Radiation Measurements 45 (2010) 219–224

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Radiation Measurements
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/radmeas

The role of soil gas radon survey in exploring unknown subsurface faults at
Afamia B dam, Syria
Mohamed Al-Hilal*, Ahmad Al-Ali
Department of Geology, The Atomic Energy Commission of Syria (AECS), P.O. Box 6091 Damascus, Syria

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The purpose of this work is to determine a possible connection between anomalous radon values and
Received 4 May 2008 some expected subsurface geological faults at Afamia B dam which is currently suffering a serious
Received in revised form problem of large leakage through its bedrocks. A total of 82 soil gas radon sampling points were
30 March 2009
measured, using direct active method, over an area of 300  300 m which almost covers the entire
Accepted 8 January 2010
surface of the reservoir basin. The results revealed a reasonable correlation between the geometric
pattern of radon anomalies and the probable orientation of some underlying tectonic lineaments.
Keywords:
Abnormal radon values, with peak signals of about 2–5 times higher than the background level, led to the
Soil gas
Radon detection of two probable fractured zones, denoted as F1 and F2. The data analysis suggests that the
Anomalies leakage of water from Afamia B dam almost runs vertically downwards along N60E trending fault zone
Fault zones F2. Such a fault is very likely extending down within the Neogene formation to reach the permeable
Leakage karstic carbonate rocks of Cretaceous at depth, forming large conduits through which the water of the
Afamia dam reservoir is possibly drained off. This suggestion was in agreement with the general direction of the
Syria groundwater flow in the study area which indicates clearly that the supposed fractured zone F2 may
represent a catchment area for groundwater, and thereby it may constitute the most important structural
element concerning the leakage problem of Afamia B reservoir.
Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Syria has more than 150 impounding reservoirs and dams which
are quite vital to the sustainability of a large part of the population
for water supply and agricultural irrigation. However, most of these
dams suffer problems of leakage either through the dam body or
within the surrounding bedrocks. One important reason of this
problem is probably the high permeability of the overburden and
bedrocks of the reservoir basin due to various geological factors
such as the presence of fractures and faults as well as the common
occurrences of karstification especially in the limestone and dolo-
mite rocks.
The Afamia dams (A, B and C) are constructed close to the
ancient city of Afamia (Apamea). They are located at 1–2 km to the
east of the north trending Al-Ghab fault which, in turn, constitutes
a pull-apart basin formed initially as a result of the tectonic
evolution of the left-lateral Dead Sea Fault System (DSFS) in
western Syria (Fig. 1). The presence of some secondary faults
branching out from the main linear extension of Al-Ghab fault is
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ963 999435661; fax: þ963 116112289.
E-mail address: scientific1@aec.org.sy (M. Al-Hilal).
evident in the vicinity of the dam’s area. These branch faults can be
seen clearly in the nearby Cretaceous carbonate rocks and
presumably passing through into the Neogene sediments where
the dams are constructed. This may indicate that the subsurface
structure of the study area is highly fractured, and thereby
permeability is feasible for water infiltration through these
formations. Furthermore, an eventual geotectonic reactivation of
such faults could lead to serious consequences concerning the
safety of the dams. Since these tectonic faults are not obviously
visible at the surface of the reservoir, so it is very important to trace
their pathways and pursue their subsurface extensions towards B
dam particularly where the most loss of water is taking place.
Accordingly, there is a real need to employ all available national
efforts, including radon measurements technique, hydrogeological
survey and other possible geophysical methods that may assist in
solving or mitigating the problem of leakage at Afamia B dam,
through identifying and locating the flow paths of water infiltra-
tion. One possible method for achieving this purpose is the use of
soil gas radon measurement which has been known as a significant
method for the detection and mapping of subsurface faults in
several regions throughout the world (Tanner, 1980; King et al.,
1996; Moussa and El-Arabi, 2003; Ioannides et al., 2003; Tansi et al.,
2005; Swakon et al., 2005; Surinder Singh et al., 2006).

1350-4487/$ – see front matter Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.radmeas.2010.01.018
220 M. Al-Hilal, A. Al-Ali / Radiation Measurements 45 (2010) 219–224
Fig. 1. A geological map of the study area showing the locations of the main soil gas radon measurement profiles (P1–P4), at Afamia B reservoir.
This paper is part of a national project entitled ‘‘the use of
isotopes and geophysical techniques in studying dam leakage in
Syria’’ (No. SYR/8/012), supported by the International Atomic
Energy Agency. Therefore, the aim of the present work is to study the
possibility of employing soil gas radon measurements technique as
a useful tool for exploring some underlying faults and fractures
which may cause a heavy leakage of water at Afamia B dam.
2. Geological setting
The local geology of the surveyed area consists basically of very
thick Neogene sediments including marls, calcareous marls, marly
limestone alternating with conglomerates beds. These formations
are covered by thin unconsolidated layers of recent deposits which
composed mainly of clays, silts and alluviums. Cretaceous lime-
stone and dolomite rocks are partially outcropped on the northwest
flank of the study area and extending underneath the Neogene
sediments forming the bottom of the stratigraphic succession
(Fig. 1). The Cretaceous carbonate rocks are characterized by high
permeability due to the presence of some tectonic discontinuities
such as faults and fractures besides the common occurrence of
karstification.
From seismotectonic point of view, Afamia area is situated close
to the northern extension of the Dead Sea Fault System in western
Syria which represents a unique structural feature in the East
Mediterranean Region. The instrumental earthquakes catalogue of
Al-Ghab region includes several microseismic events with magni-
tude ranging from 0.5to 4.1 (Sbeinati, 1993). However, Ambraseys
and Barazangi (1989) mentioned that the apparent lack of
moderate-to-large earthquakes during this century should not be
interpreted as minimizing the potential hazard in this region. The
historical seismicity of Syria reveals that Al-Ghab region has been
the site of many moderate-to-large earthquakes in the past which
caused considerable damage in the cities and the villages that were
located along the northern section of the DSFS (Ambraseys and
Barazangi, 1989; Al-Hilal et al., 1998; Sbeinati et al., 2005). In
 M. Al-Hilal, A. Al-Ali / Radiation Measurements 45 (2010) 219–224
addition, Sbeinati et al. (1994) reported some field archaeological
data of earthquake damage along Al-Ghab fault, where Afamia site
is belonging to, which shows clear evidence of scars of early
earthquake events. Among the most destructive historical earth-
quakes in this region is the earthquake of 1157 (Ms ¼ 7.4) which
destroyed the ancient city of Afamia. Eventually, it is worth
mentioning that the site of Afamia represents a unique ancient
place where many important traces of earlier civilization have been
already discovered. These historical remains include some under-
lying pipelines, wells, graves and other vestiges of human activities
which could play an important role in increasing the permeability
of the bottom of the reservoir through forming hydraulic connec-
tions between the surface formation and the deeper permeable
mediums in many places of the reservoir.
3. Previous works
A detailed geological mapping accompanied with a compre-
hensive tectonic survey for the study region and in many other
parts of Syria was performed by a group of Russian experts who
worked in Syria from 1962 to 1968 (e.g. Ponikarov, 1963). In addi-
tion, some recent geophysical investigations have been carried out
over the surface of reservoirs B&C by the Syrian General Company
for Hydraulic Studies in cooperation with some foreign consulting
companies in order to identify the path of leakage and to better
understand the origin of water losses (Minasian, 2001; Joos and
Bussard, 2004). This geophysical survey includes three methods:
the spontaneous polarization (SP), the electric profiling (EP) and
the vertical electric sounding (VES). The results of SP survey
revealed some negative anomalies which indicate some probable
scattered zones of infiltration distributed all over the reservoir
surface. The results of EP method showed also some electric
anomalies. However, the interpretation of the obtained data was
confused and difficult to understand. Finally, the VES investigations
displayed the presence of a possible hydraulic connection between
the surface formations and the deeper permeable geological units.
Although the results of these studies point at some important
geophysical anomalies, the exact path of leakage was not known. In
fact, they have come to the conclusion that the location of Afamia
dams is geologically unfavorable because of a very high perme-
ability, and so it does not correspond to the generally agreed
standard of safety and efficiency.
4. Radon changes above fault zones
Radon (Rn-222) is a daughter nuclide of radium (Ra-226), which
in turn produced from the decay series of uranium (U-238). It is
a naturally occurring, inert, radioactive gas with half-life of 3.82
days. Radon moves in the ground by two basic mechanisms,
diffusion and forced flow of soil gases. Its migration through soil
and rocks largely depends on many factors such as lithology,
permeability, moisture content, particle size, the effects of meteo-
rological parameters and the presence of joints, fractures and faults
(Tanner, 1980). The short half-life (3.82 days) of Rn-222 restrains its
diffusion in soil, so that radon gas generating from deep origin
cannot reach the ground surface unless there exists a driving
mechanism other than mere diffusion. The distance over which
radon can migrate is restricted to few meters through dry soil with
normal porosity (Tanner, 1964). However, radon could reach longer
distances when it is carried upwards to the surface by a rising flux
of other soil gases, (e.g. CO2, CH4, N2 and He), via faults and frac-
tures due to the high permeability of the bedrock and soil. In other
words, fault zone often displays a high permeability compared to
the surrounding country rocks. This property may turn fault zones
into preferential pathways for emanated soil gases including radon
221
during their way to the Earth’s surface (Tansi et al., 2005; Al-Bataina
et al., 2005; Surinder Singh et al., 2006).
Measurements have shown increased levels of radon in both soil
air and groundwater above many active faults with considerable
variations in conjunction with earthquakes. Thus, anomalous
changes in subsurface radon concentrations have been widely used
in several seismic areas of the world for the purpose of monitoring
the tectonic behavior of some seismically active zones. (Hauksson
and Goddard, 1981; Hauksson, 1981; Singh et al., 1991; Al-Hilal
et al., 1998; Baubron et al., 2002).
5. Methodology
Radon measurements in soil gas were carried out in this study
based on direct active method. A portable vacuum soil probe
assembly model (Pylon-154) was used for quantitative radon
determinations in soil gas. The system is attached to a vacuum hand
pump and it is connected with a scintillation Lucas cell model
(Pylon-110A). In practice, at each measuring point a borehole, (6 cm
diameter and 50 cm depth), is made in the ground. The soil probe is
gently inserted into the hole with the probe valve is closed tightly.
The scintillation cell is evacuated with a hand pump to approxi-
mately 25 in Hg. The same vacuum should be used for all other
sampling points. Then the probe valve is slowly opened and the soil
gas is drawn gradually through a closed-circuit from the hole into
the scintillation cell until the system comes to atmospheric pres-
sure. For quantitative measurements, the radon sample must be
allowed to decay inside the scintillation cell for 3 h so that the
radon daughters come into equilibrium with the radon gas. After
that, the scintillation cell is placed in the counter (RM 1003-Radon
Detector), and the alpha activity was measured for 5 min, and then
converted to count per minute basis.
6. Results and discussion
Radon measurements in soil gas have been carried out, during
summer 2007, along four main profiles, denoted as P1, P2, P3 and P4,
(Fig. 1). In addition to another four shorter profiles, each of them
consists of 7 sampling points only, trending in parallel lines on the
two sides of the main profiles P1 and P4. A total of 82 radon
measurement points have been performed over an area of 300  300
m which almost covers the entire surface of the Afamia B reservoir.
The locations of radon sampling profiles were chosen according
to our field observations as well as some available geological data
and the probable courses of fault lineaments (Ponikarov, 1963). The
geological formations, over which radon sampling points have been
measured, consist mainly of thick flat lying continental conglom-
erates and calcareous marls of Pliocene age covered with a thin
layer of recent clays, alluvium and silts. The overburden formation
of the dam surface was totally dry during the time of radon
measurements.
Results of soil gas radon survey at Afamia B dam are presented in
Figs. 2–5. As the geology of the region does not contain any
significant source of natural radioactive elements such as uranium
or radium, so the average level of radon activity was found to be
quite low. These low values of soil gas radon concentration in the
study area could be justified by the low corresponding values of
radium-226 content found in some fresh soil samples taken from
the same points where the radon measurements had been carried
out. Table 1 includes the chemical analysis results of these samples
which were collected from seven selected sites along the profile P4.
All samples were dried, sieved and analyzed for Ra-226 content by
using Gamma-Ray Spectrometry method, with a (HPGe) Detector.
The range of normal radon variations was estimated to be within
the limits of the mean value plus and minus two standard
222 M. Al-Hilal, A. Al-Ali / Radiation Measurements 45 (2010) 219–224

Afamia B dam (P1)

8000

Radon concentration
7000
6000

(Bq/m 3)
5000
4000
3000 X+2SD
2000
1000
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300
Distance (m)

Afamia B dam (P2)

Radon concentration (Bq/m 3)

7000
6000
5000
4000
3000 X+2SD
2000
1000
0
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250
Distance (m)

Afamia Dam B (P 3)
Radon concentration

6000
5000
(Bq/m 3)

4000
3000 X+2SD
2000
1000
0
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250
Distance (m)

Fig. 2. Results of soil gas radon measurements along the profiles P1–P3 at Afamia B dam, (X þ 2SD ¼ the mean value plus two standard deviations).

deviations (X  2SD), and any value of radon concentration out of due to the effect of some underlying geotectonic processes, and
this range could be assumed as an anomaly. The arithmetic mean of thus it is reasonable to consider them as anomalous radon values
the normal data, excluding anomalous values, equals to 1440 Bq/ which may reflect high permeable formation and thereby indicate
m3, with a standard deviation of 606 Bq/m3. Radon content in soil a probable relation with subsurface fractured zones.
gas shows some variations along the measurement profiles with At the first measurement profile (P1), a total of 25 sampling
some peak values about two to five times the background level. points were performed, at intervals of 10 m, along straight line
According to our interpretation, these high radon signals might be trending N40E (Figs. 1 and 2). A major radon anomaly with a peak
value of about 5 times higher than the average background level,
was recorded at a point where the profile P1 crosses the expected
9000 extension of the fault zone F1 at the western flank of the dam lake.
Radon concentration

8000 This anomalous signal could reveal a positive correlation between

7000
radon increase and the trend of a subsurface fault axis. The prob-
(Bq/m )
3

6000
5000 able direction of the supposed fault F1 was set depending on the
4000 result of another two minor measuring profiles which run in
3000 parallel lines at 25 m away on the two sides of the main profile P1.
2000 Another two smaller peaks of radon, (nearly 2–3 times the
1000 average background level), were observed towards northeast along
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 the same measuring profile (P1) at a distance of 200 m and 260 m
Distance (m) from the start point respectively. Although these two small peaks
might be attributed to a tectonically induced radon gas, they are
Profile P4 Profile P4-1 Background
most likely referred to a probable association with either older or
Fig. 3. Soil gas radon concentrations along two close parallel profiles (P4 and P4-1)
less active underlying fault segments.
which are characterized by relatively high radon values, and trending in accordance The profiles (P2 and P3) run in parallel lines towards S45E across
with the probable course of the fractured zone F2. the dry lake of the Afamia B dam (Figs. 1 and 2). Each profile
 M. Al-Hilal, A. Al-Ali / Radiation Measurements 45 (2010) 219–224 223

Fig. 4. A contour map showing the distribution of anomalous soil gas radon concentrations (Bq/m3) along two probable fractured zones, (F1 and F2), at Afamia B reservoir.

consists of 11 radon sampling point at intervals of 25 m. The values
recorded along these two profiles are comparable, and they show
almost similar variations with a notable increase of radon values,
(about 4 times the average background level), which occur at the
same distance from the start point of both profiles (Fig. 2). There-
fore, more investigations of radon measurements were carried out
around these two signals in order to determine the trends of radon
anomalies in the close vicinity to the concerned site.
The result of this investigation reveals a general N60E linear
extension of high anomalous radon signatures trending in accor-
dance with the direction of profile P4, (Fig. 3), which is character-
ized by relatively higher radon values in all of its sampling points
(Table 1).
We could not proceed further ahead along the line of profile P4
because the area was inaccessible and inappropriate for radon
measurements. Instead, the survey on this profile was supported by
another two close parallel lines with 7 measurement points for
each, as shown in Fig. 3. Although, one of these profile showed very
low radon values that are fluctuating around the average back-
ground level (Fig. 3), the other two profiles, P4 and P4-1, displayed
high anomalous radon concentrations with an average of 6364 Bq
m3 and 6439 Bq m3 respectively, which are nearly 5 times the
background level. Such abnormal radon level could be attributed to
the existence of a probable fractured zone with a very high
permeability, denoted as F2, and trending N60E across the basin of B
reservoir (Figs. 4 and 5).
In fact, the signal-to-background ratio may reflect either the
state of activity or the degree of permeability of the detected fault
zone. In other words, such relatively high radon readings along the
profiles P4 and P4-1 are most likely relating to an upward flow of soil
gases which may enhance the release of radon through pore spaces
of the fractured rocks to the ground surface (Fig. 3).
A contour map based on 82 radon measuring points was per-
formed, (Fig. 4), to illustrate the distribution of radon anomalies

Fig. 5. A hydrogeological map of Afamia B dam area showing the trends of groundwater flow within the Neogene formation.
224 M. Al-Hilal, A. Al-Ali / Radiation Measurements 45 (2010) 219–224

Table 1 and 5); which is very likely passing downwards through the
Values of soil gas 222Rn (Bq m3) measured along profiles P4 and P4-1, and the cor- Neogene formation to meet the deep-seated permeable karstic
responding 226Ra (Bq kg1) content in soil at the basin of Afamia B dam.
carbonate rocks of Cretaceous at depth.
222 226
Sampling Coordinates Rn (Bq m3) Ra
intervals (m) (Bq kg1)
N E P4 P4-1 Acknowledgements
0 35 250 36.000 36 240 51.100 7252 6512 22  4
20 35 250 36.300 36 240 51.600 8436 5850 20  3 The authors wish to express their thanks and gratitude to
40 35 250 36.700 36 240 52.200 5032 6660 44  7 Professor I. Othman, Director General of the Atomic Energy
60 35 250 37.1‘‘ 36 240 52.900 5550 7474 34  6
80 35 250 37.500 36 240 53.400 5438 6364 20  3
Commission of Syria (AECS), for his constant encouragement.
100 35 250 38.000 36 240 53.800 6438 6216 27  5 Thanks are also due to Dr M. Abdul-Wahed and Mr. W. Bidawi from
120 35 250 38.600 36 240 54.200 6734 5994 22  4 the Department of Geology of AECS for their help.
The average 6364 6439 27  5
value
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According to our geological observations, this probable fault is most
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This finding was in agreement with the results of the hydro-
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1. High values of radon concentration in soil gas were found to be
linearly distributed along some subsurface tectonic lineaments
in the study area. This finding may indicate the possibility of
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2. It has been noticed that radon levels change significantly along
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