Page 1

OVERVIEW: STRUCTURAL CONTROL ON THE FORMATION OF SURFACE GEOCHEMICAL

ANOMALIES

Eion M. Cameron

Introduction
The principal consumers of exploration geochemistry data are the project geologists
who run exploration programs worldwide. Some of these geologists have been discour-
aged from interpreting data employed in the search for deep deposits by explanations
for the upward migration of elements that verge on the mystical. Or by approaches to
interpreting geochemical plots that appear to derive from the precepts of Hermann Ror-
schach. However, many of the anomalies studied during this project have a clear struc-
tural connection. Of all the persons likely to be involved in the interpretation of data, it is
the project geologist who is best informed on the local structural setting, and he or she
is the person who must take the lead role in placing the data in geological context.
The following pages give most attention to the porphyry belt of northern Chile, where
anomalies are being formed at the present day, as a result of neotectonics and active
seismicity. At Mike, Nevada, there is also a correlation between anomalies and late
structures. In the Abitibi clay belt, structure does not appear to play an important part in
the formation of surface anomalies.

Evidence from the Spence Deposit

Few visitors to the Spence deposit miss commenting on the fortunate conjunction of a
major highway, a railway, and several aqueducts that either cross the deposit or run
close by. But is this a lucky coincidence or do these features follow a geological struc-
ture that played a role in locating the deposit? Most of the large porphyry deposits of
northern Chile lie close to a major structure. And notable clusters of deposits occur
where two structural trends intersect (e.g., Richards et al., 2001). The most important
porphyry-related structure is the West Fissure or West fault, a transform fault, running
north-south through the entire province (Figure 1). A subsidiary structure or lineament,
less well recognised, runs northwest from Antofagasta to intersect the West Fissure at
the site of one of the largest concentrations of copper ore in the world, around Calama
(Figure 1). This lineament is followed throughout most of its length by a railway, the
highway and the aqueducts.
The most important encouragement for the RioChilex geologists to examine the Spence
area was to work northeast along this lineament from known mineralization at Sierra
Gorda. This is over ground that is largely occupied by thick piedmont gravels. Figure 2
is a satellite view of Spence and its environs. The linear, northeast-trending features are
the highway and aqueducts. A less regular path is followed by the railway.
The Spence deposit contains 400 Mt grading 1% Cu. Mineralization is associated with
three quartz-feldspar porphyries plugs intruded into andesitic volcanic rocks along a
north-northeast trend. Supergene alteration produced a leached cap - enriched oxide
zone overlying an enriched sulphide zone with underlying primary sulphides. The de-
posit was later covered by 30 - 180 m of piedmont gravels, thinning from north to south.
A typical geological section across the northern half of the deposit is shown in Figure 3.
At this and other sites we chose to sample just one line at close intervals, the line being
 Page 2
orientated across the dominant structural trend.
By measuring the conductivity of soil-deionised
water slurries in the field we were able to estab-
Cerro lish zones where water-soluble salts, mainly
Colorado NaCl, are present. On the sampled line there
are two such zones (Figure 4), which we attrib-
uted to seismic pumping of saline, mineralized
groundwater up fractures in the gravel cover to
the surface, followed by the evapouration of the
water. One zone is directly over the Spence de-
posit, the “Deposit Fracture Zone” and the other
El Abra 1 km to the east, the Eastern Fracture Zone.
Part of the study involved sampling and analysis
Chuquicamata Radomiro Tomic of the groundwaters at Spence (Leybourne and
Cameron, 2000a, 2000b) and this showed that
Spence Calama
the same elements dissolved in the groundwa-
Sierra Gorda Gaby Sur ters are anomalous in the soils above these
fracture zones. With the notable exception of
Cu, most of these elements are more abundant
in the soils above the Eastern Fracture Zone
Antofagasta Manto Blancos than the Deposit Fracture Zone and it is possi-
ble that the structure forming the Eastern Frac-
ture Zone may be related to the lineament run-
La Escondida
ning northeast to Calama.
Copper is anomalous in the soils above the De-
posit Fracture Zone, but not in those above the
Eastern Fracture Zone (Figure 5). This corre-
issure

sponds with the studies of the groundwaters.

This element dissolves as an anion, Cu2+, which
West F

is readily adsorbed on Fe oxyhydroxide colloids

and is precipitated, so that it does not migrate
far from oxidizing Cu-bearing mineralization.
El Salvador
Conversely, another universal indicator of por-
phyry mineralization, Mo, travels as an oxyan-
ion, HMoO4-. This anion is not adsorbed and
can travel great distances in water, as can other
porphyry indicator elements that dissolve as ani-
100 km ons, As, Se and Re. These elements are wide-
spread in the groundwaters of porphyry districts
and give strongly anomalous values in the soils
Figure 1. Relationship of some important porphyry deposits of both the Deposit Fracture Zone and the East-
in northern Chile to major structures. The most important of ern Fracture Zone (e.g., Mo, Figure 6).
these is north-south West Fissure or West fault. There are a
number of subsidiary structures. The one shown here is the Midway through the study at Spence it became
lineament that runs from Antofagasta to intersect with the necessary to test the hypothesis that there are
West Fissure near Calama. Exploration along this structure fracture zones in the gravel that correspond to
led to the discovery of the Spence deposit. the anomalous soils shown in Figures 4 to 6.
This was done by digging trenches in the gravel
at four locations along Line 7480500 (Figure 7). At each location a north-south and an
east-west trench was dug by backhoe in a “L” shaped pattern. This pattern allowed the
orientation of any fractures to be identified. Two sets of trenches were dug in the De-
posit Fracture Zone. These showed two sets of vertical fractures, one orientated east-
west, the other north-south. The fractures extend to within a few cm of the surface. A
typical fracture is shown in Figure 8. For both sets of fractures, the frequency was about
one fracture per meter. Another set of trenches was dug in a background area to the
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RR
R

n ce
Sp e

R RR

Figure 2. Satellite image of the area of the Spence deposit, north to the top. The white area of the salar can be seen. The high-
way (R) between Antofagasta and Calama passes over the southeast quadrant of the deposit. Other similarly-orientated lines
nearby are aqueducts. The railway (RR) is to the east. The sampling traverse across the deposit is shown by the red line.

Figure 3. Typical west-east section across the northern part of the Spence deposit, this one at 7481500N. Modified from a
section provided by RioChilex.
 Page 4
Conductivity of soil-water slurry, µs 8000

6000 Eastern
Deposit
Fracture Fracture
Zone Zone

4000

2000

0
473500 474000 474500 475000 475500 476000
East, m
Figure 4. Conductivity of soil-water slurries from samples collected at 10-20 cm depth on the west-east traverse at
7480500N. The conductivity measures the quantity of water-soluble salts, mainly NaCl, present in the samples. Area
underlain by the deposit shown by the yellow rectangle in this and following figures.
14000

12000

10000
Cu MMI, ppb

8000

6000

4000

2000

0
473500 474000 474500 475000 475500 476000
East, m
Figure 5. Copper by MMI for soil samples collected at 10-20 cm depth on the west-east traverse at 7480500N.
 Page 5

160

120
Mo Enzyme Leach, ppb

80

40

0
473500 474000 474500 475000 475500 476000
East, m
Figure 6. Molybdenum by Enzyme Leach for soil samples collected at 10-20 cm depth on the west-east traverse at
7480500N.

Figure 7. Location of trenches dug along Line 7480500, with frequency of vertical fractures in gravel.
 Page 6

Figure 8. Vertical fracture in gravel, Spence deposit. Rucksack and GPS meter for scale.

west (Figure 7). In this there were no east-west fractures and only one north-south frac-
ture in 5 m of east-west trench. The final set of trenches was dug in the soils over the
Eastern Fracture Zone. These showed the highest frequency of north-south fractures, at
two per horizontal meter. The frequency of east-west fractures is less, at 0.5 per hori-
zontal meter. In summary, the trenching showed evenly-spaced east-west and north-
south fractures in the gravels of the Deposit Fracture Zone, a high frequency of north-
south fracturing in the Eastern Fracture Zone and only one fracture in a area of back-
ground geochemical values. There is a correlation between fracturing and geochemical
anomalies.

Evidence from the Gaby Sur Deposit

The Gaby Sur deposit, containing 3.5 Mt of copper, lies beneath flat, gravel pampa
(Figure 9). The gravel is ~40 m thick over the deposit. Mineralogy of the supergene-
enriched ore is mainly chrysocolla, atacamite and mixed black oxide. The host porphyry
has an age of 41-42 Ma, based on U-Pb determination, and the gravel 9.6 Ma, based on
a K-Ar age from interbedded ash. The upper 20 m of the gravel is cemented by calcrete,
making it impermeable to vertical movements of water. The water table lies below the
gravel, with water found only where drill holes intersect major fault zones in the base-
ment. The cartoon section across the deposit shown in Figure 10 was drawn on the ba-
sis of information provided by the chief geologist, Angelo Aguilar Catalano, in April
2001. The deposit and the underlying host porphyry are delimited by high-angle bound-
ary faults. There have been at least two stages of movement on these faults. The earli-
est stage was associated with uplift of the central block and intrusion of the porphyry. At
a later time the central block, containing the porphyry and the deposit, was downthrown
as a graben, which preserved the supergene ores from erosion.
 Page 7

Figure 9. Gaby Sur, looking west. The deposit lies under the flat, gravel pampa in the foreground and middle ground.
Photo courtesy N. O’Brien.

In 1999 soils were sampled along a west-east traverse across the deposit. Samples
were taken at 50 m intervals over the deposit and 100 m intervals on the peripheries.
Over both boundary faults there are sharp “spikes” for Na (Figure 10), indicative of seis-
mic pumping of saline groundwater up these basement faults and through the gravels.
Given the presence of calcrete in the upper 20 m of gravel there was a need for re-
peated recent movements along these faults to fracture the calcrete-indurated gravels to
permit upward movement of groundwater. Fractured gravels can be observed in soil pits
and bulldozer trenches. The samples that show anomalous “spikes” of Na also contain
high contents of Cl, Se, I, Cu, Mo, Re and As. The data for Cu are also shown in Figure
10, which shows “spikes” coincident with those for Na.

Evidence from the Mansa Mina Deposit

Mansa Mina is part of the Chuquicamata cluster of deposits (Figure 11). Indeed it ap-
pears to be a faulted slice of the Chuquicamata deposit, moved to the south. The fault
that cuts the deposit, and forms its eastern boundary, is the West fault or West Fissure,
a major strike-slip fault of regional extent earlier shown in Figure 1. Interest in sampling
at this site was to determine whether such a fault has produced, by strong and frequent
seismic pumping of mineralized groundwater to the surface, soil anomalies that are
more intense than those associated with faults or fracture zones of lesser extent at
Spence and Gaby Sur.
Mansa Mina is an elongate, steeply-dipping, tabular copper porphyry deposit, containing
a mainly hypogene mineral assemblage. Sulphides account for 300 Mt at 0.95% Cu and
oxides 25 Mt at 1.11% Cu. The deposit is up to 300 m in width and over 1000 m in verti-
cal extent. The deposit is entirely covered by Miocene gravels, the minimum thickness
 Page 8
100

80
Cu Enzyme Leach, ppb

60

40

20

0
10000

8000
Na Enzyme Leach, ppm

6000

4000

2000

Gravel

Granodiorite and Oxide Ore

Metasedimentary Rocks Hypogene Sulphides
lt

lt
au

au

Porphyry
yF

yF
ar

ar
nd

d
un
ou

Bo
tB

st
s
We

Ea

East, m 516000 517000 518000 519000 520000 521000

Figure 10. East-west cross section of the Gaby Sur deposit along line 7412500N showing the
relationship between anomalies for Na and Cu by Enzyme Leach to the underlying geology.
 Page 9
of these being 50 m on the west side of the West fault, but several
hundred meters on the east side of the fault.
This is a disturbed area, and the extent of the sampling traverse is
limited. Strongly anomalous “spikes” for a variety of elements (Na,
Cl, Se, I, Br, Re, Mg, K, Rb, Tl, Ni, Cs, Ba, Tl and Mg) occur in soils
directly above the fault, or close by (Mo, Mn, Zn, Cd, W and Sb).
For many elements, soil anomalies are one to two orders of magni-
tude greater than those at Spence or Gaby Sur. The factors by
which anomaly maxima at Mansa Mina are greater than maxima at
Spence for Enzyme Leach analyses include: Re (77), Mo (61), Tl
(20), K (16), Se (15) and Rb (8). These are elements that are char-
acteristic of molybdenite-rich ore associated with quartz-sericite al-
teration, which is well developed at Chuquicamata and possibly
also at Mansa Mina. All are highly mobile anions or cations that can
travel long distances in groundwater. It is possible that they derive
mainly from Chuquicamata, 5 km up gradient. Given the size of
Chuquicamata, dissolved elements from this up-gradient source
may have overwhelmed the flux from Mansa Mina. Copper, which
has a restricted range for migration, and is thus a better indicator of
a proximal source of oxidizing porphyry mineralization, is less
strongly enriched in the soils above the deposit and West fault than
Re, Mo and Se, with a ratio of maxima 2.3 times greater than that
at Spence.
Figure 12 shows the strong spike for Cl, directly above the West
fault. Despite the hyperaridity, it does rain in the Atacama Desert,
there being a heavy rainfall in the Calama area, including Mansa
Mina, in the early part of 2001, which washed out bridges. Soluble
salts, such as NaCl, are removed from the upper soil horizons by
successive heavy rains, so that the strong spike for Cl shown in
Figure 12 must represent recent movement of saline groundwater
to the surface. The spike for Mo by aqua regia (Figure 13) is dis-
placed about 65 m east from the Na spike. As shown for the
Figure 11. The Chuquicamata cluster of Spence deposit (Hall and Cameron, 2001), Mo accumulates in the
porphyry copper deposits immediately upper part of soil profiles in a form that dissolves only in aqua regia.
north of Calama. This form is stable to rainfall and the different locations for the Mo
and Na spikes may represent a shift over time in the near-surface
fracture patterns for the West fault, that for Na being most recent.
 Page 10

16000
Cl Enzyme Leach, ppm

12000

8000

4000

508600 508700 508800 508900 509000 509100 509200 509300

Figure 12. Chloride by Enzyme Leach along a soil traverse across the Mansa Mina deposit and West fault.
 Page 11

30
Mo Aqua Regia, ppm

20

10

0
508600 508700 508800 508900 509000 509100 509200 509300

Figure 13. Molybdenum by aqua regia along a soil traverse across the Mansa Mina deposit and West fault.
 Page 12

Evidence from Radomiro Tomic

Spence, Mansa Mina, and Gaby Sur, have yet to be developed; we see only the gravel
surface above the mineralization. Other deposits are being mined. One of the most re-
cent to be developed is Radomiro Tomic, the northernmost deposit in the Chuquicamata
cluster (Figure 11) and containing 23 Mt of copper. The open pit provides an opportunity
to see the fracture sys-
tems in the basement and
overlying gravels that can
generate anomalies at the
surface. Figure 14 shows
iron-stained vertical frac-
tures cutting the ata-
camite-chrysocolla ore.
The ore is overlain by
gravels dated at 9.7 Ma
by K-Ar on an intercalated
tuff bed. The gravels are
30 m thick on the east
side, increasing to 150 m
on the west side. The sur-
face of the ore has a
slope to the west with
abrupt falls, possibly indi-
cating fault scarps
(Caudra and Rojas,
2001). For the most part,
the gravels form striking
vertical faces along the
edges of the pit. But
Figure 14. Radomiro Tomic. Iron-stained vertical fractures in atacamite-chrysocolla ore. where there are fracture
zones in the gravel, the
weakened rock slumps
into the pit, as shown in
Figure 15. Note also that
the ore is present at a
higher level on the left of
the photograph than the
right. This probably re-
flects a fault in the base-
ment (ore) that continues
up through the gravels.
Prior to development of
the mine, an Enzyme
Leach survey was carried
out on a traverse across
the top of the deposit. J.
Robert Clark kindly pro-
vided data from this sur-
vey. This shows “spike”
anomalies for Cl and
other elements coincident
with basement faults and
fracture zones in the
gravels.
Figure 15. Radomiro Tomic. Ore overlain by gravel. Zones of gravel with vertical frac-
tures slump into pit, whereas unfractured gravels form vertical walls.
 Page 13

Evidence from the Mike Deposit, Nevada

The Mike gold-copper deposit, within the Carlin Trend, was discovered by Newmont ge-
ologists in 1989. The principal host for the deposit is the Devonian Roberts Mountain
Formation, comprised of carbonaceous, silty limestone. The primary control on minerali-
zation was the intersection of the Good Hope fault with north-northeast-trending faults
(Figure 16). The Good Hope fault is the boundary between two portions of the Mike de-
posit: the Main Mike, with 43.2 Mst of 0.034 oz/st and 76 Mst of 0.22% Cu and the West
Mike with 110 Mst of 0.025 oz/st and 74 Mst of 0.28% Cu. The deposit and its host
rocks are overlain by 450-800 feet of post-mineral Tertiary sediments that include 0-200
feet of piedmont gravel, 250-450 feet of siltstone and fine sandstone, 0-200 feet of wa-
terlain tuff, and basal conglomerate and regolith that contains mineralized (oxidized)
clasts. Pre-Carlin supergene alteration penetrates to as much as 1500 feet below the
subcrop.
Copper mineralization consists of a sub-horizontal supergene oxide and sulphide blan-
ket up to 400 feet thick that mainly underlies, but also overlaps, the gold mineralization.
Primary copper mineralization is believed to have preceded introduction of gold, with
supergene processes causing the mobilization of copper to greater depths than gold.
Teal and Branham (1997) note enrichments in Cu, Au, Zn, Ag, Bi, Mo and Te in the ore
and the CAMIRO study results suggest that Cd and Se are also enriched.
In most cases, if geochemical anomalies are related to structure, these will be the latest
structures that affected the area, specifically those that cut the cover rocks. In the case
of the Carlin Trend, the structures that cut the Carlin Formation were identified in a pho-
togeological interpretation by Dohrenwend and Moring (1991). Faults are distinguished
by prominent alignments of linear drainageways, ridges and swales, active springs or

Figure 16. Geology

of the Mike deposit,
showing copper
mineralization with
superimposed
stream channels
(green) interpreted
to show Pleistocene
faults that cut the
Carlin Formation.
 Page 14
spring deposits, and linear discontinuities of structure, rock type, and vegetation. These
follow a north-northeast trend, with a mean orientation of 028o and appear to be of early
to middle Pleistocene (0.13 to 1.5 Ma).
The topography over the Mike deposit is shown in Figure 17. To the right of the figure
are deeply-incised dry stream beds and to the left is a floodplain with an active stream
supplied by a spring. These all approximate to the 028o mean fault orientation of
Dohrenwend and Moring and are interpreted to be faults. Two of these features cut the
soil sampling traverse (Line 3), which is orientated normal to the interpreted faults. That
to the west, shown as “A” on Figures 16 and 17, is marked by a floodplain. The soils
here differ from others along Line 3 in that they are alluvial, whereas other soils are re-
sidual from the Carlin Formation. The other feature , shown as “B”, is a dry valley, with
precipitous slopes to the east, which may indicate proximity to a fault cutting the Carlin
Formation.
Cadmium is one of the most mobile elements, presumably in this case associated with
the Zn minerals in the deposit. It shows good peaks associated with Channels “A” and
“B” (Figure 18). There are also strong anomalies for ore elements, Cu and Au, in the
residual soils of the eastern slopes of Channel “B”, but not Channel “A” (Figures 19 and
20).

Figure 17. Topogra-

phy of the immedi-
ate Mike area, with
contours at 25 foot
intervals. The orien-
tation of 028° east
of north is that of
Dohrenwend and
Moring (1991) for
Pleistocene faults in
the region. A flowing
steam “A” cuts Line
3 to the west and a
steeply-sided dry
valley “B” cuts Line
3 to the east.
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2.0

Cd Aqua Regia, ppm

1.6
Channel B

1.2
Channel A

0.8

0.4

0.0

-1000 0 1000 2000 3000

Figure 18. Plot of cadmium by aqua regia in soil samples along Line 3 at Mike. Horizontal scale in feet.

18

15
Au Aqua Regia, ppb

12

-1000 0 1000 2000 3000

Figure 19. Plot of gold by aqua regia in soil samples along Line 3 at Mike. Horizontal scale in feet.
 Page 16

60

50
Cu Aqua Regia, ppm

40

30

20

10

-1000 0 1000 2000 3000

Figure 20. Plot of copper by aqua regia in soil samples along Line 3 at Mike. Horizontal scale in feet.

Causes for Anomalies Associated with Structure

Causes for the formation of the anomalies can more readily be considered for the north-
ern Chile examples because the environment places important constraints on the possi-
bilities. One of the most common explanations in exploration geochemistry for the
movement of elements to the surface is electrochemical diffusion of ions from any oxi-
dizing deposit. If this were to be considered as a possibly viable process it would require
that there be a continuous water film in the vadose zone from the water table to the sur-
face. The Atacama Desert is the driest area of the world, with potential evapouration
considerably exceeding rainfall, which averages less than 10 mm per year. Thus there
is no recharge to the groundwater table; the source of groundwater is the Andes to the
east. With no recharge, there is no water film within the vadose zone, necessary for the
diffusion of dissolved ions. Other processes dependent on a continuous water film, such
as diffusion along concentration gradients, also cannot take place.
A second possible process, capillarity, can also be discounted. This can occur only over
a depth range of 10-20 m, depending on the nature of the material forming the vadose
zone (Cameron, 1998). At Spence, for example, the water table varies from 40 to 90 m
in depth, too deep for capillarity to move water to the surface.
Neither of the above two processes require fracturing of the cover material and would
tend to produce a broad anomaly. There are three possible processes which may cause
the transfer of elements to the surface, all of which require fractures from depth to the
surface:
1. Volatile Transfer by Barometric Pumping up Fractures.
2. Barometric Pumping of Bubble-Generated Aerosols of Mineralized Groundwater.
3. Seismic Pumping of Mineralized Groundwater.
 Page 17
Process 1 will result in the enhancement of volatile elements and an absence of NaCl,
which is not volatile. This process can be discounted, since in northern Chile NaCl is
invariably associated with anomalous indicator elements.
Process 2 was suggested by Cameron (1998). It results from the formation of aerosols
when a bubble breaks the surface of the groundwater and bursts. Elements can be con-
siderably concentrated in the bubble boundary layer, which forms the aerosol particles.
From the groundwater studies at Spence (Leybourne and Cameron, 2000a) we know
that acid is being generated by the oxidation of sulphides, which is then being neutral-
ized by carbonate, liberating CO2. Indeed, some of the samples of groundwater are su-
persaturated in CO2. This process cannot be discounted. It will result in a signature de-
rived from mineralized groundwater, including NaCl, but with elements fractionated in
proportion to their concentration factor in the bubble boundary layer. It was to test this
hypothesis that BRGM Gaz cups were installed for a six month period in the soils of the
fracture zone over the deposit at Spence. If mineralized aerosols are being moved to
the surface, the elements so transferred should collect in the cups.
Process 3, seismic pumping of mineralized groundwater, seems the most viable proc-
ess and will be given most attention. Mechanisms for seismic pumping have principally
been investigated by the structural geologist, R.H. Sibson (Sibson, 1981; Sibson, 1990;
Sibson, 1994; Sibson et al., 1975). In the 1981 paper he notes that the most direct evi-
dences of this process are surface flows of groundwater along fault lines after earth-
quakes: “in arid terrain particularly, there are changes in well water level, spring flow
and occasional dramatic effusions of groundwater immediately following moderate to
large shallow earthquakes”. Such surface flows occurred in a desert area of Iran during
earthquakes in 1903 and 1923 (Tshalenko, 1973). Later, in 1930, during the magnitude
7.3 Salmas earthquake in northwest Iran, water was expelled along the main fault trace
and a broad area of alluvial plane on the downthrow side became fissured and water-
logged (Tshalenko and Berberian, 1974). Nur (1974) noted outpourings of warm
groundwater accompanying the Matsuchiro earthquake in Japan. Following the Hebgen
Lake earthquake of Montana in 1959, three rivers increased in flow by ~50% (Figure

Seismic Pumping: Effect on Flow of Rivers in

Montana after Earthquake in 1959
Earthquake Madison River
Rain
Flow

Average Flow

Earthquake Rain Gardiner River

Figure 21. Effect of
seismic pumping on
flow of rivers in Mon-
Flow

tana after the Hebgen

Lake earthquake in
Average Flow
1959. Modified from
Muir-Wood, 1994.
01/Aug/59 01/Sep/59 01/Oct/59
 Page 18

SEISMIC PUMPING

Interseismic Period:
Fractures Open,
Drawing In Water

Earthquake: Figure 22. Model for

earthquake gener-
Dilational Collapse, ated strain cycling
causing seismic
Water Expelled pumping. Modified
from Muir-Wood,
1994).

21), the increases continuing for several weeks through dry weather (Muir-Wood, 1994).
The Kern County, California, magnitude 7.5 earthquake of July 1952 involved left lateral
reverse slip. It occurred in the summer and was followed by two months with negligible
precipitation. There were outpourings of groundwater in the vicinity of the rupture and
increases in spring flow and well water level, which continued for two months, up to 130
km from the epicentre (Briggs and Troxell, 1955).
Seismic pumping is a repetitive phenomenon, involving strain cycling. During inter-
seismic crustal extension, fractures, which are ubiquitous through the brittle crust, dilate,
drawing in fluid. During an earthquake, the stress field changes to compression and the
fractures collapse, expelling water (Figure 22). The water migrates to the nearest fault
that provides access to an area of lower pressure, usually the surface. Basement rocks
are usually of low permeability, thus it takes time for water to reach the fault, hence the
continuous effusion of water at the surface for periods of weeks or months following the
earthquake. The volumes of rock that undergo dilational collapse are centred around the
earthquake focus, usually several kilometers deep. At these depths, waters expelled are
generally saline, but may mix near-surface with waters of lower salinity.
A conceptual model for the development of surface anomalies at Spence by seismic
pumping is shown in Figure 23. It needs to be emphasised that it is a phenomenon re-
lated to faults that penetrate several kilometers into the basement; near-surface waters
are only incidentally involved. Waters in the gravel aquifer upflow (east) of the deposit
are relatively fresh (Leybourne and Cameron, 2000a); the salinity of the soils above the
fracture zones derives from waters moving up from the basement. During this upward
movement waters in contact with the mineralization and waters in the gravel aquifer will
mix with the deeper waters and be carried to the surface.
If the Atacama Desert were not hyperarid, there would not be even temporary preserva-
tion of NaCl at the surface; heavier rainfall and recharge would return the NaCl to the
groundwater. Thus connecting the anomalies to seismic pumping would be less appar-
ent. There is no evidence to suggest that the anomalies at Mike are due to seismic
pumping. In part this is because NaCl would not be retained at the surface in the semi-
arid climate of Nevada. But also, structural geology studies would have to show that the
 Page 19

Figure 23 Conceptual model of the Spence area showing the development of surface anomalies by seismic pumping.

faulting of the Carlin Formation identified by Dohrenwend and Moring (1991) are con-
tinuous into the basement.

References
• Briggs, R.C. and Troxell, H.C., 1955. Effect of Arvin-Techapi earthquake on spring and stream flow.
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