles with up to ten
sections can be operated. For high value cargo
transport container sections with a capacity of
fifteen tons each can also be used.
Magnetic levitation train is a system in which
the vehicle runs levitated from the guideway
(corresponding to the rail tracks of
conventional railways) by using
electromagnetic forces between
superconducting magnets on board the vehicle
and coils on the ground. The levitation coils
are installed on the sidewalls of the guideway.
When the on-board superconducting magnets
pass at a high speed about several centimeters
below the center of these coils, an electric
current is induced within the coils, which then
act as electromagnets temporarily. As a result,
there are forces which push the
superconducting magnet upwards and ones
which pull them upwards simultaneously,
thereby levitating the Maglev vehicle figure 2.
A large levitation force and a stable
equilibrium are obtained with a permanent
magnet and a high Tc YBCO bulk
superconductor; because the levitation force
based on flux pinning [ 16] for type-II
10
superconductors in mixed state are large
enough. This levitation force of a quasi-crystal
bulk YBCO superconductor is above 10 N/cm2
(77K). There is a large levitation force
between two normal permanent magnets, but
these forces are in scattering situation. There is
a large guidance force between high Tc
superconductors and applied magnetic field
when superconductors are cooled in the
magnetic field. Both the levitation forced
between two normal permanent magnets
(NPMs) and the guide force of high Tc
9 superconductors can be used for Maglev
vehicles [ 17-19].
11

Fig. 2 The levitating maglev train system.
The levitation coils facing each other are
connected under the guideway, constituting a
loop. When a running Maglev vehicle, that is a
superconducting magnet, displaces laterally,
an electric current is induced in the loop,
resulting in a repulsive force acting on the
levitation coils of the side near the car and
attractive force acting on the levitation coils of
the side farther apart from the car. Thus, a
running car is always located at the center of
the guideway.
A repulsive force and an attractive force
induced between the magnets are used to
propel the vehicle (superconducting magnet).
The propulsion coils located on the sidewalls
on both sides of the guideway are energized by
a three-phase alternating current from a
substation, creating a shifting magnetic field
on the guideway. The on board
superconducting magnets are attracted and
pushed by the shifting field, propelling the
Maglev vehicle figure 3.
Fig. 3 The propulsion maglev system.
Because the vehicle moves entirely without
contact it makes train travel faster easier on
environment and more economical. The
functions of the wheel and rail on a normal rail
road including support, guidance, propulsion
and breaking are accomplished in the maglev
train to an electromagnetic levitation and
propulsion system. Mechanics have been
replaced by electronics. Support magnets
drown the vehicle towards the guide way from
below, while guidance magnets hold it
laterally on trap. These support and guidance
magnets are mounted on the both side of the
vehicle along its entire length.
National Conference on Mechanical Engineering
The electrodynamics, repulsive maglev
system, originally patented by American
scientists in the 1960s, is the focus of the
development program of the Japan Railway
Technical Research Institute. This type of
system allows for a large air gap (about 15 cm)
between opposing magnets. In the
electromagnetic, or attractive, maglev
developed by Transrapid international in
Germany, conventional iron-core magnets in
the vehicle‟s wraparound arms are pulled up to
magnets under the guideway. A relatively
small air gap (1 cm) separates the vehicle and
guideway magnets. An electronic control
system ensures that it levitate at constant
height of ten millimeters above the guide way.
While levitating, the vehicle has fifteen
centimeters of clearance. The maglev train is
propelled and raid by synchronous mono stator
linear motor [ 20]. This motor is not located in
12
the vehicle itself but rather in the guide way. It
functions on the same principal as a tradition
rotating electrical motor who stated has been
cut open unrolled and stretched lengthwise
along both sides of the guideway. But instead
of a rotating magnetic field a travelling magnet
field is generated in the windings one that
paused the vehicle along the guide way
without contact. Although not part of the
present Transrapid design, superconducting
magnets can be incorporated in attraction-type
maglev systems [ 21-23] figure 4.
13
Fig. 4 Repulsive and attractive systems.
The transrapid guideway can run in ground
level or be elevated which allows to be
flexibly adapted to individual operating
circumstances. In the straight position the
vehicle can run in full operating speed.
Transrapid has very favorable alignment
parameters with small curve radial and the
great climbing ability of ten percent. The

transrapid guideway can therefore be adapted
to the landscape instead of the other way
around. The operation control system controls
and safe guards the vehicles, switches,
guideway and stations along the maglev rout.
The vehicles location is monitored by means
of a location reference system integrated into
the guide way. The only motor section in
operation along the guideway is the one in
which the vehicle correctly travelling. When
the vehicle passes from one section to the next
the new motor section is automatically
switched on. Non contact technology makes
the transrapid very fast. It is designed for
operating speed at between three hundred and
five hundred kilometers per hour. This enables
trip times on a media along distances which
have until now only that achieved by aircraft.
For obtaining higher efficiency and
development of magnetic levitation trains,
precise knowledge of the resistivity, ρ, as a
function of temperature (0–120 K), critical
magnetic field HC and critical current density
JC with applied magnetic fields for high-
temperature, high quality, cuprate materials
YBCO of known composition still remains one
of the more interesting subjects of these
materials. There is not only a technological
interest in the accurate value for the critical
parameters of these solids, especially at about
77K, but also a theoretical interest to
understand the electronic and vibration
properties, as well as the superconducting
fluctuations about TC, of these materials. This
knowledge can provide valuable insight into
the mechanism of superconductivity below
their transition temperatures, and also valuable
data to test the efficiency of magnetic
levitation trains having superconducting
magnets, which is mentioned before.
Material and Methods
Sample preparation
Electrical, magnetic and thermal properties of
high temperature superconductors are related
to the purity and processing condition of the
samples. Impurities in the materials can cause
the formation of different phases and dominate
the electrical, magnetic and thermal
characteristics which exist in the initial
materials. Many papers have been published
National Conference on Mechanical Engineering
on sample processing for the fabrication of
high quality superconductors [ 24-29]. Most
14
attention in this arena has been on the (YBCO)
superconductor in order to optimize the purity
of the superconducting phase.
Among the three most common methods for
the preparation of YBCO samples involved the
fabrication of a pressed polycrystalline disc,
flux growth of single crystals [28, 30] and 15
melt-textured growth (MTG) crystal [ 31-33], 16
the pressed disc polycrystalline YBa2Cu3O7-
(Y123) and Y2BaCuO5 (Y211) samples were
chosen and prepared by using the standard
solid state reaction method [ 34]. This method
17
allows off-the-shelf high purity chemicals to
be processed into ceramic, polycrystalline
materials. The phase diagram of YBCO using
the base compounds Y2O3, BaO and CuO is
shown by the work of Taylor et al [ 35], where
18
the superconducting Y123 and insulating
Y211 phases are distinguished.
Experimental technique
Resistivity
One of the most commonly used methods for
studying the transport properties in high-Tc
superconductors, are electrical resistivity
measurements. These measurements were used
to study the normal and superconducting states
of the Y123 materials with and without
applied magnetic fields.
The measurements were undertaken using the
standard four-point probe method with an AC
lock-in technique and a PC data acquisition
system. The experimental apparatus consists
of a He CTI-CRYOGENICS COOLER (Helix
Company) to cool the sample at a maximum
cooling rate of 1.5 deg/min, and a SRS 530
lock-in amplifier which provides the AC
current source and voltage measurements. A
resistive heater is connected to an Oxford
Instruments ITC4 temperature controller
which provides temperature control. Driver
frequencies are adjusted by using a switch on
the back of the lock-in, between 10 Hz, 1000
Hz and 100 KHz. A computer which is
interfaced to the temperature controller and
lock-in amplifier collects all the data and plots
the resistivity  versus temperature T by data
collection software written by Cochrane [ 36]. 19

The samples are mounted on a sample holder
which is a 16 pin DIL package supplied by
SPECTRUM Semiconductor Material, INC.
This type of sample holder is very useful as it
allows the sample wires to be connected with
the aid of a standard binocular microscope. To
make sure that there is no electrical contact
between sample and sample holder, a very thin
layer of mica, which is a good thermal
conductor and electrical insulator, is used.
Thermal paste (zinc oxide) is used to attach the
sample to the sample holder. Utilizing the
thermal paste reduces the time delay for
thermal equilibrium of the system. Current and
voltage wires are connected directly onto the
sample surface, or onto evaporated silver pads,
using colloidal silver. Contact resistance is
estimated to be less than 0.1 ohm. The sample
holder is then gently pushed into the DIL
socket attached to the base (cold finger).
Measurements were performed from 10 to 300
K with an accuracy of 0.1 K at a frequency of
1000 Hz and usually at a transport current of 1
mA, while sweeping upward at the rate of
1oC/minute. The sample could be rotated
around its axis and the direction of the applied
magnetic field (0 - 0.5T) with respect to the
measuring current changed.
Vibrating Sample Magnetometer
To study critical current density (JC) in high-Tc
superconductors, a Vibrating Sample
Magnetometer (VSM) is necessary.
Magnetisation of a sample in a uniform
magnetic field is related to the vector equation
B = 0 (H + M) (1)
where H is the magnetic field strength in A/m,
0 is the permeability of free space (4  10-7
H/m), M is the induced moment per unit
volume or magnetisation, and B is the
magnetic induction or flux density measured in
teslas or webers per square meters (in SI
units). This equation is valid for all conditions.
A Vibrating Sample Magnetometer (VSM)
was constructed to enable measurements of
magnetisation versus applied field for samples
up to 4mm  4mm  2mm. The design of the
instrument is related to the work of Smith [ 37]
20
and Foner [ 38]. The sample is vibrated by an
21
electromechanical driver. The sensor coils are
wound in opposition and connected in series.
The coils are axially located inside the
National Conference on Mechanical Engineering
stainless steel dewar. A computer records data
from the lock-in amplifier (Stanford SR 530)
and magnet hall probe. A reference voltage is
normally taken from the vibrator supply,
although, it can be taken from the reference
coil. Sweep rates regarding applied field can
be varied from 0.0004 T/min. to 2 T/min.
Calibration of the magnetic moment as a
function of sensor voltage was performed at
room temperature and 77 K using a pure nickel
sphere of known magnetic saturation. A nickel
sphere of weight 0.310g was attached to the
fiberglass rod by superglue and vibrated at 27
Hz. The applied field (magnetising field) was
ramped to 1 Tesla at 0.4 T/min. then ramped
down again to zero. This procedure was
repeated after reversing the current polarity to
the magnet. The resulting pick-up coil voltages
were used for the calibration constants, after
correcting for the variation of the saturation
magnetisation of nickel with temperature, (5%
increase at 77 K) [ 39].
22
Although a non-destructive method for
measuring the critical current density (Jc) in
YBCO-coated conductors by using a
permanent magnet has reported recently by
Hattori et al. [ 40] this Jc measurement
23
technique will be useful for detecting smaller
Jc regions and defects in coated conductors.
The critical current of superconductor tape and
cable is the single most important metric
required by application developers. It not only
indicates the current capacity of the wire but
also is crucial to any estimates of AC loss [ 41-24
43]. However, additional information on
calibration and design of Vibrating Sample
Magnetometers which we used in this
investigation can be found in references [ 44- 25
47].
Results and Discussions
The AC resistivity as a function of
temperature, without applied magnetic field,
for polycrystalline Y123 samples is presented
in figure 5. In this figure the general features
of the temperature dependence of the
resistivity is the same as the data reported
previously [ 48,49], which has shown that the
26
high-Tc superconducting samples are generally
characterized by a linear temperature
dependence over a large temperature range,

unless the stoichiometric composition of the
sample differs significantly [ 50-55].
Figure 5 shows the resistivity versus
temperature curves (no field case) for the
sample with oxygen content 6.96. For the
normal state the resistivity are linear (metallic)
when 6.96  7- and is  2 times larger than
for the a-b plane resistivity of high purity
Y123 single crystals with optimal doping at 90
K [36]. To account for this increase in
resistivity it is assumed that the dominant
process involves increased electron scattering
from both the small and large angle grain
boundaries associated with the different
crystallographic orientations.
0.0006
0.0005
0.0004
Resistivity (Ohm-cm)
0.0003
0.0002
0.0001
0.0000
20 30
Fig. 5 Resistivity curve for the polycrystalline Y (123) sample
containing oxygen contents 6.96
According to the Figure 3.1 the
superconducting transition temperature Tc, for
polycrystalline Y123 sample is sharp enough
and clear. Tc value is taken from where an
extrapolation of the superconducting transition
intercept the zero axis, the foot of curve is not
considered. This value is 91.0K from
resistivity and 87.5 K from thermoelectric
power [ 56] for sample with oxygen content
28
6.96. These values show that the
superconducting transition temperatures Tc, for
the polycrystalline Y123 material, determined
from the resistivity curve, again ignoring the
foot structure, is significantly higher than
those obtained from the thermoelectric power
curves. This result is not unexpected as the
two methods used to determine Tc depend on
different physical processes. Once there is a
sufficient density of Cooper pairs to carry the
measurement current in the resistivity
determination, the remaining normal electron
resistivity is shorted-out and Tc is obtained. In
the case of thermoelectric power
National Conference on Mechanical Engineering
measurements, charge separation continues
27
past the initial condensation process as the
normal electron density must be reduced
significantly before charge separation goes to
zero. The temperature gradient is still
maintained primarily by the phonon
conductivity as the Cooper pairs do not
transfer heat. It is well known that Tc
increases with the increase of oxygen due to
the broken Cu–O chains in YBCO. Tc
increases with the decrease of oxygen in Bi-
2212 due to the broken Bi–O chains during
post-annealing [ 57].The Bi–O chains of Bi-
29
2212 were broken more easily than the Cu–O
chains because the bond energy of Bi–O
chains is lower than that of Cu–O [ 58]. 30
Since the resistivities depend on the electron
contribution only, and the thermal
conductivities may be separated into phonon
and electron contributions ph and e an
Polycrystalline (Y123)
Oxygen 6.96
estimate of the upper limit for the electronic
contribution to the normal state n value can
be determined from the Wiedemann-Franz law
for sample with oxygen content 6.96 (metallic
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
state) [ 59].
31
Temperature (K)
The use of the VSM allows samples to be
measured under different applied field
orientations. Samples measured using the
VSM equipment were secured to the sample
rod by „superglue‟. Measurements can be
made for two sample orientations, Ha  c-axis
and Ha  ab-plane for single and melt-texture
crystals, but only data for polycrystalline
independent of axis are reported due to the
requirements of our concentration on magnetic
levitation train. M-H hysteresis loops were
performed at 77 K in applied fields to 1.1 T
using a 10 minute sweep time. The critical
currents were calculated using the extended
Bean equations, which give the relationship
between Jc and the magnetisation width M
for a flat plate as follows;
10M
Jc  (2)
 a 
2
a  
 3b 
where a and b are the lateral dimensions of the
sample, and Ha  plate.
Figure 6 shows the derived critical current
density Jc values and their fit curve for the
polycrystalline sample YBCO containing
 National Conference on Mechanical Engineering

oxygen content 6.96. The present VSM system Table 1 The value of constant parameters with the errors
related to the fit curve of critical current density for
is only suitable for relatively high oxygen polycrystalline YBCO.
content samples. Therefore, in the case of the Parameters Constants Absolute Relative
polycrystalline samples only the over doped Errors Error (%)
y 0 0 0
sample with oxygen content of 6.96 is 0
reported. All the measurements were X0
0 0 0
performed under zero field cooling (ZFC) 552.25113 22.45971 4.06694
conditions at the same sweep rate. The zero A1
t1 0.05182 0.00518 9.99614
field Jc value for polycrystalline YBCO 202.21156 20.93632 10.35367
sample is very low (754.5A/cm2) in A2
t2 0.53116 0.05962 11.22449
comparison with the other samples due to the
large number of grain boundaries. For MTG
(Nd/Y)BCO (Neodymium/Yttrium barium The shape of critical current density Jc versus
the applied magnetic field and its fit curves
copper oxide) crystal are 2  larger than those
related YBCO polycrystalline are consistent
obtained for the YBCO single crystal, but
with the data reported for thin film single
almost 2  smaller than the MTG (Y123)
crystal YBCO when the field was oriented
value, the last result being affected by the
perpendicular to c axis at 77K [ 61,62]. It is
33

amount of Y211 (12%) in the case of MTG

clear that the value is much lower for
(Y123). Compare to the undoped Nd (123), the
polycrystalline ≈ 754 A/cm2).
Jc of the Nd (422) doped sample is very high
Regarding the values of Jc, these results
(˃10000 A/cm2) [ 60].
indicate that to choose one of these materials
32

for the magnetic levitation trains in the

800
presence of a magnetic field, the MTG (Nd/Y)
BCO is the best choice.
600
Temperature 77 K
Based on spin-singlet Cooper pairing, one can
derive a critical field Bp, which is connected
with the energy gap  0 through the relation
Jc ( A / c m )

POLY
2

400 Fit
[ 63, 64]
34

0
200 BP   1.84TC (4)
2 B
Here,  B is the Bohr magneton. This limitation
0
-0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1
of the superconducting state is also referred to
Applied field (T )
as the “Clogston-Chandrasekhar limit” or the
Fig. 6 VSM data for polycrystalline (Y123) sample, showing “paramagnetic limit”. In the case of strong
critical current density JC and its fit versus applied magnetic coupling between the electron spin and the
field Ha.
orbital angular momentum, this limit can even
be strongly increased. Due to our
The fit curve of Jc values is related to an
superconductor with a transition temperature
exponential decay with the following formula;
91K, we obtain a value of ≈167.5T for critical
field Bp from Eq. (4).
J C  y0  A1e[ ( X  X 0 ) / t1 ]  A2e[ ( X  X 0 ) / t2 ] (3) On the other hand from a reversible Meissner
effect it turns out that superconductivity will
The value of constant parameters with the be destroyed by a critical magnetic field Hc
errors for this fit equation (3) is given by the which is related thermodynamically to the
next table (table 1). free-energy difference between the normal and
superconducting states in zero field. This is
called the condensation energy of the
superconducting state. The critical field is
related to temperature and the relationship

between Hc and T is given by the following
formula;
 T 
H C (T )  H C 0 1  ( ) 2  (5)
 Tc 
Where HC0 is the critical field at zero
temperature and HC (T) is the critical field at
temperature T. Therefore, not only it is
possible to convert a material from the
superconducting state to the normal state by
raising its temperature but also by applying a
certain strength of magnetic field to it. Welp et
al. [ 65] reported H C 2 (0) ≈130T for YBCO
35
single crystal when the field was oriented
perpendicular to a-b plane. Substituting HC (0)
≈167.5T in equation (5) will result HC (T)
equal to 47.6T for our YBCO sample at 77K,
which is acceptable for maglev train system.
Conclusion
High Tc Superconductors are highly attractive
because they can operate at liquid nitrogen
temperature. They are exciting to people in the
application research work in particular on
superconducting magnetic levitation (Maglev)
vehicle. The non contact levitation and
propulsion technology guaranties absolutely
smooth running no jolting can be felt.
Passengers don‟t have to wear safety belts and
afraid to move above the cars. The innovated
technology provided by the maglev system
opens up new dimensions in rail travel.
Travelling on the ground with maglev train is
easy on environment, safe, comfortable and
brings passengers directly to the city centers,
whether short or long haul non contact
technology makes the maglev system the best
connection. A large levitation force and a
stable equilibrium are obtained with a
permanent magnet and a high-Tc YBCO bulk
superconductor, because the levitation force
based on flux pinning for type-II
superconductors in mixed state is large
enough. This levitation force of a quasi-crystal
bulk YBCO superconductor is above 10 N/cm2
at 77K. In this investigation the critical
parameters of TC, JC and HC are measured and
calculated with the amounts of 91K,
754.5A/cm2 and 47.6T at 77K respectively. It
is shown that the interaction between JC
(critical current density) which is one of the
key parameters in superconductors YBCO and
National Conference on Mechanical Engineering
Ha (magnetic field) at 77K are related to an
exponential decay curve. However, the value
of JC is low, and instead of polycrystalline,
using high quality melt-texture and single
crystalline materials is needed to improve JC
and consequently superconducting state in
maglev train systems.
Suggestions
New applications of superconductors will
increase with critical temperature. Liquid
nitrogen based superconductors has provided
industry more flexibility to utilize
superconductivity as compared to liquid
helium superconductors. The possible
discovery of room temperature
superconductors has the potential to bring
superconducting devices into our everyday
lives. High temperature superconductors are
recent innovations from scientific research
laboratories. As you can see application of
superconductors is only just beginning and
more research (particular in critical
parameters) on melt-texture and single
crystalline materials is suggested to improve
maglev train systems.
Acknowledgement
The authors are grateful to the professional
officer, in the Advanced Electronic Material
(AEM) research group, University of New
South Wales, Australia, Dr. J. W. Cochrane for
his technical assistance and multitude of useful
discussions and suggestions, which provided
the data related to this paper.
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